NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHODS 38
FOR COMPOSITES
Thomas S. Jones
38.1 INTRODUCTION
The development and selection of nondestruc-
tive evaluation (NDE) techniques for
application to composite materials and struc-
tures presents several challenges and
considerations that are quite distinct from the
considerations given to the similar processes
for metallic materials and structures. A princi-
pal consideration is the nature of advanced
composites as typically layered, anisotropic
materials. The materials of interest include
fiber-reinforced plastics such as 'fiberglass' and
carbon epoxy, as well as some of the more
exotic materials such as metal-matrix or
ceramic matrix composites. In some cases, nat-
urally occurring composites, such as wood,
with its mix of differing density summer and
winter growth rings and fibrous structure, may
be treated with approaches similar to those
used for the man-made composites.The advan-
tages offered by composites are focused on the
high strength, low weight properties of typical
constituent materials. Yet, if the materials are to
exhibit high strength, they must be manufac-
tured as the designer envisioned and they must
maintain their integrity in service. N D E pre-
sents a technology to help assure the reliability
of the materials.
Inhomogeneities that may affect the perfor-
mance of a composite include the concentration
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7
of constituents (fiber-resin ratio, resin-starva-
tion, etc.), orientation and distribution of
reinforcement, voids, matrix-reinforcement
bonding and similar characteristics. The pur-
pose of the NDE is to detect these
inhomogeneities and others, including foreign
material, fiber breakage, degradation due to
moisture, ultraviolet (W)or other reasons,
cracks, abrasion, impact damage, fire or exces-
sive heat, etc. This chapter describes many
N D E methods that can be used to detect anom-
alies in composite materials during
manufacture and in-service.
Although composite materials have been in
use on military aircraft for many years, the last
few years have seen a rapid escalation in both
the number and structural criticality of com-
posite applications entering service. The
falling price of composite raw materials has
vastly increased the number of applications in
non-aerospace industries, including automo-
tive, sports, boating and construction. While
the service record for composites has been
excellent, they are subject to damage from
sources such as overload, hail, lightning, low
velocity impact, ballistic rounds and moisture
intrusion. Low strain designs, coupled with
less critical applications, have made for rela-
tively large acceptable flaw sizes and lax
inspection criteria. As composite structures
representing a more aggressive design criteria
and less tolerant materials (such as some of the
ceramic matrix materials) begin to accumulate
service hours, we will see a new level of

