Food Webs in Wetlands

(The introductory material on general ecology and food webs is mostly from:

Caduto, M.J. 1985. Pond and Brook. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England.
276p.)

What is Ecology?

• The word ecology comes from the Greek word oikos which means "home" and
so ecology is the study of organisms with themselves, each other, and their
habitat—their home.
• A population is a group of the same species living in the same place at the
same time.
• In ecologicial terms, a community refers to all the organisms interacting with
one another and sharing available resources within a defined area.
• An ecosystem encompasses all communities in a particular area as well as all
the abiotic factors affecting that area.
• Ecosystems sort of fade into one another as them meet. They are not sharply
defined. These in-between zones are calledecotones or ectones.

Energy and the Food Web

Just like any other sort of system, an ecosystem requires energy to operate. Energy
for an ecosystem comes from the sun in the form of photons. When a photon of
energy from the sun hits a green plant or an algae, it triggers a complicated chemical
reaction in the chlorophyll pigments: photosynthesis. This is the only way on earth
that living organic matter can be created out of sunlight and except for some
bacteria, all living things depend on this energy. Organisms which can create their
own organic material from the sun (or some other source as some bacteria can do)
are called autotrophs.

Photosynthetic Equation: H2O + CO2 --> O2 + CHO’s

Since plants/algaes are the only organisms that can make organic energy out of the
sun’s light, they are considered the primary producers in an ecosystem.

Let’s say that our incoming photons create 100 kilograms of algae in a pond. Why
algae since you can’t even see it unless there is a lot? Most animal life in a pond
either eats algae directly or eats smaller organisms that eat algae. Thus algae is
the producerand everyone else is a consumer. Consumers which get their energy by
eating (in other words they do not make their own energy) are heterotrophs.
Consumers can be plant eaters (herbivores), meat eaters
(carnivores), scavengers which eat dead things or detritus (detritivores), or they can
eat just about anything (omnivores—humans, for example, are typically omnivores).

So you have 100 kilograms of algae to pass on to the algae eaters. About 90% of that
available energy will be used up by those algae eaters just by their having to live:
growth, respiration, energy lost as heat, energy required for movement, etc. So your
100 kilograms of algae can produce 10 kilograms of algae eaters. In other words,
only 10% of the energy produced gets passed on from on trophic level (or level in the
food web) to the next. Thus the more trophic levels you have, the less energy is
available at the top. This is depicted as the trophic pyramid.

(from: Caduto, 1985)

Food Webs in Specific Wetland Types

1. Salt Marsh
(from: Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993)

Producers in a salt marsh include the marsh grasses, Spartina and Juncus mostly,
plus various other salt tolerant plants as well as lots of algae. The consumers come in
several categories according to their preferred habitat.

a. Aerial Habitat

The aerial habitat is that above the substrate, not that in the air necessarily.
Consumers here include spiders and insects that live on plant leaves, periwinkle
snails that travel up and down plants, and some of the marsh crabs. This includes all
the grazers plus birds common to saltmarshes that do not eat out of the water (red
winged blackbirds, marsh wrens, some sparrows)

b. Benthic Habitat

Probably less than 10% of the above ground primary productivity in a saltmarsh
actually gets grazed,. Most plant biomass dies and decays and is passed through
the detrital food web where the major consumers are bacteria and fungi. These are
then consumed by the smallest animals—worms, copepods, rotifers, larval stages of
benthic invertebrates, in other words, plankton. The bigger benthic invertebrates are
either scavengers (crabs, snails) or filterers (oysters, mussels).

c. Aquatic Habitat

This overlaps with the benthic habitat, but here we’ll put the "higher" trophic levels
here, the vertebrates. There are several species of resident fish such as silversides,
killifish, and mummichogs, however most marsh fish are transients, typically starting
out their life histories in the marsh and then moving on. In fact about 90% of the
commercially important fish and shellfish in the southeast Atlantic and Gulf coasts
depend on marshes.

d. Avian Consumers

This includes many ducks and wading birds. Like the fish, many of these depend on
marshes along their migration routes and are not year round residents.

e. Mammals

Raccoons and muskrats use salt marshes extensively as a food source

2. Mangroves

Because of the salt, there is less variety of producers here, but very high biomass
because of the constant tidal influx of nutrients. Mangroves themselves are not
required to live in salt, but they are good at it, so they outcompete anything else.

