Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Political grievances also strained relations between Byzantium and western Euro-
lands. During the fifth and sixth centuries) imperial authorities could do little
hr. t'h*q-.tch as Germanic peoples established successor states t v{he western
frnan empQisigoths, Vandals, Franks, and others imposed ft tule ot'r lands
gtByzantine emleqgrs regarded as their rightful inheritancSffrorse yet) some of
800, for example, the
[d.,upr,rrt powers claidb(imperial authority for themselveyXn
iinkish ruler Charlemagn\eceived an imperial croytd from the pope in Rome,
treby direcrly challenging Byz\tine claims to rmpy)d authoriry over western lands.
lemagne's empire soon disso but in 9 9T Otto of Saxony lodged his own
to rule as emperor over the west-fu landg6f the former Roman empire. Adding
ry to insult, Otto then attacked lartd$ i uthern Italy that had been in Byzantine
ession since the days of Justinian.
Ltudprand
of Cremona
iiliudprand despised Byy'ntine food, drink, dress, and shelter, and\denounced his
andfamiiiessoughttoaccumulateland,thegrinclq|
as elsewhere . Especially
source of weakh in Byzantrum
Byza*ine empire' wealthy
in the early cenntries of the
and supervtttd the peas-
cultivators ran large estates
antryaSadepend.entclass,Peasanmdidnotbecome
slaves, bur ,r.ia"r did they
remain entirely free' some-
land, forbidden to de-
times they **r. bound to the
part without permission of
their lords' other times
arrangements' wh ere by
th.y worked, r-rnder sharecropping
peasanrs to curtivate their
landl0rds contracted randless
pordon of the yield'
lands in exchange for a large
enough wealth
Rarely did sharecroppers accllmulate
they worked the
to gain their irrd.epe,,d.,,.., often
Sameholdingsforyears-orforlife-ontermssetby
thelandlords' , , -r^
TheinvasionsofthesixthandSeventhcenturles
and afforded peasants an'
broke up many large estates
to opportu,'irvio"ulnasmalln:l*f JT"'!{^*,'rli;
?easants-probabrl, sharecroppers-receive
seects and tend
:::"r:.":##".d ;i;;; n:tt:njl,:i:::r1il1
;'H:;r'ffi
'-"""'n**d*#,ff#ffi**ryl'ilffi
ened the peasantry' L)ver
tne lorrB LUr'r)
the peasants intoi{
eleventh century onward'' they transformed
larger estates. From the tl:^*ife'enth centurv free Peasants
ac'':{
a'p';;;;il;; ot
an increasingtv
il"u*3;nTilT3:::f:i,.:.fiiTH$-*H1,,**o,*gs hadi-po,t*t,$
Decrineof
theFreepeasantrytr,,f
T:'#',*H#t5#Si#t'Jfr '-;;;;.il-*i-t1i,jnl1;;
ial tax coffers at the rate ot i;;eover, the decline *ny'*fi
smar Pcardr'" of the free,1;
Manufacturing
EnterPrises itbecameevenmore#;;il;;1q:l*.ljrilf,Tr:T#:,il#:iJff
worLters, I]ot t_?:
io **y artisans and.crafts
workers enjoyed a reputation
especri ,ifv for rheir glassi
bureaucrats. Byzantine crafts *a fittt *"111 and -*silver'
ware, linen -ooi"'i tLitil" gt*1' ;"-"1ty' in flo
monks'walkrng staiS
"rrd of silkworms
By the late sixth;;;;ti;q]; ":tllJ srlk tery
as well, *"nrl""tr.*r had.addedfr,r-eh-qualiry
and no doubt by other .oo.., the Byzantine empiie' SilL *ut -t
of proir.*-**.rrfu.i,r."d in
tiles to the list
^
CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTTTUM 727
A manuscript illustration depicts one Byzantine r.r.'oman weaving cloth (left), while another spins thread
(right). Both women veil their hair for modesty. Women rvorkers were prominent in Byzantine textile
productiou.
I ,important addition to the economy, and Byzantium became the principal supplier of
i:,this fashionable fabric to lands in the Mediterranean basin. The silk industry was so
' important to the Byzantine economy that the government closely supervised every
' step in its production and sale. Regulations allowed individuals to participate in only
, one activity-such as weaving, dyeing, or sales-to preverlt the creation of a monop-
, oly in the industry by a few wealthy or powerftil enrrepreneurs.