demands placed on nondestructive inspection
techniques to support the in-service mainte-
nance and repair requirements for composites.
Several a ~ t h o r s l -have
~ reviewed a variety
of nondestructive methods applicable to the
evaluation of composites. Several of these
methods have, so far, been suitable only for
laboratory applications. Some of these inspec-
tion methods are adaptations of inspection
techniques that have been used for the evalua-
tion of metallic components for years'O. New
methods are being developed to address the
special needs of composite materials. Many
inspection approaches have been automated
for production applications; but in-service
inspection of composites is frequently per-
formed using conventional manual inspection
equipment. Inspection times with manual
approaches can be long, but more significantly,
interpretation of the inspection results may
require special training or familiarization for
the inspectors. The long inspection times may
restrict inspections to local areas based on crit-
icality, loading, or suspicious areas detected by
visual inspections.
In recent years, there have been quite a few
government sponsored research programs
directed at the development of new nonde-
structive inspection systems providing high
throughput for the increasing volume of com-
posite structures in service and/or providing
some level of advanced signal analysis which
will aid in the recognition and mapping of
flaws. As an example, a recent research pro-
gram resulted in the development of a
computer-controlled ultrasonic scanning sys-
tem for field applicationsll. In this article the
capabilities and limitations of some of these
typical inspection approaches are considered.
38.2 VISUAL INSPECTION
Some translucent composites can be
inspected by transmitted light.
Inhomogeneities such as voids, delamina-
tions or inclusions can be detected by this
straightforward approach in materials such
Visual inspection 839
as nonpigmented glass reinforced plastic
(GIG'). Stress whitening in GRP, which results
in a loss in optical transparency, may result
from fiber-resin debonding or resin cracking.
Another visual inspection approach, which
has been considered for the detection of impact
damage, is to paint the composite surfaces with
a paint containing micro-encapsulated dye.
When crushed by the impact, the dye is
released and reveals the location of the impact.
Dyes can be formulated either for visual obser-
vation of a color change or using UV excited
fluorescence in the dye. This method provides
good indications to locate suspicious areas for
further inspection so that the extent of the
impact damage can be determined.
Visual aids, such as magnifiers, borescopes,
television cameras, etc., can be used to
enhance the detectability of surface-related
damage. Small diameter, flexible borescopes
permit the inspection of inaccessible areas
without teardown of components.
The most common visual inspection is
exemplified by the typical walk-around visual
inspection of aircraft. These inspections cer-
tainly apply to much of the composite
structures currently in use. Many of the more
severe conditions associated with composites
are visually detectable. Punctures, surface ply
delaminations, scratches, gouges and heat
damage can frequently be detected by visual
inspection. Disbonds between a composite
skin and some substructure may also be
detectable in some cases as a blister in the skin,
an edge separation, or a distortion in the
geometry of the component. This inspection is
clearly valuable, but one cannot expect to
detect all of the forms of damage which may
be present in a composite structure. Further, if
damage is detected, it is important that other
tools are used to assess the extent of the dam-
age, since the subsurface damage may
drastically exceed the surface detectable dam-
age. One common example is low velocity
impact damage. S t u d i e ~ l ~on
, ' ~this form of
damage, which may result from hail, runway
debris, or ground handling abuse, have shown
840 Nondestructive evaluation methods for composites
that substantial subsurface damage can result
with little or no surface detectable condition.
38.3 TAPTEST
The tap test method, using either a coin or a
special tap hammer continues to be a common
in-service inspection tool despite the avail-
ability of less subjective inspection tools. The
use of this method has persisted for several
reasons. The most obvious is that it does not
require sophisticated or expensive equipment.
Another is that many of the composites in use
consist of thin laminates in low strain designs.
This combination yields critical flaw geome-
tries which are fairly large and close to the
surface, two conditions necessary to the suc-
cessful use of the tap method. Under these
conditions, the tap method can be a useful
tool for the detection of problems in relatively
large areas of laminate, particularly where the
substructure of the tested skin is relatively
consistent. The tap test method is sensitive
only to laminar type flaws, such as delamina-
tions or unbonds, and relies on the different
acoustic resonance of the loose upper layer
compared to the surrounding material. The
tap method suffers from subjective interpreta-
tion (particularly with complex geometries),
variable application, declining sensitivity
with flaw depth and an inability to calibrate
effectively for either flaw size or depth. The
more recent applications of composites in
thicker laminates and more highly loaded
designs make this approach inadequate in
many cases.
Several attempts have been made to instru-
ment the tap test by providing a machine-type
tapper and instrumentation to interpret the
signals. The mechanical tappers offer the
advantage of improved repeatability in terms
of tap impact and location. The instrumenta-
tion developed centered on spectral analysis
of the detected audio signals. These instru-
mented tappers have not made a significant
impact on the composite NDE instrument
market. They suffer from many of the same
disadvantages as manual tapping with the
additional disadvantage of increased cost.
38.4 ULTRASONIC METHODS
38.4.1 ULTRASONIC THROUGH-
TRANSMISSION TESTING
Ultrasonic inspection makes use of €ugh fre-
quency (above 20 kHz) mechanical vibrations.
Typical ultrasonic frequencies for inspection of
composite materials are in the megahertz
range. Ultrasonic signal strength in a material
is reduced both by attenuation and by reflec-
tions from interfaces. Large reflection signals
are obtained when ultrasound is directed from
one medium to another with the two media
having very different acoustic impedances.
For example, more that 99.9% of an ultrasonic
wave is reflected from a metal-air interface as
might be encountered with a crack in a metal.
The ultrasonic signal is typically introduced in
a pulsed mode. The inspection geometry can
be through-transmission, with the receiver ’lis-
tening’ for the ultrasonic pulse on the opposite
side of the component from the transmitter, or
a one-sided pulse-echo test, in which a single
transducer first transmits a pulse and then ‘lis-
tens’ for the reflections of that pulse from the
interfaces of the inspection object.
Ultrasonic through-transmission test sys-
tems measure the signal strength of a pulse of
ultrasonic energy transmitted through the
structure or material under test. Locations
where there may be a delamination or a for-
eign material, for example, will show a
reduced exit ultrasonic intensity. This test
approach is probably the most commonly
used production inspection method for com-
posite structures. It is relatively easily
automated, provides approximately constant
sensitivity to flaws, regardless of their depth
within the structure and is fairly easy to inter-
pret. Sophisticated computer controlled
inspection systems, such as the McDonnell
Douglas Automated Ultrasonic Scanning
System (AUSS)14, shown in Fig. 38.1, are
 Ultrasonic methods 841

Fig. 38.1 McDonnell Douglas AUSS ultrasonic system.

common in aircraft production facilities. These mated systems is usually not available for field
systems scan the composite component while inspection. This is, however, changing. Many
collecting and recording the ultrasonic pulse
transmission amplitude. The method is sensi-
tive to most flaws which are planar in nature
and lie roughly parallel to the surface. Since
I

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,
+
, ,
1
.. , , .- -, .
.
,
of the military depot inspection facilities now

.
I

I
8 4 -
, -,
I

this describes most of the common flaw types

for layered composite structures, the method
is very appropriate. Where automated testing
systems are used, the test can be performed
very efficiently and can yield a recording, or
map of the inspection results, called a C-scan.
An example of a through-transmission C-scan
showing a delamination caused by a foreign
material inclusion is shown in Fig. 38.2.
Generally, the method requires access to
both sides of the part and alignment of ultra-
sonic search units on opposite sides of the
part. These factors drastically restrict the use-
fulness of this approach for in-service
inspection, since in many cases, access to both
sides is not available or not practical. Further, Fig. 38.2 Computerized through-transmission
the speed and recording advantages of auto- C-scan showing foreign material.
842 Nondestructive evaluation methodsfor composites

have automated ultrasonic inspection systems

for composite inspections. Further, inspection
systems such as the Automated Real-time
Inspection System (ARIS)15provide a semiau-
tomated through-transmission inspection and
data recording capability for some on-aircraft
inspections. A 9 kg (20 lb) yoke provides the
mechanism to place an ultrasonic transducer
on either side of the field inspection object.
One-sided pulse-echo testing can also be
accomplished.