There is a wide diversity of consumers feed in the mangrove forest, especially filter
feeders and detritivores. Here again it is the detrital web that accounts for most of
the production (see the figure-the wider arrow indicates the larger input). Barnacles
and oysters filter feed and fiddler crabs scavenge, among lots of other invertebrates,
especially juveniles. These juveniles include the commercially important spiny
lobster, shrimp, mullet, and tarpon. These all provide food for a vast array of wading
birds.
(from: Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993)

3. Tidal Freshwater Marshes

a. Producers

Like in a saltmarsh or mangrove, the plants in a tidal freshwater marsh are arranged
in zones according to how wet they like to be. Pondweed, waterweed, and pickerel
weed dominate the submerged areas. In the higher areas you have a mixed aquatic
community of cattails, wild rice and cordgrass, among others. Since most of the
varieties you find here would grow in just about any marsh, their distribution depends
on the flooding pattern and which plants can germinate best (or at all) underwater.
Then there’s competition due to shading or chemical defense. Cattails, for example,
release chemicals which inhibit seed germination of many other plants.

Algae has less biomass that these vascular plants, but it has a higher turnover rate
and since again most production in this wetland is based on the detrital food web, the
algae is very important.

b. Consumers

Here the food web is predominantly detrital with the benthic invertebrates being the
important link. The smallest eat bacteria and nematodes (microscopic worms) and
probably make up most of the living biomass of the anaerobic sediments. As these
eat bacteria, they package it into bitesize pieces for the next consumers up the line
which would be amoebas and other plankton which are then eaten by snails, worms,
and insect larvae.

i. Nekton

If "benthic" refers to what’s on the bottom, and plankton is everything microscopic

and drifting in the water, nekton is everything else in the water, in this case, fish.
Typical fish are sunfish, bass, crappies, minnows, shiners, carp, and catfish. You also
get some estuarine fish such as killifish, mummichogs and anchovies. There are
also anadromous fish (those which live in the ocean but spawn in freshwater) such as
shad, herring, and striped bass. Occasionally you find juveniles of saltwater species
such as spot, flounder, croaker, and drum. They can physically withstand the
freshwater at these early life stages and presumably take advantage of the relative
lack of predators and the food availability—or they just get washed in.

ii. Birds

Of the wetland types, the tidal freshwater wetlands have the largest and most
diverse population of birds. Waterfowl, wading birds, ducks, gulls, birds of prey,
shorebirds, plus birds typical of a forest or shrubby area all find satisfactory habitat
here.

iii. Reptiles

Population is dominated by turtles, snakes, and alligators.

iv. Mammals

These include deer, rabbits, muskrats, beavers, otters, and nutria (the latter are not
found in coastal Georgia, S.C. or Florida although they are common elsewhere in the
southeast)

4. Freshwater Marshes

Reed grasses, cattails, rice, sedges, and ragweed are common to most temperate
freshwater marshes, although distribution varies with latitude. These are distributed
in zones according to how flooded they get.
(from: Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993)

Remember that it is these wetlands that are the most affected by "alien species,"
those introduced from elsewhere. The water hyacinth, for example is a problem in
the southeast but on the up side, it is very good at water filtering and then holding
onto the excess nutrients or chemicals. Thus it's often suggested as a valuable
addition to natural wastewater treatment programs. Hydrilla and purple loosestrife
are two other trouble-makers in our area. Note that these are not necessarily "bad"
but since they lack natural controls they tend to overtake habitats and outcompete
the natives. This can mean trouble for the consumers that depended on those
natives.

As with the producers, there is high diversity among the consumers, often because
these marshes serve as oases in the middle of seas of farmlands.

The decomposers are extremely important here, as is the case with other wetlands,
but little is known about them.

The most abundant invertebrates are true flies, including mosquitoes.

With a high diversity of invertebrates there is a high diversity of birds. Note in the
figure below how the birds share the habitat (or in ecological terms, partition the
resources). Muskrats are probably the most typical mammal although lots of others
may pass through.

Fish diversity depends on how big an area we're talking about and how wet it stays.
(from: Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993)

5. Peatlands

The dominant plant in a peatland is, of course, moss, especially Sphagnum moss. It
grows in cushionlike spongy mats with very high water content. Sphagnum moss can
hold 15-23 times its dry weight in water. The moss only grows actively at the surface,
and the lower layers die off and decompose into peat. Other plants may include
heathers, cranberry, blueberry, some pines, spruce, and tamarack trees.

