Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Definitions
London can be defined in a number of different ways. The London region
of England, also commonly known as Greater London, is the area administered by
the Greater London Authority. The urban sprawl of the conurbation — or Greater
London Urban Area — covers a roughly similar area, with a slightly larger
population. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt. At London's core is the
small, ancient City of London which is commonly known as "The City" or
"Square Mile". Within London, both the City of London and the City of
Westminster have City status and both the City of London and the remainder of
Greater London are ceremonial counties. The current area of Greater London was
historically part of the counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and
Hertfordshire.
Forty percent of Greater London is covered by the London postal area. The
London telephone area code covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater
London, although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are
included. The area within the orbital M25 motorway is sometimes used to define
the "London area and the Greater London boundary has been aligned to it in
places. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer
London. It can also be informally split into North, South, East, West and often also
Central London.
Unlike most capital cities, London's status as the capital of the UK has
never been granted or confirmed officially — by statute or in written form.
[citation needed] Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional
convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten
constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the
Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the
permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.
The Romans may have marked the centre of Londinium with the London
Stone, still visible on Cannon Street. The coordinates of the nominal centre of
London (traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing
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Cross, near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall) are approximately
51°30′29″N, 00°07′29″W. Trafalgar Square has also become a central point for
celebrations and protests.
The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive
marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their current width. It has
been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow
underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.
The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water
level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused
by post-glacial rebound.[28] In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction
of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat.
While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2030, concepts
for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.
London has a temperate climate with regular but generally light precipitation
throughout the year - unlike the rest of the UK and even the nearby coast. London
is in fact among the driest of Europe's capitals, with water resources per head of
population equivalent to Israel.[30] The warmest month is July, with an average
temperature range at Greenwich of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C (56.5 to 73.0 °F). Record
high temperatures of up to 38.1 °C (101 °F) were recorded in different parts of
London on 10 August 2003.[31] The coolest month is January, averaging 2.4 °C to
7.9 °C (35.6 to 46.2 °F). Average annual precipitation is 583.6 mm (22.98 in),
with February on average the driest month.[32] Snow is relatively uncommon,
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particularly because heat from the urban area can make London up to 5 °C (9 °F)
hotter than the surrounding areas in winter. However light snowfall is seen on
some days most winters. London is in USDA Hardiness zone 9, and AHS Heat
Zone 2.[citation needed]
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£894,000 (as reported by the BBC in February 2007) with similar average outlay
in most of Central London.
The eastern side of London contains the East End and East London. The East End
is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant
population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.[citation
needed] The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial
development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as
part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea
Valley, which is being developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics.
[citation needed]
Built environment
A great many monuments pay homage to people and events in the city. The
Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while
commemorating the Great Fire of
London which originated nearby. Marble
Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north
and south ends of Park Lane
respectively, have royal connections, as
do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is
a nationally-recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, providing a focal point for
the whole central area.
A panorama of modern London, taken from the Golden Gallery of Saint Paul’s
Cathedral
Parks and gardens
Main articles: Parks and open spaces in London and Royal Parks of London
Although there is some evidence of scattered Brython settlement in the area, the
first major settlement was founded by the Romans in AD 43, following the Roman
invasion of Britain. This settlement was called Londinium, commonly believed to
be the origin of the present-day name, although a Celtic origin is also possible.
The first London lasted for just seventeen years. Around AD 61, the Iceni tribe of
Celts led by Queen Boudica stormed London, burning it to the ground. The next,
heavily-planned incarnation of the city prospered and superseded Colchester as the
capital of the Roman province of Britannia in AD 100. At its height in the 2nd
century AD, Roman London had a population of around 60,000. However, by the
3rd century AD, the city started a slow decline due to trouble in the Roman
Empire, and by the 5th century AD, it was largely abandoned.
By 600 AD, the Anglo-Saxons had created a new settlement (Lundenwic) about 1
km upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden. There
was probably a harbour at the mouth of the River Fleet for fishing and trading, and
this trading grew until disaster struck in 851 AD, when the city's defences were
overcome by a massive Viking raid and it was razed to the ground. A Viking
occupation twenty years later was short-lived, and Alfred the Great, the new King
of England, established peace and moved the settlement within the defensive walls
of the old Roman city (then called Lundenburgh). The original city became
Ealdwic ("old city"), a name surviving to the present day as Aldwych.
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Subsequently, under the control of various English kings, London once again
prospered as an international trading centre and political arena. However, Viking
raids began again in the late 10th century, and reached a head in 1013 when they
besieged the city under Danish King Canute and forced English King Ethelred the
Unready to flee. In a retaliatory attack, Ethelred's army achieved victory by pulling
down London Bridge with the Danish garrison on top, and English control was re-
established.
Canute took control of the English throne in 1017, controlling the city and country
until 1042, when his death resulted in a reversion to Anglo-Saxon control under
his pious step-son Edward the Confessor, who re-founded Westminster Abbey and
the adjacent Palace of Westminster. By this time, London had become the largest
and most prosperous city in England, although the official seat of government was
still at Winchester.