38.4.2 ULTRASONIC PULSE-ECHO TESTING

The ultrasonic pulseecho inspection approach Fig. 38.3 McDonnell Douglas LACIS portable ultra-
sonic scanner.
typically uses a single search unit as both the
transmitter and receiver. The approach C-scan shown in Fig. 38.4 shows the multiple
requires access to only one side of a material or delaminations associated with impact dam-
structure to be tested. Flaws are detected by
age. In this scan, the delaminations show as
monitoring the time of arrival and/or the sig-
gray to black areas in which the darkness of
nal strength of returning echoes.
the indication reveals its depth. The darker
Delaminations cause the returning echo to
indications are closer to the surface. The foot-
arrive prior to its expected travel time from the
ball shaped delamination of the far surface ply
round trip from the front surface to far surface
is seen as a gray shape only slightly darker
and back to front surface. This method is com-
than the normal background thickness.
monly used for in-situ inspection since the
The pulse-echo method is also advanta-
single transducer approach usually makes it
geous in that it offers increased sensitivity to
simpler to apply in a manual test. On the other
foreign material inclusions associated with the
hand, the more complex signal patterns and
manufacturing process for laminated compos-
more critical sound entry angle, make this test
ites. Many expendable paper and plastic
more difficult to automate than the through-
materials are used in handling and transporting
transmission test. Even so, computer
automated pulse-echo inspection systems
have gained popularity in recent years.
An example is the Large Area Composite
Inspection System (LACIS). This semiauto-
mated pulse-echo inspection system is useful
for in-service inspection of composites. The
LACISll (Fig. 38.3) uses a reciprocating arm
holding two to four transducers to perform
pulse-echo inspection of large composite com-
ponents quickly. Inspection speeds in excess of
9.3 m2/h (100 fP/h) have been reported with
this hand-held scanning device.
An advantage to the pulse-echo systems is
that flaws at multiple depths can be distin- Fig. 38.4 pulse-echo time-of-flight C-scan showing
guished from one another. The pulse-echo impact damage.

uncured composite materials. These materials
have at times found their way into a compos-
ite laminate and are cured in place. Some of
the plastic materials are particularly problem-
atic in that they may bond into the laminate
and go undetected by the through-transmis-
sion inspection. Fortunately, however, most of
these materials offer a reflected signal strength
sufficient to be detected by pulse-echo ultra-
sonics.
38.4.3 ULTRASONIC POLAR BACKSCATTER
This inspection approach makes use of slightly
angled ultrasonic beams to detect flaws in
composite materials. The angle orientation fre-
quently allows one to associate flaws with a
particular ply orientation. The method is par-
ticularly useful for characterizing matrix
cracking within the composite plies. It is also
sensitive to linear voids or porosity. It has been
successfully used"j to characterize the various
levels of damage in impacted laminates. The
approach has also been used to measure direc-
tional velocity variations and elastic properties
in composite^'^. From these measurements, the
anisotropic elastic properties can be calcu-
lated. At the current time, this inspection
method remains primarily a laboratory tool.
The angulating mechanism would be some-
what difficult to manipulate and control in the
field and the inspection times can get long,
since multiple scans at a variety of orientations
are required. Further, the composite designs
currently in use have not required the detailed
level of inspection provided by this method.
38.4.4 ULTRASONIC RESONANCE
This one-sided ultrasonic inspection method
detects laminar discontinuities within com-
posites or bonded structures by setting up a
continuous ultrasonic wave within the mater-
ial and sensing the mechanical stiffness, or
impedance of the material. A delamination or
disbond reduces the surface normal stiffness
of the material and this, in turn, reduces the
Ultrasonic methods 843
surface loading on the ultrasonic probeI8.This
can be seen as a phase, amplitude, or resonant
frequency shift in the ultrasonic element. This
method is particularly useful in complex
bonded structures where access limitations
restrict the use of ultrasonic through-transmis-
sion testing and the complex internal
reflections make pulse-echo signals difficult
or impossible to interpret.
38.4.5 ULTRASONIC CORRELATION
Ultrasonic correlation offers a novel approach
to the ultrasonic inspection of highly attenua-
tive materials19. It has proven effective in the
evaluation of some of these materials where
conventional pulsed ultrasonic systems have
experienced difficulties in penetrating the
material. The correlation approach achieves
this increased sensitivity using a continuous
wave, cross-correlation technique which
enhances the sensitivity of the test but sacrifices
inspection speed. A block diagram of a continu-
ous wave correlator is shown in Fig. 38.5.
The principal advantage of the correlator is
that it provides substantial enhancements in
the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of the ultra-
sonic signals. This S/N enhancement is
achieved through a modification of the time
scale required to produce an A-scan trace.
Since the correlator uses continuous genera-
tion and accumulation of the ultrasonic
signals, the maximum possible efficiency of
data accumulation can occur. The S / N
enhancement allows the correlator to produce
usable A-scan traces where conventional
pulsed ultrasonic systems are unable to pro-
duce a recognizable pattern.
For example, the correlator has been used to
characterize polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE,
Teflon@),a material very difficult to penetrate
with conventional ultrasonic techniques. The
results have been obtained by measuring
ultrasonic velocity as the temperature of the
PTFE sample changed. Figure 38.6 shows a
velocity versus. temperature profile with an
excellent indication of a change in the slope of
844 Nondestructive evaluation methods for composites
7