Remember that these wetlands have the lowest productivity and the lowest nutrient
levels of all the wetlands. For this reason several carnivorous plants are found here.
They get their extra nutrients from insects. These include pitcher plants, sundews,
and venus flytraps.

Animal density is fairly low in these wetlands because they are acidic and not much
eats moss. They do serve as trails and shelters for large mammals.

Lots of birds pass through these areas on their migration routes and there are several
that absolutely depend on them: sandhill cranes, short-eared and great gray owls,
sharp-tailed sparrow.

6. Southern Deepwater Swamps

Cypress and tupelo trees dominate these ecosystems and there may or may not be
an understory, depending on how dense the canopy is. The more light that gets
through, the more vegetation beneath. This understory may include red bay, sweet
bay, ash, maple, and some pines. There is also always lots of Spanish moss (which is
not actually moss but is an epiphyte related to pineapples-it hangs on the trees but
does not take anything from them). If the water is constant in these, you also get
floating mats of algae.

There is a high diversity and high biomass oƒ invertebrates which depend on the
abundant detritus available. Once again, this is the major source of nutrients for the
food web.
Reptiles and amphibians are quite diverse because they can adapt to changing flood
levels. These habitats are frequently deep enough and stable enough to support
alligators. If they are that deep and stable, there is probably also a diverse fish
population.

7. Riparian Wetlands

The forest you get here depends on how wet it gets. Typically in the south you find
red maples, willow, willow oaks, and sweet gum closest to the water. As you move
back from the water, these would give way to other oaks, hickories, and pines.

There is high animal diversity due to the edge effect.

a. predominance of woody plants

• sometimes these are the only woods left so they shade the water, stabilize
the bank, and produce leaf litter

b. surface water

• this is especially important out west where there is very little water available
above ground; this directly supports aquatic species plus those that live on
them

c. diversity of habitat

• permanently to only occasionally flooded

d. corridors for dispersal and migration

The otter civet weighs 3 - 5 kg (6.6 - 11 lb). It is found in and near streams, rivers and
wetlands, eating fish, frogs, crustaceans (e.g. crayfish, crabs, and shrimp).,
freshwater molluscs, and to a lesser extent, small mammals, birds and fruit.
 The otter civet is found in Peninsular Malaysia, southern
Thailand, Sumatra and Borneo, and possibly Vietnam.
Although widespread it is rare throughout most of its
range. It is threatened by the loss of wetlands and other
aquatic habitat to development, siltation from mines,
persistent pesticides in the food chain, and other kinds of
water pollution.

Mangroves
Mangroves are woody trees or shrubs that grow in mangrove habitats or mangal
(Hogarth, 1999). Mangroves grow only in tropical and subtropical tidelands, which are
frequently inundated with salt water, such as estuaries and marine shorelines.
Mangrove trees form a specific ecological community, denominated as mangroves.
Mangroves can thrive in salt water inundation thanks to their specialized root
structures, as well as their highly adapted and specialised reproductive cycle.
Crucially they have also evolved to be able to excrete salt from their system.
Mangrove forests occupy about 17 million hectares of tropical coast worldwide:
across Africa, Australia, Asia and the Americas.
The mangrove ecosystems provide protection against extreme weather events, such
as storm winds and floods, as well as tsunamis. This is due to their capacity to
absorband dissipate the tidal surges that are associated with these events. They also
contribute to the functioning of adjacent ecosystems, including terrestrial wetlands,
peat swamps, salt marshes, sea grass beds and coral reefs.
Biodiversity
Rich in biodiversity, mangrove ecosystems provide a habitat for wide varieties of
animal and plant species. According to Hogarth, mangrove areas contain some 54
species of trees in 20 genera, belonging to 16 families that constitute the "true
mangroves" — species that occur exclusively in mangrove habitats and rarely
elsewhere (Hogarth, 1999).
Moreover, mangroves are home to many kinds of animal species due to the richness
in food and form dynamic ecosystems. Live and decaying mangrove leaves and roots
provide nutrients that nourish plankton, algae, shellfish, fish, crabs and shrimp. Many
of the fish caught commercially in tropical regions reporduce, spend some time in the
mangroves as juveniles or adults or depend on food chains linked to these coastal
ecosystems. Mangroves are also home to many birds and mammals – such as
mangrove monkeys in South Asia.

http://www.ppj.gov.my/portal/page?
_pageid=311,481604&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL

PUTRAJAYA LAKES AND WETLAND

 (An Introduction)

Background
Putrajaya is a city planned and built to meet the challenges of the new millennium. It
is A City in a Garden that turns to nature for inspiration, resulting in a landscape
dominated by the picturesque Putrajaya Lake. A high standard of lake water quality is
one of the most important factors for the success of this scenic centerpiece, and the
solution was found in simulating yet another gift of nature - with the construction of
Putrajaya Wetland.