' Trade also helped to sustain the Byzantine economy. Situated astride routes going Trade
. east and west as well as north and south, Constantinople served as the main clearing-
. house for trade in the western part of Eurasia. The merchants of Consrantinopie main-
tained direct commercial links with manufacturers and merchants in ceniral Asia,
. Russia, Scandinavia, northern Europe, and the lands of the Biack Sea and the Mediter-
ranean basin. Even after the early Islamic conquests, Byzantine merchants dealt regu-
larly with their Muslim counterparts in Persia, Syria, Palestine, and. Egypt except dur-
ing periods of ouuight war between Byzantium and Islamic srates. Byzantium
dominated uade to such an extent that trading peoples recognized the Byzantine goid
coin, the bezant, as the standard currency of the Mediterranean basin for more than
half a millennium, from the sixth through the twelfth centuries.
Byzantium drew enormous wealth simply from the control of trade and the levy-
ing of customs duties on merchandise that passed through its lands. More important.
' Byzantium served as the western anchor o? a Eurasian Lading network that'rerrirrei
the silk roads of classical times. Silk and porceiain came to Constantinople from China,
spices from India and southeast Asia. Carpets arrived from Persia, woolen textiies
from western Europe, and timber, furs, honey, amber, and slaves came from Russia
and Scandinavia. Byzantine subjects consumed some commodities from distant lands,
but they redistributed most merchandise, often after adding to its value by further
processing-by fashioning jewelry out of gems imported from India, for example, or
by dyeing raw woolen cloth imported from western Europe.
Banlcs and business partnerships helped to fuel Byzantine trade. Banks advanced The Organlzatton
loans to individuals seeking to launch business ventures and thus made trade possible of Trade
CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZAI{TIUM 129
The Spanish rabbi Ben1hry.in of Twd.elo rrayeled. throwghout Ewrope, north Africa, and. southwest Asia between
1165 and. 1173 c.z. Ifu &y hape ventared. as far as Ind.ia, and. he mentionad. both Indin nnd' China in his
trayel account. His rnain p\osewa.tilo record the cond.itions of Jewish comrnwnities, but he ako des*!1d'
.the
wany land.s and abowt thyee builQrad. iitits that he visited. His narels tooh place d.uring an era of political d.ecline
for tbe Byzantio, ,*pr\ if#e *ill foand. Con*antinople a flowrishing and. prosperous city.
\
it.-..'
i:'fn. circumference of the ciry of Constan\ople is eigh- ment there. And in that ol6e men from all the races of
+:
reen miles; half of it is surrounded by.the s.q, and half the world com e befo{the emperor and empress with
;: Uy land, and it is situated - -- upon two arms - - th\sea)
of one jugglery and withfrjugglery, and they introduce lions,
;:i..,.,Y J
'
--.E- --:--- -- -'t-\
i:' f .l r--h r.1 T\r I .r \ l
i1.'coming from the sea of Russia [the Black Sea], \d one leopard s, bery{and wild asses) and th.y engage them in
ii.,fto* rJre sea of Sepharad fthe Mediterranean]. \ comb at wlth one another; and the same thing is done
:;,:'.' AII sorts of merchants come here from the lan with b{ds. No entertainment like this is to be found in
iitnrUyton, from the land of Shinar [Mesopotamia], ftod anyy'tter land.
il:.,,Persia, Me dia [western Iran], and all the sovereignty of From every part of the Byzantine empire tribute is
!l,,th. Iand of Egypt, from the land of Canaan [Palestine], ought here every year, and they filI strongholds with
i1.;','.trd tn. empire of Russia, from Flungary, PatzrnaL<w g$qrents of silh, purple, and gold. Like unto these
;.:::::' /
sto\\ouses and this wealth there is nothing rn rhe
!_,.{IJkraine
'I
',-,:-':,
] ,I(hazaria fsouthern Russia], and the lanYof
i.',Lombardy [northern Italy] and Sepharad fSpain]. wholNorld to be found. It is said that the tribute of
;:tr.' Constantinople is a busy city, and merchants y'ome to the ciry\ounts every year ta 20,000 gold pieces, de-
o,, it from every country by sea or 1and, and tht is none rived both\om the rents of shops and markets and from
l:,;,1.., r r : , / r
.', like it in the world except Baghdad, thertreat city'
of the tribute oXmerchants who enter by sea or land.
