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3. What are zeolite, classify them and give its advantages and disadvantageous.
Zeolites are hydrated sodium aluminum silicate Na2Al2O. xSiO2. yH2O, where x = 2
to 10, y = 2 to 6. Zeolites are classified into a. natural zeolite – has porous structure
b. synthetic zeolite – has non porous structure.
Advantages: 1. residual hardness , 10 ppm 2. regeneration is simple 3. no sludge
is formed 4. equipment is compact 5. easy operation.
Disadvantages: 1. turbidity is to be removed 2. acidity water cannot be used 3.
softened water contains more sodium salts 4. water containing Fe, Mn make the
resin irreversible.
6. What are the problems faced in boilers while using drinking/hard water?
The problems are
a. sludge and scale formation.
b. priming and foaming.
c. boiler corrosion.
d. caustic embrittlement.
2
At steam temperature NaOH react with iron and form compound. This weakens the
metal strength. Metal become brittle.
11. Justify every soft water is not a demineralized water but every demineralized water
is soft water.
In soft water hardness giving ions are removed, all other ions are not removed. In
demineralized water all the ions are removed. DM water is softer water than the
softened water. It is the best water.
12. Why in DM water unit first cation exchanger is used and then anion resin is used.
Cation exchange resin is attacked by alkalis. The out let of anion exchanger is
alkaline, so it will affect the resin. But it is not affected by acids. The acid water of
cation exchanger is not affecting the anion exchanger resin.
1. high steam velocity 2. high water level 3. sudden boiling 4. poor boiler
design
priming control: 1. control water velocity 2. keeping water level is low 3. good
boiler design 4. treating the water.
16. What is desalination? Mention the methods of desalination.
The process of removal of sodium chloride from the sea water or brackish water is
called desalination.
Desalination is carried out by 1. distillation 2. freezing 3. electro dialysis
4. reverse osmosis.
18. What material is used as membrane in reverse osmosis method? Give the
advantages of it.
Cellulose acetate, cellulose butyrate.
Advantages:
1. ionic, nonionic and colloidal impurities are removed
2. life time of membrane is more, replacement is simple
3. good quality water is produced.
21. What are salts responsible to carbonate (temporary) and non carbonate
(permanent) hardness.
Carbonate hardness: - Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2
Non carbonate hardness – CaCl2, CaSO4, MgCl2, MgSO4
22. Why is demineralized water is preferred than zeolite method water for
boiler?
DM water does not contain any dissolved salts, zeolite treated water contain
sodium salts which cause caustic embrittlement.
23. What is the main advantage of reverse osmosis over ion exchange process?
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24. How many gram of FeSO4 dissolved per litre give 210 ppm of hardness? (Fe
= 56, S = 32, O = 16, Ca = 40, C = 12)
100 ppm od CaCO3 = 152 ppm of FeSO4
210 ppm of hardness = (152/100)210 = 319.2 ppm,
amount of ferrous sulphate to be dissolved = 319.2 mg.
25. Calculate the temporary hardness and total hardness of water sample
containing Mg(HCO3)2 = 73 mg/L, Ca(HCO3)2 = 162 mg/L, MgCl2 = 95 mg/L, CaSO4
= 136 mg/L.
Temporary hardness = (100/146) 73 + (100/162) 162 =150 mg/L
Permanent hardness = (100/95)95 + (100/136)136 = 200 mg/L
29. What are the chemicals used in phosphate and carbonate conditioning? How
they work?
Sodium phosphates, tri sodium, di sodium or mono sodium phosphate salts are
used for p[phosphate conditioning. Sodium carbonate is added for carbonate
conditioning. Phosphate ions form insoluble calcium phosphate, carbonate form
insoluble calcium carbonate. Both are removed by blow down.
UV treatment does not kill the bacteria, instead the radiation alters bacteria
cell DNA so that the organism is sterilized. The pathogens are inactivated and it will
not do any harmful actions. So it cannot grow further and cause disease.
Eriochrome black T- (EBT) indicator combines with Ca2+/Mg2+ ions and give wine red
colour. EDTA removes calcium ions from EBT complex, wine red colour is lost. This
is the end point.
Procedure
Standardization of EDTA
Temporary hardness
100 ml of the water sample in a beaker, Heated and filtered - made up to 100
ml using distilled water. 50 ml is titrated using EDTA solution. Let the volume be V3.