Malaysia's new Federal Government Administrative Centre of Putrajaya is not just a

new city. It also represents the coming-of-age of Malaysia as a dynamic and
progressive member of the global community committed to the concept of
sustainable development.

Wetland - definition
Wetland are defined by the Convention of wetland of International Importance (the
Ramsar Convention 1971) as; "Land inundated with temporary or permanent water
that is usually slow moving or stationary, shallow, fresh, brackish or saline, where the
inundation determines the type and productivity of soils and the plant and animal
communities".

Constructed wetland
The role of wetland in water resource management is fast gaining ground resulting in
the construction wetland in most developed countries. Constructed wetland are man-
made system that involves altering the existing terrain to simulate wetland
conditions. They primarily attempt to replicate the treatment that has been observed
to occur when polluted water enters the natural wetland. These wetland have been
seen to purify water by removing organic compounds and oxidizing ammonia,
reducing nitrates and removing phosphorus. The mechanisms are complex and
involve bacterial oxidation, filtration, sedimentation and chemical precipitation.

Most constructed wetland attempt to imitate the ecosystem's biochemical function as

filtration and cleansing agents, followed closely by the hydrological function that is
centred on flood mitigation.

Functions of wetland
The use of constructed wetland to treat urban surface runoff and remove nutrients
from diverse sources in rural catchments has received much attention lately. Thus,
wetland are essentially the filtering area, the 'kidneys' of the catchment, intercepting
water flow, trapping sediment and pollutants, removing toxic substances (pesticides,
herbicides, metals) and assimilating nutrients and energy derived from the upstream
catchment area.

Wetland has the ability to filter nutrients from inflowing waters which represent the
base of many food chains that not only start and finish within the wetland but extend
beyond the wetland complex itself. Where there is food there is life, and hence
wetland act as breeding grounds, nurseries and homes to numerous plants,
invertebrates, frogs, reptiles, fish and waterbirds. In fact, wetland are best known as
habitats for fish and waterbirds.
Wetland are becoming increasingly popular as ecotourist destinations. Their
biodiversity, open space, aesthetics and the development of public amenities make
them attractive propositions for passive recreational activities and social pursuit.

It is generally accepted that wetland have the potential to attenuate flooding.

Wetland provide retention storage for storm water by spreading the water over a
wide flat area. Wetland vegetation retards surface water flow to varying extents
depending on the type, density and water depth.

Wetland are a fertile ground for scientific study and research. In fact, there is also a
growing interest in wetland among school children who are beginning to embark on a
voyage of discovery of their environment by being introduced to this dynamic
ecosystem. This may well be the first step in public education of wetland, which are
the collective responsibilities of all users.

Putrajaya Lake
The 400 hectares Putrajaya Lake was created by inundating the valleys of Sungai
Chuau and Sungai Bisa. Construction was undertaken in two phases. The first phase
of approximately 110 hectares involved the construction of a temporary dam across
Sungai Chuau.

The dam was completed in May 1998 and the impoundment of the Phase 1A Lake
commenced in September 1998 and was fully inundated in January 1999. The lake
has been primarily designed to enhance the aesthetic appeal of Putrajaya. It is also
planned to be used for sport and recreation as well as a tourist attraction.

Studies of the Putrajaya catchment, however, showed that the water carried elevated
level of pollutants derived from upstream sources and outside of the Putrajaya
development boundary. Future development of the Sungai Chuau catchment is
expected to increase run-off and pollutant concentration will either be maintained or
increased.

This is expected to result in increased pollutant loadings in Sungai Chuau and Sungai
Bisa which drain into Putrajaya Lake. As a result, the use of constructed wetland as a
natural treatment system was recommended to treat primary upstream inflow to the
lake. The wetland is to be complemented by riparian parks and gross pollutant traps.

Putrajaya wetland is the first man-made wetland in Malaysia and one of the largest
fully constructed freshwater wetland in the tropics. The 197 hectare project resulted
in transforming an oil palm site into wetland ecosystem with the helps of modern
technology and stringent environmental management methods in design and
construction.

The wetland straddle the water courses of Sungai Chuau, Sungai Bisa and three
tributaries. Their primary function is to ensure that the water entering the lake meets
the standard set by Perbadanan Putrajaya.