;.': Islam. In Constantinople is the church ofilagia Sophia, The Greek\habitants are very rich in gold and,pre-
',, and the seat of the pope of the Gr ee$ since Greeks do cious stones) and\hey go clothed in garments of siik and
il-'not obey the pope of Rome. Thg{e are also as many gold embroidery, \ld they ride horses and look like
.,, churches as there are days of rffiear. . And in this princes. Indeed, the\nd is very rich in all cloth stuffs
, church [Hagia Sophia] therefre pillars of gold and si]ver, and in bread, meat, and\ine.
:i; and lamps of silver and ggfd more than a man can count. Wealth like that of Con\anrinople is not to be found
2'7:. '
'of
?:,'r.,. '' Close to the walls the palace is also a place of in the whole world. Ffere als\ ai:e men iearned in ail the
i, amusement belonging to the emperor, which is called
j
::' i.'
7g:::t'
t,t:'i the birth of Jesus the e mperor gives a great e ntertain-
souRcE: Benjamin of Tudela. Tbe Itinerory of Benjornin of Tud.ela. Trans. by M. N. Adler. London:
H. Frowde, 1907. (Translation slighdy modified..)
How is it posible t0 a.cclant flr the prlsperity thar Benjawin of Twdnla fownd. in Constantinople?
:employed rwenty thousand workers as palace staff. Peacocks strutted through gardens
filled with sculptures and fountains. Most famous was a gold fountain in the shape of a
pineapple that spouted wine for imperial guests.
Aristocrats maintained enormous palaces that included courtyards, reception halls, Housing in
libraries, chapels, and quarters for members of the extended family as well as se.rvants Constantinople
and slaves. Women lived in sepa-rate apartments and did not receive male visitors from
:ffi'
ffi ;:.#&
iiffi
;;t+H
33oPAR.TIIIITHEPOSTCLASSICALERA,5O0ToI000C.E. ffi
,ffi r|41
ana Par-
womel often did t"t pgtttipT: T,b"tq"tts
il,B
usually lived
:tiH
occupieddangerousandrickery""t*t"t"'t'"'ittgkitchensandsanitaryfacilities .
:iH,
-"!*lilr"f*?XT;, *""rh, ttre ciry had its attractions. As the heii to Rome, con-as
:1+i
.:
-"3j
,li#
Attractions ol and exercise as well
which -.r" tit"t of relaxation
, ;,:|i4
'
ConstantinoPle . ,.,V:
'):51
hygienicbathing.Tavernsandrestaura,,t,off.,.dsettingsforsocialgatlrerings-
p"p"r"tlt:ll1tt^tt at-taverns-and
checkers, chess, ano dice games
*t" "'ptJ4if striptease' Mass en-
'.
-:!i;
'::i
in the foirnof ,ong, durr.", and ;€
theaters provided.rr,JaJrr"*.rrt to the impertal
tertainment toot pr"tt lt' the
Hippodrg*:' " large-stadium "dl1:t"t between wild -+g
juggrers, !-i.fi
::1.1
','-€
ffi
.i-at:1
t,'*
:*
tinran. In532tr"v oL"Jtr'e Hippodrom" killing 1'?"'g-:-o i::T.";1:r'r:Tt:"J:'ffiL;:;
thousands or r: ,:4
after
J*y-q""ff"a tf'e aistorUance' btironly
',:j:l:
ClnssIcAL HPRITAGE
AND ONTHODOX CTTNISTIANITY
his name a'd his faitir to
of the Roman empire gave both
The first chrisuan emperor developed
*n .,.rro#.u*.i nyr"rr,i* christianirv
constantireopre. Like ;;";y;;;"; christianity of the
a fuith differ.* no- the
early
atong distinctive lines, ;J;;;;. a much deeper
Roman empire. Th. p;;;ffi.*o
ft.lftfir. of classical Greece had
legacy helped to
western Etrrope, and the classical
influence in Byzantiu"r'irr"i r"
shape Byzantirr. .ao.uJor, "rrJ.*fr*."f
a*.tof,.rrt as well as Orthodox Christianiry'
matters of doc-
with their western counterparts on
Byzantine church r""a.lJ air^greed differences between
By the mid-eleventh century'
trine, rirual, una tf'o"ft u"tf'6r1fy g""t that'tl-reir leaders formally di-
churches had becomi
the eastern
^nd
-t"""t 'o
i"to the f"'*'"" Orthodox and Roman
Catholic
vided Medir"""""u"'Cil';,"*ty
churches.
