Chapter 12

Intermolecular Forces and

Liquids and Solids
 Phase: physically distinctive form of matter, such as a
solid, liquid, gas or plasma; characterized by having
relatively uniform chemical and physical properties.

EX: 2 Phases
Solid phase - ice
Liquid phase - water

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 Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a molecule.
EX: Intermolecular vs. Intramolecular
• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)

“Measure” of intermolecular force

Generally, intermolecular boiling point
forces are much weaker melting point
than intramolecular
Hvap
forces.
Hfus
Hsub 3
 Intermolecular Forces

1) Dipole-Dipole Forces:Attractive forces between polar

molecules

Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid

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 Intermolecular Forces

2) Ion-Dipole Forces: Attractive forces between an ion and

a polar molecule

Ion-Dipole Interaction

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 Intermolecular Forces
3) Dispersion Forces: Attractive forces that arise as a
result of temporary dipoles induced in atoms or
molecules

EX:
a non-polar atom

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction

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 Intermolecular Forces
cont… Dispersion Forces

Polarizability: the ease with which the electron distribution in

the atom or molecule can be distorted

Polarizability increases with:

• greater number of electrons
• more diffuse electron cloud

Dispersion
forces usually
increase with
molar mass.

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 What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist between
each of the following molecules?

HBr HBr is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are

also dispersion forces between HBr molecules.

CH4 CH4 is nonpolar: dispersion forces.

SO2 SO2 is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are

also dispersion forces between SO2 molecules.
S
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 Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bond: a special dipole-dipole interaction between H
atom and an electronegative O, N, or F atom

A H…B or A H…A
Where A & B are N, O, or F

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Why is the hydrogen bond considered a
“special” dipole-dipole interaction?

Decreasing molar mass

Decreasing boiling point

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 Properties of Liquids

Surface tension: the amount of energy required to stretch or

increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Strong
intermolecular
forces

High
surface
tension

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 Properties of Liquids

Cohesion: the intermolecular attraction between like molecules

Adhesion: an attraction between unlike molecules

Adhesion

Cohesion

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 Properties of Liquids

Viscosity: a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow

Strong
intermolecular
forces

High
viscosity

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 Water is a Unique Substance

Maximum Density
40C
Density of Water

Ice is less dense than water

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 Solids
1. Crystalline solid: possesses rigid and long-range order.
In a crystalline solid, atoms, molecules or ions occupy
specific (predictable) positions
2. Amorphous solid: does not possess a well-defined
arrangement and long-range molecular order

Unit Cell: the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid

lattice At lattice points:

point
• Atoms
• Molecules
• Ions
Unit cells in 3 dimensions
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 Types of Crystals
Ionic Crystals:
• Lattice points occupied by cations and anions
• Held together by electrostatic attraction
• Hard, brittle, high melting point
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity

CsCl ZnS CaF2

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 Types of Crystals
Covalent Crystals:
• Lattice points occupied by atoms
• Held together by covalent bonds
• Hard, high melting point
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity
carbon
atoms

diamond graphite 17
 Types of Crystals
Molecular Crystals:
• Lattice points occupied by molecules
• Held together by intermolecular forces
• Soft, low melting point
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity

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 Types of Crystals
Metallic Crystals:
• Lattice points occupied by metal atoms
• Held together by metallic bonds
• Soft to hard, low to high melting point
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
Cross Section of a Metallic Crystal
nucleus &
inner shell e-

mobile “sea”
of e-

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Types of Crystals

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Amorphous solid: does not possess a well-defined
arrangement and long-range molecular order

glass is an optically transparent fusion product of inorganic

materials that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing

Crystalline Non-crystalline
quartz (SiO2) quartz glass
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 Least
Order

Condensation
Evaporation
Greatest
Order
T2 > T 1
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Equilibrium vapor pressure: is the vapor pressure
measured when a dynamic equilibrium exists between
condensation and evaporation
H2O (l) H2O (g)

Dynamic Equilibrium
Rate of Rate of
condensation
= evaporation

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Molar heat of vaporization ( Hvap) is the energy required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid.

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Boiling Point: the temp at which the (equilibrium) vapor
pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure

Normal boiling point: the temp at which a liquid boils when

the external pressure is 1 atm.

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Critical temperature (Tc): the temp above when a gas cannot
be made to liquefy, no matter how great the applied P

Critical pressure (Pc): the min P that must be applied to liquefy

at the Tc

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Melting point of a solid or the Freezing point of a liquid
is the temp at which the solid and liquid phases coexist in
equilibrium

H2O (s) H2O (l)

Freezing
Melting

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Molar heat of fusion ( Hfus): the E required to melt 1 mole of
a solid substance

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29
Molar heat of sublimation ( Hsub): the E required to sublime
1 mole of a solid

H2O (s) H2O (g)

Sublimation

Deposition
Hsub = Hfus + Hvap

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Phase diagram: summarizes the conditions at which a
substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas

Phase Diagram of Water

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