To achieve this, the wetland have been planted with a variety of aquatic plants that
act as a natural filtration system, removing nutrients and pollutants from the
catchment water. They treat natural run-off from the 50.9 sq km Sungai Chuau
catchment.
In addition to being a water cleansing and filtration system, the wetland also help in
flood mitigation, nature conservation, ecotourism, recreation, research and education
and protection against soil erosion. Construction of Putrajaya wetland began in March
1997 and was completed in August 1998.

How To Get To Wetland Park Putrajaya

From Kuala Lumpur, take a Cityliner bus No 868 in front of Sinar Kota near Puduraya.
The bus costs you RM2.70 and you can directly stop at the main entrance of the
Wetland.

Visiting Hours:
 Park : Daily 7.00 am - 7.00 pm (including public holidays)
 Nature Interpretation Centre : Daily 9.00 am - 6.00 pm (including public holidays).
 Contact Number : 03-8887 7773

Putrajaya Wetlands is divided into 2 components - Taman Wetland Putrajaya and

Lake Recreational Centre. Taman Wetland Putrajaya is very much the public face of
the wetlands and serves as a gateway to Putrajaya Wetlands while the Lake
Recreational Centre serves as a water recreational spot.

In his paper “Recreational and Educational Opportunities at Putrajaya Wetlands”,

Richard Lim Szu Ang, Director of Operation, Stagno Vic Sdn Bhd, said both Taman
Wetland Putrajaya and Lake Recreational Centre offered various recreational and
educational activities and have attracted numerous people who visited the places for
different reasons. The most visited spots are the Look-out Tower, Nature Interpretive
Centre and Flamingo Pond.

The Putrajaya Lake & Wetland

The Wetland

The Putrajaya constructed wetland system comprises of six arms with 23 cells as
described in Figure 1. All the arms (except of Upper Bisa) eventually discharge to the
Central Wetland, which make the 24 cells in all, before the water flows down into the
Putrajaya Lake. They straddle the water courses of Sungai Chuau, Sungai Bisa and
three tributaries. A series of rockfilled weirs was constructed along the six arms of
the wetland to divide the 24 cells. Although all the six arms are connected, they
differ in size, depths, plant communities and pollutant loads that it is designed to
handle.
Figure 1 : The Putrajaya Wetland Cells and its location

The basic processes happening in the cell zones are illustrated in Figure 2. Typical longitudinal cross-
section and typical layout of a wetland cell are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 respectively.

The design features a multi-cell multi-stage system with flood retention capability to maximize the spac
available for colonisation by water plants. The roles of the plants are to intercept pollutants and to provi
a root zone where bacteria and microorganisms can flourish to assist in filtering and removing water
pollutants.

Figure 2 : Various reactions happening in the wetland cells

Figure 3: Longitudinal section of a typical wetland cell showing the Zone of Intermittent Inundation (F2 a
F1), Wetland Zone (Zone 1, 2 and 3) and the Open Pond

Figure 4 : Typical Layout Of A Wetland Cell

The Putrajaya Wetland cells and its structural components are the keys to the
functioning of the wetlands for cleansing the river water. They are important in
maintaining the broader 'functional capacity' and objectives of the wetlands, which
include providing a habitat for local fauna, primarily mammals, water birds, reptiles,
amphibians, fish and invertebrates; hydrological modification (by providing flood
detention area and reducing peak discharges and flow velocities) and recreation (the
wetlands are used for both passive and active recreation, and parkland for aesthetic
and recreational value).
The principle features of the wetland are shown below :

Principal Features of Putrajaya Wetlands (Area in hectares)

Planted Open Weirs & Zone of Intermittent Maintenance
Total Area
Area Water Islands Inundation Tracks
197.20 77.70 76.80 9.60 23.70 9.40

Details of the wetland cell structural components and the wetland vegetation
species and its proper location within the cell are explained and summarized below :

The Wetland Cell Structural Components And Its Function

Zone Component Functions
Inlet Inlet • Allows water to flow into the wetland cell

Energy • Protects the bed of chnnels and inlet and

dissipater reduces erosion by reducing the energy of
incoming water. May be applicable to any
part of the wetlands where there are
potential erosion problems.
Macrophyte Reed beds • Waterplants provide support for microbial
biofilms which facilitate nutrient
Sedimentation transformation, organic flocculation,
forebay filtration of pollutants, inhance
sedimentation and provide oxygen to
sediments.
• Enhances bacterial decomposition of organic
matter.
• Increases biodiversity.
• Provides a range of habitats for macro and
micro fauna.
• Provides visual contrast through different
textures, sizes, shapes and colours.