I
r__
CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTiUM 33 1
ffii eenrury, however, Greek replaced Latin as the language of government in the Byzan-
ffirtin" empire. Byzantine scholars often did not learn to read Latin' and they drew in-
#jtilff..*"Iinspiration from the New Testament (originally composed in Greek) and
ffi.l philosophy and literature of classical Greece rather than classical Rome.
tt,
'ih. l.g^ry
of classical Greece was especially noticeable in Byzantine education. An Byzantine Education
ffii
ffi'educational sysrem was necessary because of the large bureaucracy that administered
ffit ;; empire: government machinery called for large numbers of literate and intelligent
Byzantine a-ristocrats often hired. tutors to provide private instruction for
ffi_.,individuats.
*',rh.ir children, girls as well as boys. But the bureaucratic workforce emerged mosdy
ti from a state -organized school system that offered a primary education in reading,
i .witing, and grammar, followed by studies of classical Greek literature, philosophy,
fi. Although mosr peasants and mffJtriurban workers h_ad 1o formal education, basic
,tlit.ru.y was widespread in Byzantfii€'society. Alongside the bureaucrats, Byzantine
fi ;.r.n""as,
$. manuficturers, clefgy)
merchants) manufacturers) clergy, anct military personner
and mrlrtary personnel usuany had at least a primary
usually nao Pnfrrary
At the pinnacie of the itate educational system.was a school of higher learn-
fr'"d,r."rioo.
in law, medict"::1"d
f; ing in Constantinople that offered advanced instruction founding in 425 c.s. until
fhlo.t;
almost continuciusiy from its
ii ,pttt This school functioned yezus later in 1453'
Ft,' ,tt. end of the Byzantine empire more than one thousand
1 Like the educational ryit.*, Byzantine scholarship
Et,:,,' .r r , .t, 1 ---- -^,-- D-,---rt-^ ^^L^l^--Li^ .^11-.t.4
^1"^ reflected
also t}..c cultural
the Byzo,ntine
Scho larship
i.,, t.e".v of classical Greece . Byzantrne scholars concentrated on the humanities-liter-
:t* r lr - - -, L-- ----l- ^-- rL^- ^^ +L- ..i^^.^" or medicine' 'Fherr
They
ii rrot., history, and phiiosophy-rather
rnmrrpnrari^" on
than on the natural
-^h,-^l sciences ^. -oJi.i-.
^- TJ^--" Dlotn Aristotle,
Arictntle and nther nrominent figures,
other prominent fisures-
".
-. --^.t,--^s commentaries
,t-, produced l{omer, Plato,
i1.,. r"a their works served as rexrbool$ studied in schools alongside writings from classi-
ii:.,. ' .. n- -'. - ,-,1-r.
:, cal times..by Byzantines with a, literary
tt-- ,-' ,,-- ^r--^--:^- -^^^iA^-^A
education considered +L-,-.-1,,^^
themselves r[,- the .li-o-t heirc
direct heirs
ii: of ciassicai Greece, ald they went to great lengtis to preserve and transmit the classi-
:;:
i. ."1I i.g".y. r---^-- r^)^^) -l-^^!
Indeed, almost t:+^-^--. ^-J
^n literary
all and ptulosophical
^L:l^-^^l-i^^l ,,,^.1,"
works of classical (]reecp
^€-l^".i-^l Greece that thct
l,,1'iurvive
z:t:'.. '1.
-^
'- have come down to the present I
in copies made between the tenth and twelfth
';:,,,,,',..1.11
1i.., centuries in the Byzantine empire.
tsyzantine Church
gi fn. most distincriye fearure of By22n1ing Christianity was its close relationship with Church anC State
trt-
:t-, imperial government. From the time of Constantine on, caesaropapist emperors
the im
:i, '--,-,-,1 ,--t 1^-t--^r--:- --^r:-:^.-^ ^-J +L^^r^-i-^l
theological matters. Cn^ctanrinp
Constantine hi-"alf
himself inter-
inter-
fuarticipated activeiy in religious and '-^r+o..
in theologicai debates, even when the issues at stal(e had little or no direct polit-
j":v-ened
ical implication. In 325 C.2., for example, Constantine organized the Council of
p. Nicaea, which brought together bishops, spokesmen, and leaders from all the impor-
i'tant Christian churches in order to consider the views of the Arians. Followers of a
i,;,triest from Alexandria named Arius (250-336 c.e.), the Arians taught that Jesus had
i;. been a mortal human being and that he was a crealion of God rather than a divine
ir:i., .1 L
^ -*-
;,,being coerernal with God. Yet many Christian theologians
held to the contrary: that
i in a unique and mysterious way Jesus was both a mortal human being and a manifesta-
iltion of God lumself, that Jesus simultaneously possessed ftilly human and firllyy dlvlne divi
Ejnrtor.r. Although he originally favored Arian views, Constantine came to accept the
lalternative and personally attended sessions of the Council of Nicaea in order to sllp-
i port it. His presence eniouraged the council to endorse his preferred view as ortho-
it-:dox and to condemn Arianism as heresy.