Transmit
Test
Noise Specimen

I I

Fig. 38.5 Block diagram of ultrasonic correlator.

the curve at the phase transition temperature 38.5 X-RADIOLOGY

of 30°C. The correlator has been shown effec-
tive for the inspection of thick and highly
attenuative composites. Effective signals have
also been obtained through over 30 cm
(11.8in) of cured wood and through
wood/plastic laminates, such as countertops.
1340
X-ray imaging relies on the differential absorp-
tion or scattering of the X-ray photons as they
pass through a material. Flaws which either
allow more X-ray photons to pass or which
absorb or scatter the photons can be imaged if
the effect is significant. X-ray inspection sys-
tems are usually sensitive to changes which
result in an apparent change of at least 1-2% of
the material thickness or density. Composite

i
1
flaws tend to lie between plies and present a
1320
1300 very small apparent thickness change, particu-
Velocity larly for thick laminates. However, the low
(dS) i280 density of most composite materials permits
1260 the use of low energy X-rays which help to
1240 enhance the sensitivity*O.X-rays can be used to
detect porosity and matrix cracks as well as
1220 I
20 25 30 35 40
some foreign materials. More highly loaded
Temperature ('C)
applications and/or the use of more brittle
matrix materials, both of which seem to be on
Fig. 38.6 Ultrasonic velocity transition in PTFE the horizon, will make the detection of some of
measured with correlator. these conditions much more critical than they

are today. While carbon fibers are not gener-
ally imaged by X-rays, boron and silicon
carbide fibers are typically deposited on a
tungsten filament and this filament can be
imaged in X-radiographs. This allows one to
detect fiber fractures and determine fiber ori-
entations and placements, so long as the
number of plies does not get too large.
X-radiography is particularly useful for the
detection of honeycomb core defects in
bonded sandwich assemblies. The low density
and thin composite skins usually provide min-
imal interference for the X-rays to image the
honeycomb core materials. Core defects such
as blown core, crushed core, condensed core,
fatigued, corroded or cut core and foaming
adhesive voids can be detected by radi-
ographic methods. It is also frequently
possible to detect water intrusion into the hon-
eycomb core using X-ray methods.
Significant progress has been made in
recent years in the use of non-film electronic
imaging systems for X-rays. These systems
allow the real time viewing of X-ray images
and can drastically reduce the demand for X-
ray film. While video imaging systems do not
Fig. 38.7 Microfocus X-radiograph of honeycomb cell showing onset of damage.
X-radiology 845
typically possess the resolution of X-ray films,
the use of very small X-ray sources and geo-
metric magnification techniques have
permitted the recovery of much of this sensi-
tivity. Figure 38.7 shows a magnified image of
a honeycomb core area. This 'bee's eye view'
of the honeycomb core reveals the onset of
damage in the cell wall. In practice, one must
find a suitable compromise between spatial
resolution and area of coverage. The cost
advantages of this approach have made it very
attractive. Many military aircraft maintenance
facilities either have or are acquiring real-time
X-ray inspection equipment.
38.5.1 X-RAY BACKSCATTER IMAGING
Conventional radiographic inspection tech-
niques rely on the attenuation of a beam of
penetrating radiation to form an image of a
part. At low X-ray photon energies typically
used with composites, a large portion of that
attenuation is due to Compton scattering. This
suggests the use of scattered radiation to ana-
lyze the inspection object. One approach
utilizing a novel, X-ray backscatter camera
846 Nondestructive evaluation methods for composites

Lamina insulator and a rubber liner, as shown in Fig.

