A4112

Environmental Systems/MEP

Columbia University
School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Overview
• Loss and Gain Balance
• Conduction
• Material Properties
• Moisture Transfer
• Thermal Mass
• Infiltration
• Total Heat Loss

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 Thermal Balance
Thermal balance occurs when the
sum of all heat gains and losses is
zero.

Qc + Qv + Qr + Qi + Qe = 0

Qc = Conductive Loss
Qv = Ventilation Heat Loss
Qr = Radiant Loss
Qi = Internal Gains
Qe = Evaporative Loss

Thermal balance is REQUIRED for

a stable indoor condition

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Building Envelope
The building envelope serves as an
environmental mediator and affects the
energy equation significantly.
significantly
It needs to balance often contradicting
goals to optimize the overall
performance of the façade.

Examples of such contradictions are:

– Solar Heat Gain vs. Daylighting
– Solar Heat Gain vs. Thermal
St
Storage
– Thermal Storage vs. Daylighting
– Natural Ventilation vs. Convection
– Heat Gain/ Natural Lighting vs.
Conduction
Floor Losses
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 Building Envelope
TWO COMPONENTS
– Thermal Resistance
– Thermal Mass Roof
Losses

Infiltration / The rate of heat loss

Ventilation from a room = the
sum of the heat
Window
Losses losses through the
i di id l
individual Wall Losses
components.

Floor Losses
Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Envelope Heat Transfer

When heat passes out of a building through a structure, all three modes of
heat transfer are used and a composite heat transfer calculation can be
carried out to approximate to the heat flow in steady state
state.

CONDUCTION

RADIATION

CONVECTION

inside outside

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 Conduction
• Heat transferred directly through a material (e.g. wood,
concrete)
• Function of conductivity (k), thickness (L), area (A), temperature
difference (T)

k A
Q  AT  UAT  T
L R
• Conductivity: bulk material quality,
quality independent of thickness
• Conductance: (aka the U-value): specific material quality (of
specific makeup or thickness)
• Resistance: (aka the R-value): reciprocal of the conductance
(i.e. R=1/U)

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Conductivity (k)
material specific value and
depends partly on the density
off the
th material
t i l – steel
t l has
h a
high conductivity whilst wood
has a low conductivity and
gases even less.

The lower the k value, the

better its insulating effect.

Note: 1in. Polystyrene has

the same conductance as
5in. glass

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 The U-value
• The U-value of a construction is a composite calculation which
adds the effect of heat transfer through each surface and makes
an allowance
ll ffor th
the conductive
d ti and d convective
ti h heatt ttransfer
f iin
the form of surface factors and resistances.
• The overall thermal conductance/transmittance is described as:

1 1
U overall  
R
n
R1  R2  R3 ...  Rn

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Heat transfer through a wall

Unventilated Cavity
Resistance (Rc) = 1.02 h-ft2-°F/Btu
(>3/4” wide and unventilated)

Resistance of a layer of given

thickness [in] =
Thickness
k

inside outside

External
E t l Surface
S f Resistance
R i t
(Rso) = 0.34 h-ft2-°F/Btu
(Sheltered Location =0.45
Internal Surface Resistance
(Rsi) = 0.69 h-ft2-°F/Btu Severe Location =0.17)

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 U-Value Calculation

Property or Material Thickness Conductivity Resistance

(in) (btu-in/h-ft²-°F) (h-ft²-°F/btu)
External Surface resistance 0.34
Brick outer skin 6 5 1.20
Unventilated Cavity 1.02
Insulation 2 0.2 10.00
Gyp. Board 0.375 1.2 0.31
Internal Surface resistance 0.69
Total Resistance 13.56

U-Value (btu/h-ft²-°-F) 0.07

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

U-Value Calculation
The effect of added insulation

Property or Material Thickness Conductivity Resistance

(in) (btu-in/h-ft²-°F) (h-ft²-°F/btu)
External Surface resistance 0.34
Brick outer skin 6 5 1.20
Unventilated Cavity 1.02
Insulation 6 0.2 30.00
Gyp. Board 0.375 1.2 0.31
I
Internal
l Surface
S f resistance
i 0 69
0.69
Total Resistance 33.56

U-Value (btu/h-ft²-°F) 0.03

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 U-Value Calculation
Note that you cannot add together U Values of different
elements juxtaposed – you must add the Resistances U + U = 0.07 + 0.07 =
together
g and take the inverse. ie 0.14 Btu/h-ft²-°F

Property or Material Thickness Conductivity Resistance

(in) (btu-in/h-ft²-°F) (h-ft²-°F/btu)
External Surface resistance 0.34
Brick outer skin 6 5 1.20
Unventilated Cavity 1.02
Insulation 2 0.2 10.00
Brick inner skin 0.375 1.2 0.31
Brick outer skin 6 5 1.20
Unventilated Cavity 1.02
Insulation 2 0.2 10.00
Brick inner skin 0.375 1.2 0.31
Internal Surface resistance 0.69
Total Resistance 26.10