#'' Throughout Byzantine history the emperors treated the church as a department
fi,
of state. They appointed individuals to serve as patriarch of Constantinople-the
p';highest ecclesiastical offi.cial in the Byzantine church, counterpart of the pope in
a1ll
JJ'{-
PARTIIIiTHEPoSTCLASSICALERA,500ToI000c.e,
&*ffiu* giide*D*'w
r 1 :'^,.'^.1- Of
whitewashing an lmage
prepared abo*r 900 c"E. depicts an iconoclast
This illustration from a Psalter
a wall'
]esus parnted on
CFIAPTER. 13 | THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTIUM 333
::existence. Most famous of the austere monasteries are those of Mt. Athos, a cold and
:r,windswept peninsula in northern Greece that has been the site of monasteries since
the ninth century C.r. Since the eleventh century, monastic authorities have made
,1dt. Athos off-limits for all females, both human and animal, out of concern that
,,.they might inspire carnal thoughts among the monks. The strict devotion of the
,,,fironks of Mt. Athos and other Basilian monasteries inspired piety among the Byzan-
:, tine laity because the monks represented a religious faith more immediate and mean-
i ingful than that of the theologiar-r.s and ecclesiastical bureaucrats of Constantinople.
r Monks and nuns also provided social services to their communities. They pro-
.vided spiritr-ral counsel to local laity, and they organized relief efforts by bringing
-:rfosd and medical attention to communities struclc by disasters. They won the sup-
;port of the Byzantine populace, too, when they vigorously opposed the policy of
i iconoclasm and fought to restore icongo churches and monasteries. Tensions some
-
i times arose between clergy and laity beC4gse monasteries often owned extensive tracts
. of land, and the monks had differenf'€conomic interests from the peasants who
.worked the iand. Nevertheless, by setting examples of devotion and by tending to
the needs and interests of the laity, monks helped to maintain support for their faith
in the Byzantine empire.
effortsatreconciliation,theresuitingschismbetweeneastefnandwesternchurches
n::ir,.:."*'.[fti1il,tffi"#*:J""t'h:'.*:ili::iilil.'?J;:,*:i:'.':f
chur'
Christian
;;;;;' the Roman Catholic church'
this decline.
Soc ia| Problems
D o mestic pro bre ms
"'.*"' i::::*kg:,T,*: :l;',:H **.'#ffitiTft fi:ffi
erals who governed aristocracies$
with the locar
":iifif.ITf#iffffi;;;;;;;
r..-i#:i**nin:n*i::it*'#.#ffi '*$1.';r'*"*rut€
Some of ttrese Powern
ai"op'"ai"o*r"""3*i'$
:i;"r**i::li['::i';ilT:i1:iidil;;f
tr"" vast
"';;;;;i"ttJ
tr''t rtt" undS oeasantry
svstem and iQ
Moreover, the elite "tto"tt'lated militarv
increasing pressure' Formerlv +:
q*k?:l;:h;;;;m's
;'J;:i:H';T::"fi ll"':'#,,ff 'ri*,Tlft:x1f :!fiIlTJ':'T*T?#e
jtclining;l;itP;t from free p""'"t"t caused
recruits available
$
; 'o"J'"t"i-ltJ arso race d rresh ro rei
gn chale' geq
Challenges r :H:,?:
came
Pl: ffi trl'*.t;;:#$;;tium
representatives of a dynanJ a-nd expanding
western European s$
From the west
from the West ,.t
-:1
::1
.rt
'.4
fr,
,fr
CFIAPTER 13 { THE COMMOI{\A/EALTH OF BYZANTIUM J37
I)ur ing the sack of Constantinople in 1 204 , crusading forces seized ald carted away B.vzaniine treasures of ail
sorts-including the great bronze horses that norv stand over the entrance to St. Mark's basilica in Venice.
in civil war, allowing the Saljuqs almost free rein in Anatolia, By the late rwelfth ce
rury, the Saljuqs had seized much of Anatolia, and crusaders from western Euro
tium survived until the mid-fifteenth century, but the late Byzantine empire enjoye(
Iittle autonomy and continually faced fresh challenges from Italian merchants, west
ern European adventurers" and Turkish nomads. In 1453, after a long era of declint
the Byzantine empire came to an end when Ottoman Turks captured Constantinopl4
and absorbed its territories into their own expandittg realm.