38.9(a).Figure 38.9(b) is the X-ray backscatter
inspection result for a single location. The
illustration shows the relative X-ray backscat-
ter intensity versus thickness of the inspection
sample; depth through the sample can be cor-
related with detector number. Region A
represents the near-surface graphite-epoxy
region. The sharp dip in response at B repre-
sents the decreased X-ray backscatter intensity
typical of an air gap or delamination. The insu-
lator response is given in region C; note the
differing response slope for this lower density
material, as compared to the response for the
second graphite-epoxy layer shown in region
D. The response from the rubber deeper in the
Fig. 38.8 X-ray backscatter system geometry.
assembly is shown in region E.
The X-ray backscatter signal contains quan-
employing a slot instead of the more common titative information about variations in
pin-hole approach has been developedz1.This density as caused by changes in material or
technique is illustrated in Fig. 38.8. The delaminations and the location of such varia-
backscattered X-rays are detected by an array tions within the depth of the material. These
of scintillation detectors. The backscatter characteristics, coupled with the one-sided
intensity information is obtained as a function inspection feature, represent advantages for
the inspection of composite assemblies.
of detector position; this in turn, relates to dif-
ferent depths in the inspection object. One
interrogates the entire object thickness at one
38.5.2 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
time (composite structures as thick as 7cm
(2.7 in) have been inspected). The inspection Tomographic inspection systems, developed
results provide indications of material density originally for medical diagnostics, have been
changes by a change in the slope of the inten- further developed for applications in the
sity/position graph and of voids or foreign industrial inspection A tomographic
material by an abrupt change in backscatter image looks like a slice taken across the
intensity. The inspection method is particu- inspection object. A collimated single pencil
larly useful for the inspection of laminated beam or a flat fan beam of X-rays is directed at
structures such as pressure vessels and rocket the sample. The sample is shifted and rotated
motor cases. In some of these designs, ultra- relative to the X-ray beam while the X-ray
sonic inspection approaches are ineffective or beam intensity is measured by individual
impractical and the backscatter X-ray imaging detectors (typically arrays of detectors) at each
approach offers a potential solution. Tight position and rotation. The measurements per-
delaminations, with gaps less than 50 p m in mit a computer reconstruction of a density
width, can be detected. map of the inspection object. One advantage of
An example of an X-ray backscatter inspec- tomographic inspection is the extremely good
tion is shown in Fig. 38.9. The sample was a contrast sensitivity; variations of less than
graphite-epoxy composite structure as used in 0.1% are detectable. The major advantage of
a rocket motor case. The assembly included computed tomography is that the resultant
several layers of graphite epoxy composite, an image shows all the variations across the
 X-radiology 847

BACKSCATTER
INCIDENT X-RAYS
X-RAYS

GRAPHITE
EPOXY

r
(4

98.

54.

43.

32.

21.

IO. 1111
1 2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 18 17 18 I9 20
(b)
D€ECTORNWBW

Fig. 38.9 X-ray backscatter examination results (a) composite sample configuration and (b) system
response.

image slice in the true three-dimensional per-
spective. A typical radiograph is a
two-dimensional projection of a three-dimen-
sional object. The tomographic result retains
the three-dimensional nature of the image. A
computed tomography image of a tree, for
example, would appear similar to the visual
image if one sawed through the tree at one
location. The tomographic image would show
the differing density of summer and winter
growth and the presence of knots, voids, etc.
For composites, tomography offers similar
advantages. The tomographic image shown in
Fig. 38.10 shows variations in density across
the width of the composite material.
38.5.3 NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY
X-rays are attenuated as a function of the den-
sity of the material through which they pass. If
X-ray attenuation is plotted as a function of
increasing atomic weight of the attenuating
848 Nondestructive evaluation methods for composites

radiography. Recent advances in moderating

and collimating accelerator fast neutron beams
. .'
,
1
,
have led to significant improvements in
I portable system thermal neutron beamsz6.A
typical thermal neutron image of a composite
structure, as obtained with the transportable
inspection system shown earlier, is shown in

I
ap
Fig. 38.10 Computed tomogram of graphite silica
composite tube.

material, one finds a monotonically increasing

function. The attenuation of thermal neu-
trons", plotted similarly, shows a generally
random pattern in which there is high attenu-
ation for several light materials, hydrogen,
boron and lithium in particular and relatively
low attenuation for most For bonded Fig. 38.11 Photograph of transportable thermal
structures, the high sensitivity of neutrons to neutron radiographic system.
hydrogen means that thermal neutron radiog-
raphy can display images of adhesives, water,
or corrosion in a metal bonded assembly more
readily than X-ray techniques. For composites,
neutron techniques offer promise for the
detection of variations in the organic matrix
materials and moisture take-up.
Advances in transportable neutron sources
have been made including source systems for
depot and field inspections. A photograph of
one system= is shown in Fig. 38.11. The neu- '
tron source is a Cockroft-Walton accelerator
that produces neutrons by accelerating
deuterons on a tritium target, a D-T reaction
that produces neutrons of about 14Mev in
energy. These neutrons are slowed, or moder-
I
ated, in a low atomic number assembly and Fig. 38.12 Thermal neutron radiograph of a bonded
collimated into a beam for thermal neutron fiberglass-epoxy structure.
 Eddy current testing 849