Temporary hardness
3. With a neat sketch explain the electro dialysis method of water treatment.
In this method direct current is applied through two membranes. The negative
and positive poles are kept outside the membranes. Sodium ions move to negative
pole Chloride ions move towards positive pole by passing through the membranes.
Due to this movement of ions, the ion concentration in the central
compartment decreases. Salt concentration increases in the outer two
compartments. On continuing this process the central compartment water becomes
drinking water.
The concentrated salt solutions are drained out and fresh brackish water is
admitted into the central compartment continuously for further salt removal.
When the membranes are ion selective membranes, cations with fixed
functional groups RSO3─, RCOO─ and anions groups R4N+Cl─ the electro dialysis
process is speeded up.
The electro dialysis cell consists of a large number of paired set of rigid plastic
membrane. Saline water is passed under a pressure of 5 to 6 kg.in -2 between
membrane pairs. The electric field is applied perpendicular to the direction of water
flow.
In the electro dialysis alternate water outlets are of pure water and concentrated
water
Advantage
It is a compact unit. But installation cost is more. The operative cost is less. If
the electricity is available easily it is the best available method.
4. What are the physical quality parameters of water? Explain their significance.
Physical parameters affecting water quality are colour, turbidity, taste and
odour, total dissolved solids
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Colour: colour is due to organic substance like tannin, inorganic salts like iron, and
dyes. Carcinogenic chemicals are organic dyes give colour. For use in industries like
textile, paper, food processing are severely affected by the presence of colour.
Turbidity: The turbidity is the suspension of impurities like clay, finely divided
insoluble impurities. The disease producing organisms are attached to the particles
and carry the disease to the consumers.
Turbid particles may interfere with the water softening process by coating on the
resins and reduce the ion exchange capacity.
Taste and odour: iron salts, chlorine, algae and decaying vegetative parts give
unpleasant taste, sulphides and mercaptons cause odour to water.
5. The hardness of 106 litres of water was completely removed by passing it through a
zeolite softener. The softener then require 4000 litres of sodium chloride solution
containing 100 g per litre for regeneration. Calculate the hardness of the water
sample (Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
6. Describe the demineralization process of softening of hard water. What are its
advantages over zeolite process. (Explain the reaction involved).
Ion exchange resins are cross linked polymers. The acid resins (RH +) contain
–COOH and –SO3H groups. It exchanges its hydrogen ions with all cations of water.
Anion exchange resins (R+OH-) contain quaternary ammonium hydroxide groups. It
exchange its hydroxide ions with the anions of water.
Process
The cation resins and anion resins are filled in separate columns.
Cation exchanger: The raw water is first sent to cation exchanger resins. The
exchange reactions are
H2R + (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+)Cl-, SO42- → R(Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+) + HCl, H2SO4
The outlet water is acidic. The outlet is sent to anion exchanging resins.
Anion exchanger: Here all anions are exchanged with hydroxide ions. Hydrogen ions
combine with hydroxide ions forming water. So neutral water is collected.
Regeneration
Cation resins regeneration
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When the exchanger exhausted, the conductivity increases. At this stage the
hydrochloric acid is admitted into the cation exchange resins in the reverse
direction. The cations are replaced by H+ ions, resin is washed to remove the excess
acid.
Advantages
1. Removes both cations and anions
2. Raw water of highly acidic or alkaline are also used for DM water production
3. the output water has very low or nil hardness
4. Zeolite removes only hardness causing ions, the total solids remain the same.
But demineralization removes all ions.
7.100 ml of water sample on titration with N/50 H2SO4 required 12.4 ml of the acid to
the phenolphalein end point and 15,2 ml of the methyl orange end point. Determine
the type of alkalinity present in the water.
8. 0.5 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in HCl and the solution is made upto 500 ml
with distilled water. 50 ml of the solution required 48 ml of EDTA solution for
titration. 50 ml of hard water sample required 15 ml of EDTA and after boiling
and filtering required 10 ml of EDTA solution. Calculate the hardness.
Extra questions
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OH─ + H+ → H 2O ------ 1
The volume of acid consumed upto the phenolphthalein end point of pink colour
disappearance corresponds to pH 8.3 (represented as P ml) reactions 1 & 2.
After the phenolphalein end point, methyl orange indicator is added into the
same water and the titration is continued till the end point of yellow to orange
colour appears. This point corresponds to reaction No. 3. (pH 4.5).