U-Value (btu/h-ft²-°F) 0.04

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

U-Value Calculation

FOR A CAVITY TO BE EFFECTIVE AS AN

INSULATOR, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT
CONVECTION CURRENTS WITHIN THE
VOID ARE AVOIDED. NORMALLY THIS
REQUIRES THE CAVITY TO BE BETWEEN
¾” and 3” WIDE

X
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 Temperature Gradient
The ratio of temperature changes inside a
structure is proportional to the ratio of the thermal
resistances.
i t ΔT = R
ΔT Tt Rt
R
INSIDE
TEMPERATURE
70ºF 50%RH
OUTSIDE
TEMPERATURE
14ºF, 75% RH

Tt
Ti To
Rt

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

For steady state conditions,

Temperature Gradient the heat flow that passes
through each material is the
A same as through the
QT  (Ti  To )
RT assembly.
A Q (T  T ) Q R
QT  (T1  To )  T  1 o  T1  To  T 1
R1 A R1 A
QT  R2 Q R Q R Q R Q R
T2  T1  ,T3  T2  T 3 ,T4  T3  T 4 ,T5  T4  T 5 ,Ti  T5  T 6
A A A A A
T5 T4

Ti=70oF, 50%RH
T3 T2
T1

To=14oF, 75%RH
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 Temperature Gradient
Temperature Gradient Calculation

Assembly U-Value (btu/h-ft²-°F) 0.07

 T (°F) 56
knowing: Qdot=U*A* T
Qdot/area 4.13
Property or Material Thickness Conductivity Resistance Temperature
(in) (btu-in/h-ft²-°F) (h-ft²-°F/btu) (°F)

To 14.0
T1 (ext. surf) 0.69 16.8
T2 (brick) 6 5 1.20 21.8
T3 (air) 1.02 26.0
T4 (insulation) 2 0.2 10.00 67.3
T5 (gyp. board) 0.375 1.2 0.31 68.6
Ti 0.34 70.0
Total Resistance 13.56

U-Value (btu/h-ft²-°F) 0.07

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Air at 70oF and 50% RH has a dew point temperature of 50oF

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 Moisture Movement in Structures

INSIDE OUTSIDE
Warm, moist Cool air,
air possibly
saturated but
@
@
High Vapor
Pressure Low Vapor
Pressure
Interstitial
Condensation in
Structure

Dewpoint

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Location of Vapor Barriers

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 Cold Bridges

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Cold Bridges
*>12.4°C *>14.7°C

12.0 14.0
12.0
10.0
10.0
8.0 8.0
6.0
6.0
4.0

*<5.0°C *<2.9°C

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 Cold Bridges

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Cold Bridges

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 Detailing to avoid
Cold Bridges

In every envelope detail the

goal is to be able to draw a
continuous non-crossing lines
for:
Thermal separation
Vapor separation

Rule of thumb:
The vapor barrier is always
located on the warm side of the
insulation.

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Ground Heat Losses

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 Insulation against Ground Heat Losses

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Transparent Elements – Single Glazing

GLASS IS A POOR INSULATOR.

FOR A SINGLE GLAZING THE
MAIN RESISTANCE IS
DETERMINED BY THE HEAT
TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
INSIDE AND OUTSIDE
Ri = 0.69 h-ft2-°F/btu
Rglas = 0.05 h-ft2-°F/btu
Ro = 0.34 h-ft2-°F/btu

Inside Outside

Glazing U-Value =0.9 – 1.0 Btu/h-ft2-°F

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 Transparent Elements – Double Glazing
There are a number of
ways to improve the
performance and
p
decrease the heat loss
through the glazing
50% One way is to use double-
glazing, with an air space
between the panes.
Rcav = 1.02 h-ft2-°F/btu

Inside Outside
50%

Glazing U-Value =0.49-0.52 btu/h-ft2-°F

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Transparent Elements – LowE Glazing

Adding a low-e coating
to the inner surface of
the outer p
pan reduces
the radiation transfer
between the two glass
surfaces and reduces
the heat loss.

Inside Outside

Glazing U-Value = 0.29-0.35 btu/h-ft2-°F

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 Transparent Elements – LowE Glazing

Replacing the cavity air

with an inert gas such as
Argon, Krypton or Xenon
further reduces the heat
loss by reducing the
convection and conduction
through the cavity

Inside Outside

Glazing U-Value = 0.22-0.32 btu/h-ft2-°F

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Thermal Mass: time lag, decrement factor

The time lag of a construction relates to the delay of the peak amplitude
relative to the time that the peak is experienced
experienced.