A major neutron radiographic facility for One area where acoustic emission testing has
the inspection of military aircraft has been found acceptance is in the detection of mois-
installed at McClellan Air Force Base. A ture and corrosion in honeycomb assemblies.
maneuverable, crane-based system permits If an aluminum honeycomb assembly contain-
near real-time neutron inspection of wing and ing water is locally heated in the vicinity of the
empennage assemblies on the aircraft. Film water, the increased vapor pressure will force
techniques are used to inspect lower doors. the water to move through the leakage path
These on-aircraft inspection systems employ along which it entered the honeycomb cell.
the radioisotope 252Cfas the neutron source. The motion of the water through the leakage
The system has emphasized the inspection of path can be detected using acoustic emission
metal bonded assemblies to detect water intru- equipment.
sion and corrosion damage. A nuclear reactor
facility is available at this facility to inspect
38.7 ACOUSTO-ULTRASONICS
components removed from the aircraft.
Consideration is being given to replacement of The acousto-ultrasonic, or stress wave factor,
the californium source with an accelerator test method uses an ultrasonic transducer to
source of neutrons. inject a simulated acoustic emission pulse into
the material under test. The wave form of the
pulse is then monitored a fixed distance away
38.6 ACOUSTIC EMISSION
with an acoustic emission transducer. Damage
Acoustic emission testing involves the detec- to the material will affect the manner in which
tion of elastic energy that is spontaneously the wave is transmitted through the materialz8.
released by materials when they undergo The stress wave factor will be affected most by
deformationz7.For example, when a piece of discontinuities which impede the motion of
wood is stressed, audible cracking noises can the stress wave through the material. The
be detected just before the wood breaks. The method can be applied in a through transmis-
same phenomena occurs in other materials, sion mode, but is generally used with both
including composites. The detected signals are transducers on the same side of the part; one
frequently in the ultrasonic rather than audi- monitors the transmission of signals parallel to
ble region. the surface. In this mode the method is most
Acoustic emission testing monitors the sensitive to matrix cracking and laminate
material under test for spontaneous noise gen- porosity. It is also sensitive to fiber breakage
erated under load. It has been used extensively and, particularly in the through transmission
in the proof testing of fiberglass pressure ves- mode, delaminations. The method has suf-
sels and beams. It has also been used to fered from problems in obtaining consistent
monitor and characterize damage growth results. Some of these problems have been
mechanisms in composites under cyclic load- solved or reduced and the method shows
ing. Acoustic emission testing is capable of potential for evaluating the severity of matrix
detecting and characterizing matrix cracking, degradation in composites. One approach has
delamination and fiber breakagez7.It is used been to use completely non-contact generation
extensively in the testing of composite pressure and detection of the signalsz9.
vessels and in the evaluation of some struc-
tures, such as 'cherry picker' booms; however,
38.8 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
the method has not found particular applica-
tion in the aircraft inspection arena for these Eddy current methods rely on the principles of
flaws. This may be partly due to the need to magnetic induction to interrogate a material
have the component under load during testing. under test?. Current loops, or eddy currents,
850 Nondestructive evaluation methods for composites

are induced in a conducting material by a vary- (T = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.7 x lo4

ing magnetic field. While most resin matrix (W/m2K4)
materials are very poor electrical conductors, T = absolute temperature, degrees Kelvin
some of the carbon fibers are relatively good
conductors. In order to form current loops, The emittance in a particular differential
multiple fibers must make electrical contact wavelength band is governed by the Planck
with one another at various places along the distribution criterion. Important criteria for
practical infrared imaging are the spectrum of
length. Fortunately, the use of carbon fiber tows
of 3000 to 10000 fibers or more clearly pro- the emitted energy and the wavelength of
motes this. Eddy currents can then be used to maximum emittance. These are given by the
monitor fiber orientation since the current single temperature evaluation of Planck's Law
loops are not circular, but greatly elongated and Wien's Displacement Law, respectively.
Figure 38.13 shows a family of such energy
along the fiber direction. Eddy currents can also
be used to detect fiber breakage. Eddy current distribution curves. For the practical case of a
techniques have been demonstrated to provide body at a temperature of 25°C (77"F, approxi-
effective results for many of the damage mech- mately room temperature), the wavelength
anisms, including impact damage and fatigue range of peak emission is in the range
damage, in carbon fiber composite^^^. Even so, 9 - l o p . This turns out to be a very useful
eddy current techniques have not received a wavelength range. Various components of our
great deal of acceptance to date for productionatmosphere, notably water, absorb a great deal
or in service inspection of composites. of the emitted infrared energy. However, there
are two fairly transparent windows through
the atmosphere: one between 3-5 p and the
38.9 INFRARED THERMAL TESTING other at about 8-14 p.Specific infrared
Infrared thermography has been gaining detector elements have been developed which
rapidly increasing acceptance as a nondestruc- respond well to each of these wavelength
tive evaluation tool for composite (as well as bands. As seen in Fig. 38.13, the intensity of
many other) structures. All bodies above the infrared emittance within such a band can be
temperature of absolute zero emit electromag- used to indicate the temperature of the object
netic radiation by virtue of the motion of the surf ace.
constituent atoms. The spectrum and intensity
of the radiation depend on the temperature 0.0005 -

and nature of the surface. When a surface is -T=50 'C

heated, there is an increase in energy of the 0 . m.
atomic particles leading to a corresponding
increase in temperature and emitted f 0.0003-
en erg^^^,^^. The wavelength-independent rate -e
of emission of radiant energy per unit area is m
-
governed by the Stefan-Boltzmann law: I o.ooo2
w = &UT4 o.ooo1-

where: 07
0 2 4 0 8 10 12 14 I0 18
W = rate of emission, radiant energy per unit Wavelength (pm)
area
E = emissivity (ratio of emittance of the sur- Fig. 38.13 Spectral radiant emittance distribution at
face relative to a black body) three surface temperatures.