• Enhances settling of finer soil and sediment

particles (that would otherwise pass through
a GPT) and associated pollutants such as
heavy metals, nutrients and pesticides
adsorbed by the sediments.
• Reduces sediment loads to reed beds
ensuring higher clarity for effective plant
growth.

• Improves water quality both within and

Open water Open water
downstream of the cell and, in turn, the
ecosystem health.
• Allows UV (sunlight) penetration into the
water for disinfection.
• Enhances mixing of the water and reduces
short circuiting of flows.

• Provides a deep water habitat for fauna,

 refuge during drought, landing and secure
area for waterfowl. Meshes into the planted
areas thereby enhancing visual beauty.
Island • Provides isolated habitats for birds.

• Provides a visual focus for the wetlands.

ZII Zone Edge water • Create habitat divesity along the shoreline
plants for invertebrates and wading birds.
• Improve water quality.

• Physical barrier to human intrusion to the

water.
Outlet Zone Water level Allows capture of highly polluted flows for retrieval
control or recycling.Allows water level control for several
structure purposes including:

Trash racks • Operation and maintenance;

• Maintaining predetermined water regimes
Weir for greater habitat diversity or to specifically
encourage particular species of flora/fauna;
• Manipulation of water level for waterplant
establishment.

Prevent litter and debris entering the

cell. Impounds stream flows to create a pool. Sets
normal predetermined designed operating water
level in wetland.
The Wetland Vegetation Species And Its Proper Location Within The Structural
Components Of A Wetland Cell
Wetland Typical
Strucural Water Vegetation Typical Species
Component Depth
Shallow Marsh (~0.3m) Shallow marshes can be
expected to have a regular Eleocharis spiralis, E.
drying cycle or dry out in variegata, Scleria
some years. Under this type cyathophora, Carex
of hydrological regime a indica, Cyperus
diverse vegetation will pulcherrimus,
develop (rushes, sedges and Fimbristylis spp.. A
leafy herbs). The actual number of
composition of the vegetation dicotyledonous species
can be expected to change as will also occur in this
a response to fluctuations in zone, eg. Clerodendron
water level. Vegetation cover spp., Lagerstroemia
can also vary from sparse to spp., Polygonum spp.,
dense depending on the Ludwigia spp.
species and the water cycle.
Marsh (~0.6m) As depth of inundation and Scirpus mucronatus,
duration increases vegetation Eleocharis dolcis,
diversity tends to decrease. Scirpodendron ghaeri,
Permanently inundated Fuirena umbellata,
marshes with water depths Lipocarpha chinesis.
 greater than 0.6m are
frequently dominated just a
few species which will often
form a very dense cover of
vegetation. The actual
species will tend to differ
from marsh to marsh.
However the species that
tend to dominate these
habitats are nearly always
clonal species with large
underground rhizomes.
Deep Marsh (~1.0m) As water depth increases the
diversity of emergent marsh
vegetation is further limited
by the size of the plant. To
survive in deep water plants
must be able to grow to aboutLepironia articulata,
twice the water depth. The Eleocharis
vegetation of deep marshes ochrostachys,
is generally of medium to Eleocharis retroreflexa,
sparse cover and dominated Phragmites karka,
by just a few species. The Phragmites australis.
species that tend to dominate
these habitats are always
large clonal species with
substantial underground
rhizome systems.
Pond (~ 1.5m) Water depths greater than
1.5m will restrict most
emergent aquatic
macrophytes and thus result
in open water zones. Many
submerged and floating
plants are capable of
colonising and growing in this
type of environment.
Myriophyllum,
Depending on the turbidity it
Potamogeton,
is almost inevitable that this
Vallisneria,
zone will be colonised by
Nymphaea Weed
some aquatic plants. Regular
Risks: Salvinia molesta,
monitoring of these zones will
Eichhornia crassipes,
be required to ensure any
Pistia stratiotes,
invasion of an undesirable
Ipomea aquatica.
weed species is quickly
detected and controlled.
Colonisation of these zones
by acceptable species a
benefit as they contribute to
enhanced sedimentation and
fine particle filtration and
provide habitat for aquatic
invertebrates and fish.
Wetland Typical Vegetation Typical Species
Strucural Water
 Component Depth
Deep (~ 2.5m) Water depths greater than Myriophyllum,
Pond/Sediment 2.5m will restrict most rooted Potamogeton,
Trap emergent and submerged Vallisneria, Nymphaea.
aquatic macrophytes
particularly in constructed Weed Risks: The
wetlands designed for water likelihood of significant
quality control where water submerged plant
turbidity becomes a limiting growth in these zone is
factor. Typically only floating relatively low but the
plants will occur in these risk of floating weed
zones. As for ponds, regular invasion is very high.
monitoring of these zones will For exampleSalvinia
be required to ensure molesta, Eichhornia
undesirable weed species are crassipes, Pistia
detected and controlled. stratiotes, Ipomea
aquatica.
Where these zones are
positioned at the inlet to a
wetland they are the primary
sediment traps for the
treatment system so any
vegetation that does happen
to establish or develop will be
regularly disturbed when
sediment is being removed
from the pond.
Wetland The edges and surrounding
Fringing Zones area of wetlands typically
experience large variations in
inundation depth, frequency
and duration. The zone
immediately above and below
normal water level usually
experiences the greatest
variation. This zone
commonly supports fringing
marsh and swamp vegetation
adapted to regular but short
duration inundation. With
increasing elevation
inundation frequency and
duration in particular
decreases. Under these less
restrictive conditions for plant
growth a range of woody
vegetation can develop.
Typical examples are riparian
and floodplain swamp forests.
Fringing above Hydrologically this zone has This zone can support a
Marsh/Swamp NWL similar inundation depths as great number of
the Shallow Marsh zone but species and suitable
(~ 0.3m) normally increased frequency plants can be selected
and reduced duration. As a from the following
result there are a very great genera, eg. Cyperus,
 number of plants that can
occur in this zone ranging
from sedges and rushes
through leafy herbs to woody
shrubs and trees.
Swamp Forest above
NWL Hydrologically this zone is
very well watered with
(~ 0- regular inundation periods
1.5m) but is also regularly drained
well enough to support large
woody vegetation. Tropical
swamp forests are typically
very diverse systems both
floristically and structurally
and dominated by small to
medium sized trees.
Eleocharis, Limnophila,
Ludwigia, Polygonum,
Pandanus, Eugenia,
Barringtonia.
This zone can support a
great number of
species and suitable
plants can be selected
from the following
genera, Eugenia,
Dipterocarpus,
Fagraea, Ficus, Ixora,
Lithocarpus, Litsea,
Pandanus, Podocarpus,
Shorea, Tarenna,
Tristania,
Xanthophyllum.