The decrement factor is the reduction in peak amplitude that the material
achieves.

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 Thermal Mass

outside

outside

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Thermal Mass

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 Construction Comparison

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Construction Comparison

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 Thermal Capacitance
The main disadvantage of thermally massive buildings is perceived to be that they
consume more energy for heating than lightweight buildings because of the time
taken to heat the structure up each day. This may be true in very intermittently used
buildings (eg Schools) but if insulation standards are high the combination of
capacitance and insulation prevents this from being an issue.

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Thermal Mass

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 Thermal Mass

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Overview

INFILTRATION

Infiltration = uncontrolled by cracks or openings

Ventilation = controlled for fresh air demand

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 Heat Loss due to Infiltration
The infiltration of air constitutes a significant proportion of the heat loss from a
building.

Infiltration / Ventilation

The heat loss due to the infiltration through windows and gaps in the building structure is
calculated from the equation:

Q  VcpT
At 70ºF:
Density of air= 0.075lbs/ft3
.
V ... Volume of air flowing in/out (ft³/h) Specific Heat =0.24btu/lbs*ºF
 cp .. Density (lbs/ft3)* specific heat (btu/lbs*ºF)
 T .. Inside/outside temperature difference (ºF)

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Air Change Rate (ACH)

Infiltration / Ventilation

Definition: air change rate = volume flow rate / room volume [ac/h or 1/h]
(number of air volumes exchanged per hour)
typical values:
air tight
g building:
g 0.1 - 0.2 ac/h
low leakage 0.5 - 1.0 ac/h
basic ventilation 1.0 - 2.0 ac/h
open sloped window 3.0 - 5.0 ac/h
With normal properties for air applied this heat loss can be approximated as:

ac
Q  0.018  Vroom  T
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 Detailing
So how to stop Infiltration?
Detailing!
– Sealing gaps around
window and door frames
– Closing junctions and
sealing vapor control
membranes
– Using bars rather than just
sealants.

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Unwanted infiltration represents an increasing proportion

of heat losses from buildings as the insulation levels
4. Infiltration: Air Change Rate (ACH)
increase. Test for infiltration with door blower test.

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 Steady State Heat Loss
The sizing of heating equipment is based on the calculation of total heat
loss due to conduction and infiltration. This calculation assumes a steady
state condition with a design indoor temperature (e g 70°F) and a outdoor
(e.g.
temperature that represents a worst case (usually coldest winter day,
during the occupied hours).

The calculated heat loss (Btu/h) for this condition can be used to determine
the maximum amount of heating that needs to be supplied to a space in
order to achieve thermal balance.

This calculation summarizes all conductive heat losses through the

enclosing construction elements (based on their size, temperature
difference and thermal resistance) and infiltration losses (based on the
infiltration rate and the room volume).

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Conductive Heat Loss

Having identified the U-Value of Q  UAT

each of facade elements,, the
rate of Heat Flow through the U
given surface area of the
element is calculated by the
equation:
.
Q

Inside Outside

T = Tin-Tout
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 Calculation
Example for calculation of total heat loss from a simple space

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

Calculation
For the given geometry the heat loss can be calculated in a tabulated form. Just surface areas
between spaces with a different temperature are taken into account.

TOTAL HEAT LOSS FROM A ROOM Volume (ft )

3

8,750
Surface Area U-Value Temp Difference U * A * T
2 2 o o
(ft ) (btu/h-ft - F) ( F) (btu/h)

Wall adjacent to exterior 780 0.079 56 3,451

Wall adjacent to interior 315 0.24 10 756
Window adjacent to exterior 210 0.92 56 10,819
Floor 700 0.084 20 1,176
Roof 721 0.044 56 1,777
Total Fabric Loss 17,978
Infiltration Rate 1.0 AC/hr 58 9,135

Total Heat Loss (btu/h) 27,113

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 Calculation – Alternative Windows
Improving the windows in this class room to double pane windows reduces the steady state heat
loss by 22%.

TOTAL HEAT LOSS FROM A ROOM Volume (ft )

3

8,750
Surface Area U-Value Temp Difference U*A*T
2 2 0 o
(ft ) (Btu/h-ft - F) ( F)

Wall adjacent to exterior 780 0.079 56 3,451

Wall adjacent to interior 315 0.24 10 756
Window adjacent to exterior 210 0.42 56 4,939
Floor 700 0.084 20 1,176
Roof 721 0.044 56 1,777
Total Fabric Loss 12,098
Infiltration Rate 1.0 AC/hr 58 9,135

Total Heat Loss (btu/h) 21,233

Week 4: Building Heat Loss

The end
• Next week: building fabric gains

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