The total acid used to reach the methyl orange end point starting from zero
ml (including the acid added for the phenolphthalein end point) is called the total
alkalinity ‘M’ ml (P ml is included).
The conditions of calculating various form of alkalinity is given in the table
P=0 0 0 T
P=T P 0 0
P = ½T 0 2P 0
P < ½T 0 2P T-2P
P > ½T 2P - T 2(T-P) 0
Calculation
10. Write the boiler troubles faced when untreated water is used as boiler feed water.
The trouble caused by the boiler feed water are
1. carry over or priming and foaming.
2. scale and sludge forming.
3. corrosion.
4. caustic embrittlement.
Foaming
During the steam production formation of small permanent bubbles at the
water surface is called foaming. This foam is carried along the steam- priming.
Difference in salt concentration on the surface water and in the bulk water cause
foam formation. Presence of oil, finely divided solids accumulation of soluble salt in
water influence foaming.
Removal of foaming
1. The removal of foaming agents and foam stabilizing agents,
2. Clay, oil, suspended solids
3 giving blow down.
4. Providing cyclone baffle.
5. Addition of anti foaming agent
2. Sludge
The loose and slimy precipitate formed is called sludge, it is in suspension
and attach as a loosly at the boiler surface. Magnesium carbonate, magnesium
chloride, magnesium sulphate, calcium chloride are sludge forming salts.
Sludge prevention
1. Good soft water is to be used
2. Blow down of boiler drum water is to be regularly carried.
3. By adding good quality fresh water.
Scales
Fine particles are formed in the boiler water during evaporation. This firmly
sticking layer of salt is called scale. This layer is hard to remove.
Sulphate ions forms hard calcium sulphate scale. Iron and aluminum oxide are
trapped into the scales. Magnesium salts form magnesium hydroxide, silica deposit
on the inner sides of the boiler surface.
Disadvantages:
1. The scales are poor conductors,
2. Acts as an insulator of heat, consume more fuel
3. Boiler efficiency decreases.
Scale removal
1. The loose adherent scale is removed by wire brushing
2. Thermal shock is given to loosen the scales, and then removed by brushing.
3. Acids with complexing agents and anti corrosion agents are used.
4. Blow down is given to reduce salt saturation.
Corrosion
The reasons for corrosion are
1. presence of free acid in feed water
2. hydrolysis of salt, organic fatty acids, lube oils produce acid during
hydrolysis.
3. presence of dissolved gases like oxygen, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide
4. oxidation of manganese sulphide and hydrolysis to sulphric acid
5. formation of galvanic cell
Caustic embrittlement
Caustic embrittlement is a type of corrosion. When sodium carbonate present
sodium hydroxide forms.
Na2CO3 +H2O → NaOH + CO2
Sodium hydroxide enters in the minute hair line cracks, due to capillary action,
attack iron, form sodium ferrate.
11. Discuss the water softening by lime soda process. Mention its type.
Principle of softening
Calcium, magnesium, iron & aluminum ions are made as insoluble salts,
settled and filtered to give hardness free water. Calculated amount of milk of lime
and soda ash is added. The reactions are
Dissolved iron and aluminum salts also removed. Calcium chloride and
calcium sulphate coming due to lime reaction are removed by the soda ash reaction
Coagulation
The fine particles (silica, organic matter, clay) are in colloidal in size which
remain as suspended particles. Coagulating agents are added to settle the particles.
Aluminum salts are used as coagulating agents. For example aluminum
sulphate gives aluminum hydroxide & sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid is removed
by the alkalinity present in water.
The aluminum hydroxide is the coagulating agent attracts the colloidal particles and
starts the settling. If the water is acidic soda ash is added to neutralize the
sulphuric acid.
Filtration
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The coagulated settled water is passed through a filter bed. The particles are
fully removed and clear water is collected. The filter beds are cleaned when choked
by the particles and used again. Activated carbon filters are used to remove taste
and odour. Zeolite is used for removing if the water contains iron and manganese.
Disinfection
The disinfection or sterilization removes the harmful bacteria from the filtered
water. Chlorination is one method of disinfection. Bleaching powder for small scale
disinfection, chlorine gas for large scale disinfection are applied.
CaOCl2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl
HOCl → [O] + HCl
The hypochlorous acid liberates nascent oxygen. This nascent oxygen oxidize the
cell wall of the bacteria. The hypochlorite anion OCl- rupture the cell membrane.