Typical thermographic applications involve
the introduction of a controlled thermal load
on the object of interest. Variations in the ther-
modynamic properties of the object then
produce surface temperature patterns which
can be detected with an infrared imaging sys-
tem. Composite materials typically offer an
excellent combination of thermal properties
for the useful application of infrared thermog-
raphy.
Thermographic methods have been used to
display object temperature differences for a
variety of inspection applications. Many of the
inspection systems provide a television-type
image display. Typical sensitivityof the instru-
ments under ideal conditions is 0.1"C (0.2"F).
Thermal patterns can be produced by heating
the inspection surface and monitoring the sur-
face of the part for relatively hot spots caused
by the blockage of the thermal flow away from
the surface by a laminar flaw. This method is
particularly sensitive to flaws near the inspec-
tion surface; the sensitivity reduces rapidly
with flaw depth3. The thermal images can also
be produced by heating the far side of the
object and monitoring the surface for cold
spots where the heat flow toward the inspec-
tion surface in impeded by the flaw. This
'through-transmission' approach somewhat
improves the depth sensitivity, but the method
is still more sensitive to near side flaws.
Impact damage often results in matrix dam-
age near the surface of a composite material.
Figure 38.14 shows an infrared image of an
impact damaged graphite epoxy composite
sample. The object was heated and imaged on
the same side. The diamond shaped indication
is typical of the delamination pattern pro-
duced in a cross-plied laminate. Infrared
thermography has been demonstrated to be an
effective tool for evaluating many glass fiber
composite structures used in marine applica-
ti0ns353.
Infrared thermography has been gaining
increased acceptance in recent years as a viable
nondestructive testing tool. A significant num-
ber of effective applications has been
Laser shearography/holography 851
Fig. 38.14 Thermogram of impact damage in
graphite epoxy composite.
developed for composite materials and struc-
tures. This increased acceptance has been
assisted by improvements in the infrared
imaging technology, development of
improved heat applications techniques and
significant efforts to model and understand
the heat flow characteristics in anisotropic
media. Effective applications have been identi-
fied for a wide range of materials and
applications. Thermography has been used for
aerospace laminates of graphite epoxy as well
as for marine applications of fiberglass up to
around 8 cm (3 in) thick. In many instances for
materials which are most difficult for more tra-
ditional nondestructive tests, such as
ultrasonics, infrared thermography has pro-
duced rapid, effective results. An example is
foam core fiberglass boat hull structures.
While this structure poses substantial difficul-
ties for ultrasonic techniques, infrared
thermography has produced rapid, effective
results5.
38.10 LASER SHEAROGRAPHY/
HOLOGRAPHY
A hologram is an interference pattern that can
be used to reconstruct the optical wavefront
that originally emanated (due to reflection or
transmission) from an object. The hologram is
852 Nondestructive evaluation methodsfor composites
formed by the superposition of two wave-
fronts, an object beam and a reference beam,
on a suitable recording material, such as pho-
tographic film.When properly illuminated by
the reference beam, an observer looking
through the developed hologram sees a virtual
image of the original object. When the real
object undergoes a small displacement over
part of the surface, due to stressing by thermal
or mechanical means, a variation in the rela-
tive phase of the wavefronts will be produced
and a fringe pattern can be observed. Laser
illuminationprovides the spatial and temporal
coherence in the light beam to permit the
observation of the fringe pattern, a technique
called holographic interferomeW7.An exam-
ple of a holographic interferometry inspection
of a composite tube to reveal impact damage is
shown in Fig. 38.15.
Laser interferometric holography tech-
niques were evaluated for composites testing
in the 1960s. In fact, several composites and
bonded assembly testing systems were con-
structed. In spite of the use of massive optical
Fig. 38.15 Holographic interferogram of impact damage in a composite tube.
benches and elaborate vibration isolation sys-
tems, however, the vibration problems of
working in a production environment (much
less an in-service environment) were not satis-
factorily solved. The holographic inspection
approach is sensitive to very small amounts of
relative motion in the part surface. Typically a
part is tested by taking an image of the part at
rest, then stressing the part surface, either with
a small amount of heat or a mild vacuum. This
light stressing causes the area of the surface
over the flaw to deform slightly more than the
surrounding material. Displacements as small
as one-quarter wavelength of the laser light
being used cause a fringe to appear in the
interference pattern. Unfortunately, unwanted
test object motion of an equally small ampli-
tude will also cause fringes. The development
of phase locked loop holographic systems has
gone a long way to eliminate the problems
associated with low frequency vibration.
Holographic inspection systems which use
video imaging systems and 'develop-in-place'
reference holograms are currently being used.
 Conclusions 853