The Putrajaya Lake

The lake is at the southern part of the wetland. About 60% of the lake water flow
from the wetland and the remaining 40% is the direct discharge from bordering
promenade. The 20 m width promenade is the buffer feature along the lake
shorelines. The water surface area of the whole lake is about 400 hectares. The total
volume of the whole lake water is about 23.5 million cubic meters and the water
depth is in the range of 3 to 14 meters. The lake has been planned to cater for multi-
functional uses, including recreation, fishing, water sports and water transport. The
lake and its foreshores also form Putrajaya's most popular resource for informal
recreation as a waterfront city.

The principle features of the lake are shown below.

Principal Features of Putrajaya Lake

Average Average
Catchments Water Surface Storage Average
Catchments Retention
Area Level Area Volume Depth
Inflow Time
400 ha
RL 21.00 23.50 200 million
50.90 KM2 6.60 M 132 days
M mil. M3
liters
(4 K M2 )
Putra Wetlands
Covering a total area of 335ha, the wetland environment comprises Taman Wetland
(138ha) and the wetland areas (197ha). One of the most popular tourist attractions in
Putrajaya, the wetlands consist of 24 wetland cells built along the arms of the Chua
and Bisa rivers.

Marshes and swamps were developed in there cells by transplanting more than 70
species of wetland plants form the Putrajaya Wetland Nursery. Twenty-four species of
indigenous fish were later introduced into the wetland cells to enhance their
biological diversity.

A good starting point to explore Putrajaya Wetlands is to visit Taman Wetland. As the
gateway to the wetlands area, Taman Wetland house a Nature Interpretation Centre
and a 25 meter high look-out tower which offers a bird's eye view of Putrajaya. Within
the park, there are two marked trails with interpretative boards, a flamingo pond,
picnic areas and other public amenities.