.',4nd Rrrlserts
i;i"';:,n.^A
entered into
Bulgaria enfered into political,
noliticnl i+;i '
qnd Russis
be gan to org anLze large states: the Russians '
created several principalities governed from
Srategically situated on the Dnieper River
34O PART III I THE POSTCLASSICAL ERA, s0o TO 1000 c.E.
along the main trade route linking Scandinavia and Byzantium, ICev became a
wealthy and powerful center) and it dominated much of the territory between the
Volga and the Dnieper from the tenth to the thirteenth century. Russian merchants
visited Constanrinople in large numbers and became well acquainted with Byzantine
society. Russian princes sought alliances with Byzantine rulers and began to express
an interest in Orthodox Christianity.
The Conversion About 989 Prince Madimir of ICev converted to Orthodox Christianity and or-
of Prtnce Vladimir dered his subjects to follow his example. Madimir was no paragon of virtue: he lauded
drunkenness and reportedly maintained a harem of eight hundred girls. After his
conversion, however, Byzantine influences flowed rapidly into Russia. Cyrillic writ'
ing, literacy, and Orthodox missions all spread quicldy throughout Russia. Byzantine
teachers traveled north to establish schools, and Byzantine priests conducted services
for Russian converts. For two centuries ICev served as a conduit for the spread of
Byzantine cuitural and religious influence in Russia.
Byzantine arr and architecture dominated ICev and other Russian cities. Icons in
the Byzantine style encouraged popular piety, and religious images became a princi-
pal form of Russian artistic expression. The onion domes that are a distinctive feature
of early Russian cfurches were the result of architects' efforts to imitate the domed
structures of Constantinople using wood as their principal buildrng material.
The Growth of Kirv The princes of ICev established firm, caesaropapist control over the Russian Or-
thodox church-so called to distinguish it from the Eastern Orthodox church of the
Byzantine empire. They also drew inspiration from Byzantine legal tradition andl
compiled a writren law code for their lands. By controlling trade with Byzantium and:
other lands, they gained financial resources to build a flourishing society. In the',
eleventh century ICev reportedly had four hundred churches and eight large market':
places. By the early twelfth century its population approached thirty thousand, and a
fire in I I24 consumed six hundred churches.
Eventually, Russians even claimed to inherit the imperial mande of Byzantium. Ac-'
cording to a popular theory of the sixteenth century, Moscow was the world's third,
Rome: the first Rome had fallen to Germanic invaders in the fifth centlrry) whereas fhe,,
second Rome, Constantinople, had fallen to the Turks a thousand years later. Moscow:
survived as the third Rome, the cultural and religious beacon that would guide the,
world to Orthodox Christian righteousness. Inspired by this theory, missionaries took,
their Russian Orthodox faith to distant lands. During the sixteenth and later centuries,.
they brought Siberia into the fotd of the Orthodox church, crossed the Bering Suait,
dirp"t.hed missions to Alaska and even northern California. Thus, long after the'l
"ttd
collapse of the eastern Roman empire, the ffiantine legacy continued to work its in-j
fluence throush the oufward reach of the Ru3$ian Orthodox church.
educational system. Yet in many ways Byzantium changed profoundly over the
course of its thousand-year history. After the seventh century the Byzantine em-
pire shrank dramatically irr size, and after tfie eleventh century it faced relentless
foreign pressule from western Europeans and nomadic Turkish peoples. Chang-
ing times also brought transformations in Byzantine social and economic orga-
nization. Yet from the fifth to the twelfth century and beyond, Byzantium
brought political stability and economic prosperity to the eastern Mediterranean
basin, and Byzantine sociery served as a principal anchor supporting commer-
cialandculturaIexchangesinthepostclassicalworld'Throughitspolitical,eco-
nomic, and cultural influence, Byzaufiium also helped shape the development of
the larger Byzantine commonwealtlg..*g eastern Europe and the eastern Med.iter-
ranean basin.
'..
Trans fer Ro *an gov€rnmeni to,' Constantinople
ii
"f :,.-...,
Reign of,]"ustrnian,
''
Reign:of
t ? '
...,.:''
Leo III
.,.: :
' ',' '
. .'.....
Iconoclasuc .orr*o*rrn