Another development in the area of video

holographic systems, electronic shearography,
has recently provided even greater immunity
to test object vibration and motion problems,
making possible the rapid scanning of large
areas of composites on aircraft. Electronic
shearography uses no film and compares a
live video image with a stored video image to
produce interference fringes.
Conventional interferometric holography
interferes two holograms of a component to
produce the interference pattern. Each holo-
gram is produced by recording the speckle
interference between a coherent reference
beam and the coherent object beam which illu-
minates the surface of the test part. Fig. 38.16 Electronic shearography image of
Deformations between the two exposures pro- graphite*poxy/foam core panel with edge delam-
ination.
duce the interference fringes. Phase-locked
holography uses the same basic technique, but
38.11 MICROWAVE TESTING
uses the diffuse reflection of an unexpanded
coherent beam shone on a small portion of the The use of microwave energy to interrogate
test object as the reference beam. This and characterize composite materials has been
approach minimizes the influence of full sur- investigated for some years. Microwaves are
face motions, typical of environmental very sensitive to small changes in the dielectric
vibration and is sensitive to differential sur- properties of low conductivity composites,
face displacements typical of defect such as glass and aramid fiber composites.
indications. Microwave techniques have also been investi-
Shearographf8, on the other hand, uses no gated for applications to composites with
separate reference beam. Rather, the returning higher conductivity fibers such as graphite
object beam is doubly imaged, with one of the fibers. Successful results have been reported
images slightly shifted or 'sheared' relative to for the measurement of fiber content and ori-
the unshifted image. Thus, the interference entationgo, material thickness41and porosity
pattern does not reveal bulk surface motion, content42. To date microwave techniques
but only the degree of differential motion of remain largely laboratory tools and have not
the surface along the direction of the shearing. gained great acceptance as production evalua-
This makes shearography particularly well tion techniques. However, these techniques
suited to many production and depot environ- offer excellent sensitivity to conditions, such
ments because of its relative immunity to as matrix porosity and cure state of the matrix,
vibration problems39.An example of a shearo- that are difficult to establish by more conven-
graphic inspection is shown in Fig. 38.16. In tional nondestructive testing techniques.
this case the inspection object is a sandwich Increased applications for these techniques
panel consisting of graphite-epoxy laminate can be anticipated in the future.
skins and a foam core. The indication arises
from a delamination created by a pull-out in
38.12 CONCLUSIONS
the skin-to-core bondline. The side-by-side
pattern of concentric rings is characteristic of A wide variety of nondestructive testing tech-
the shearography technique. niques are applicable to the evaluation of
854 Nondestructive evaluation methodsfor composites

various composite structures. The selection of too cumbersome to apply. Delaminations in

the most appropriate test technique for a par-
ticular application can be a formidable task.
The nondestructive inspection methods most
widely used in industry for composite inspec-
tion, ultrasonics and radiography, have much
to recommend them in that many different
types of discontinuities can be detected and
characterized. Shearographic and infrared
inspection methods present the attractions of
noncontact, large area coverage and good sen-
sitivity to discontinuities close to the inspected
surface. These techniques are finding a rapidly
growing list of applications where the more
traditional tools encounter difficulties or are
the order of 1 cm (0.4 in) in size can usually be
detected by shearography and even smaller,
near-surface discontinuities can be detected by
infrared imaging. Both methods offer a televi-
sion image display which offers straight
forward interpretation. Both methods also
offer good sensitivity in low density material
systems which are frequently difficult to evalu-
ate using the more traditional techniques.
The overall summary of inspection methods
as related to composite inhomogeneities
includes many inspection methods. Table 38.1
provides a sorting approach that can be used
for the selection of inspection methods for par-

Table 38.1 Summary of applicability of NDE methods

Flaw Type
Porosity 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2
Foreign material 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
Shallow delamination 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1
Deep delamination 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 2 2
Matrix cracks 3 1 1 2 2 1 3 2
Fiber breaks 2 2 2 2 1 1
Impact damage 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 1
Skin/skin disbond 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 1
Skin/core disbond 3 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 1
Crushed core 1 3 1 1 2 2 2
Condensed core 1 1
Blown core 1 1 1 1
Core node disbonds 1 1
Water intrusion 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 2
Corroded core 2 2 2 3 1 3
Fatigued core 2 2 1 2
Foam adhesive voids 3 2 1 2
Bondline adhesive voids 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1
Key:
1. Good sensitivity and reliability. Good candidate for primary method.
2. Less reliability or limited applicability.May be good supplementarymethod.
3. Limited applicability. May provide some useful information.

ticular comDosite discontinuities. While this
table cannot be considered definitive, it does
give general guidance to the applicability of
the various technologies to various material
conditions. In any specific application, a large
number of considerations will influence the
selection of nondestructive testing technolo-
gies. It is hoped that the discussions provided
in this chapter will offer some assistance in the
selection and application of nondestructive
testing methods. However, final selection
should be based on the evaluation of a greater
number of parameters than can be considered
here. Experience, training, experiment and
clear understanding of the inspection objec-
tives are required to develop effective
nondestructive testing applications.
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