Taman Wetland is also a wildlife sanctuary, attracting a wide variety of animals to the
combined terrestrial-aquatic wetland environment. Several species of local
marshland birds and water birds including the Little Egret, the Little Green Heron and
Cinnamon Bittern, and migratory birds form Northern Hemisphere have been spotted
there. A pair of binoculars will come in handy for bird watching. Visitors to the park
can also enjoy a leisurely walk, jog or cycle along its bicycle track.
Putra Wetland

In the Nature Interpretation Centre, there is a souvenir shop, a wetland diorama,

wetland handicraft displays, an AV room and Wetland Café. The Centre, being the
focal point for public education on ecotourism, provides information about the
wetland plant bed filtration system, conservation of wetland habitats and also
focuses on the uses of wetland products.

Putrajaya Wetlands, believed to be the largest constructed freshwater wetlands in

the tropics, is the first one of its kind in Malaysia. Where geology, hydrology and
biology have created natural wetlands, the Putrajaya Wetland carved out from rubber
and oil palm plantations is the result of human ingenuity and technology.

Read more: Putrajaya Wetlands - Kuala Lumpur Hotels & Travel

Guide http://www.kuala-lumpur.ws/putrajaya/wetland.htm#ixzz1Hmwk1Ok7

Putrajaya Wetlands in Putrajaya, Malaysia is believed to be the largest constructed

freshwater wetlands in the tropics .It has a total area of 200 hactares (3.35 km²).
Putrajaya Wetlands consists of 24 wetland cells, Wetlands Park (Taman Wetland) and
the other Wetlands areas. The Wetland now is also a wildlife sanctuary which attracts
a huge variety of animals to the combined terrestrial-aquatic wetland environment.
Several species of local marshland birds and water birds including the Little Egret,
the Little Green Heron and Cinnamon Bittern, and migratory birds form Northern
Hemisphere have been spotted there. Binoculars will come in handy for bird
watching. The visitors can also enjoy a leisurely walk, jog or cycle along its bicycle
track.

The Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) is a small white heron. It is the Old World
counterpart to the very similar New WorldSnowy Egret.

Little Egrets eat fish, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, and reptiles. They stalk their
prey in shallow water, often running with raised wings or shuffling its feet to disturb
small fish. They may also stand still and wait to ambush prey.

The Green Heron (Butorides virescens) is a smallheron of North and Central America.
It was long considered conspecific with its sister species theStriated Heron (Butorides
striata), and together they were called "Green-backed Heron". Birds of thenominate
subspecies (no matter which taxonomicarrangement is preferred) are extremely rare
vagrants to western Europe; individuals from the Pacific coast of North America may
similarly stray as far as Hawaii.[2]

The habitat of the Green Heron is small wetlands in low-lying areas. The species is
most conspicuous during dusk and dawn, and if anything these birds
are nocturnal rather than diurnal, preferring to retreate to sheltered areas in
daytime. They feed actively during the day, however, if hungry or provisioning young.
Shore-living individuals adapt to the rhythm of the tides. They mainly eat small fish,
frogs and aquatic arthropods, but may take any invertebrate orvertebrate prey they
can catch, including such animals likeleeches and mice. Green Herons are intolerant
of other birds - including conspecifics - when feeding and are not seen to forage in
groups. They typically stand still on shore or in shallow water or perch upon branches
and await prey. Sometimes they drop food, insects, or other small objects on the
water's surface to attract fish, making them one of the few known tool-using species.
They are able to hover briefly to catch prey.[2]

The Cinnamon Bittern or Chestnut Bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus) is a

small bittern. It is of Old World origins, breeding in tropical Asia from Pakistan to Sri
Lanka east toChina and Indonesia. It is mainly resident, but some northern
birds migrate short distances.

This is a small species at 38 cm length, with a short neck and longish bill. The male is
uniformly cinnamon above and buff below. The female's back and crown are brown,
and the juvenile is like the female but heavily streaked brown below.

When surprised on its nest or concerned, it assumes the characteristic attitude

of bitterns, aptly termed the On-Guard. The neck is stretched perpendicularly, bill
pointing skyward, while the bird freezes, becoming astonishingly obliterated amongst
its reedy environment.[2]

Their breeding habitat is reedbeds. They nest on platforms of reeds in shrubs. 4-6
eggs are laid. They can be difficult to see, given their skulking lifestyle and reedbed
habitat, but tend to emerge at dusk, when they can be seen creeping almost cat-like
in search of frogs.
Cinnamon Bitterns feed on insects, fish and amphibians.
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