The odour and bad taste producing organic chemicals are destroyed during
chlorination. So chlorinating the water till the break point chlorination is reached
ensures the removal of taste and odour producing chemicals.
Disinfection by ozonization
Ozone is a good disinfectant. Ozone release the nascent oxygen which is a
powerful oxidsing agent, react with the bacteria cells and kill them & organic
impurities are oxidized and eliminated.
O3 → O2 + [O]
Disinfection by ozonization
Ozone is a good disinfectant. Ozone release the nascent oxygen which is a
powerful oxidsing agent, react with the bacteria cells and kill them & organic
impurities are oxidized and eliminated.
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O3 → O2 + [O]
But ozone treatment removes bacteria, colour, odour, and taste without leaving any
residual effects to the water.
Disinfection by UV radiations
Ultraviolet radiation kill or deactivate many pathogens. UV treatment alters
cell DNA so that the organism is sterilized. This serves to inactivate the pathogen so
that it cannot multiply and cause disease. Low-pressure mercury arc lamp produce
UV radiation. The water is passed through the radiation tube or radiations are
passed to the flowing water.
The phosphate salts are selected based on the nature of the feed water. If the water
is acidic trisodium phosphate is used, if water is acidic sufficient sodium hydroxide
is also added.
Calgon conditioning
Sodium hexa meta phosphate (NaPO3)6 is called as calgon This calgon
combine with calcium ions in the boiler water and form highly soluble complex. This
prevents the calcium salt formation and deposition on the surface of the boiler.
The soluble calcium salt of calgon is removed by the blow down water.
Carbonate conditioning
Addition of carbonate ions make calcium as calcium carbonate and the
calcium carbonate become precipitate. The sulphate ions form soluble calcium
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The excess carbonate is converted into sodium hydroxide which cause caustic
embrittlement. Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + H2CO3
The water is treated before the use, Demineralization, reverse osmosis and
lime soda process are external treatment methods.
Write the answers for reverse osmosis process from Question 1, for
demineralization process from Question 6.
Water softening
Soluble ions like calcium, magnesium, iron & aluminum ions are made as
insoluble salts, settled and filtered to give hardness free water. Calculated amount
of milk of lime and soda ash is added. The reactions are
Calcium chloride and calcium sulphate formed during lime reaction are removed by
the soda ash reaction
Types of lime soda process Two types of lime soda process is in use. They are a.
cold lime soda process b. hot lime soda process
The raw water and the required chemicals are admitted in the central
column. The stirrer mixes the chemicals for uniform reaction. The reacted water
with the precipitate come upward from the bottom of the tank. The softened water
raises up through the fiber filter fitted at middle of the tank. The treated water is
collected at the top. Sludge is drained at the bottom.
The brackish water (salt water) is made as a drinking water using the electro
dialysis method. In this method direct current is applied through a membrane pairs.
Sodium ions move to negative pole. Chloride ions moves towards positive pole
through membrane.
So in the central compartment salt concentration decreases and in the other
two compartments the salt concentration increases.
The concentrated salt solutions are drained out and fresh brackish water is
admitted on continuous basis. When the membranes are ion selective membrane
permeable to cations with fixed functional groups RSO3─, RCOO─ and anions groups
R4N+Cl─ the electro dialysis process is speeded up.
The electro dialysis cell consists of a large number of paired set of rigid plastic
membrane. Saline water is passed under a pressure of 5 to 6 kgin-2 between
membrane pairs. The electric field is applied perpendicular to the direction of water
flow.
In the electro dialysis alternate streams are of pure water and salty water.
Advantage
It is a compact unit. But installation cost is more. The operative cost is less. If
the electricity is available easily it is the best method of water purification.
Unit -1
Why is demineralized water is preferred over zeolite method for use in boiler?
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Demineralized water does not contain any salts, where as zeolite water contains
sodium salts which cause caustic embrittlement.
What are zeolites? Mention the advantages and disadvantages of zeolite process.
It is a hydrated sodium aluminosilicate. General formula Na2O.Al2O3. x SiO2. Y H2O
x=2-10, y-2-6. It is porous used in water softening.
Advantages: 1. Residual hardness lea than 10 ppm 2. Regeration is simple 3. No
sludge formation compace and easy operation.
Disadvantagee: 1. Turbidity is to be remopved 2 acidic water canne=ot be treated
3. Softened water contain more sodium salts. Fe and Mn content water regeneration
is difficult.