Norman and medieval London
See also: Fortifications of London
Following a victory at the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror, the then
Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England in the newly-finished
Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William granted the citizens of
London special privileges, while building a castle in the southeast corner of the
city to keep them under control. This castle was expanded by later kings and is
now known as the Tower of London, serving first as a royal residence and later as
a prison.
In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of
the same name. The hall proved the basis of a new Palace of Westminster, the
prime royal residence throughout the Middle Ages. Westminster became the seat
of the royal court and government (persisting until the present day), while its
distinct neighbour, the City of London, was a centre of trade and commerce and
flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London.
Eventually, the adjacent cities grew together and formed the basis of modern
central London, superseding Winchester as capital of England in the 12th century.
London grew in wealth and population during the middle ages. In 1100 its
population was around 18,000, by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. However
disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost
nearly a third of its population. Apart from the invasion of London during the
Peasants' Revolt in 1381, London remained relatively untouched by the various
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civil wars during the middle ages, such as the Barons' Wars and the Wars of the
Roses.
After the successful defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, political stability in
England allowed London to grow further. In 1603, James VI of Scotland came to
the throne of England, essentially uniting the two countries. His enactment of
harsh anti-Catholic laws made him unpopular, and an assassination attempt was
made on 5 November 1605 — the famous Gunpowder Plot.
Plague caused extensive problems for London in the early 17th century,
culminating in the Great Plague in 1665-1666. This was the last major outbreak in
Europe, possibly thanks to the disastrous fire of 1666. The Great Fire of London
broke out in the original City and quickly swept through London's wooden
buildings, destroying large swathes of the city. Rebuilding took over ten years.
Rise of modern London
Mayor Ken Livingstone (on the left) at a City Hall reception for Hanukkah
The administration of London takes place in two tiers — a city-wide, strategic tier
and a local tier. City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London
Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller
authorities.
The GLA is responsible for strategic planning, policing, the fire service, most
aspects of transport and economic development. It consists of two elected parts —
the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, who
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scrutinise the Mayor's decisions and can accept or reject his budget proposals each
year. The GLA is a recent organisation, having been set up in 2000 to replace the
similar Greater London Council (GLC) which had been abolished in 1986. The
headquarters of the GLA and the Mayor of London is at City Hall.
The Mayor of London is Ken Livingstone, who is in his second term of office. He
was elected in 2000 as an independent candidate and again in 2004 as a Labour
candidate. Ken Livingstone was also the leader of the GLC when it was abolished
in 1986.
The 33 local authorities are the 32 London boroughs and the City of London. They
are responsible for local services not overseen by the GLA, such as local planning,
schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. The London boroughs
each have a council which is elected every four years by local residents. The City
of London does not have a conventional local authority, but is governed by the
historic City of London Corporation which is elected by both residents and
businesses, and which has existed more or less unchanged since the Middle Ages.
The head of the Corporation is the Lord Mayor of London, which is a different
position from that of Mayor of London.
The City of London also has its own police force: The City of London
Police, which is independent of the Metropolitan Police Service which covers the
rest of Greater London.
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London is represented in the national Parliament by 74 Members of
Parliament (MPs) who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies. For a list
of London constituencies, see List of Parliamentary constituencies in Greater
London. Of these 74 MPs, 44 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, 8
are Liberal Democrats and one is from the RESPECT party.
Economy
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The Bank of England, the central bank of the United Kingdom
London is a major centre for international business and commerce and is one of
three "command centres" for the global economy (along with New York City and
Tokyo).. London has recently overtaken New York City as the largest city
economy in the World, this is due to the large amount of banks that have decided
to locate here. [citation needed]
As Europe's largest city economy, year-by-year, London's economy generates
approximately 20% of the UK's GDP (or $446 billion in 2005); while the economy
of the London metropolitan area (also the largest in Europe) generates
approximately 30% of UK's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion in 2005.)
London shifted to a mostly service-based economy earlier than other European
cities, particularly following the Second World War. London's success as a service
industry and business centre can be attributed to many factors:
English is the lingua franca;
its former position as the capital of the British Empire;
its close relationship with the U.S. and various countries in Asia;
its geographic location on the globe which enables its office hours to overlap with
normal office opening hours for other countries across the world that account for
99 percent of world GDP;
English law being the most important and most used contract law in
international business;
the multi-cultural infrastructure (schools, places of worship, cultural and social
organisations);
London is home to banks, brokers, insurers and legal and accounting firms.
Multimillion pound bonuses are commonplace and serve further to drive up house
prices in the capital. [citation needed] A second, smaller financial district is
developing at Canary Wharf to the east of the City which includes the global
headquarters of HSBC, Reuters, Barclays and many of the largest law firms in the
world. London handled 31% of global currency transactions in 2005 — an average
daily turnover of US$753 billion — with more US dollars traded in London than
New York, and more Euros traded than in every other city in Europe combined.
More than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and
over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies are headquartered in central London.
Over 70% of the FTSE 100 are located within London's metropolitan area, and
75% of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London.
Demographics
Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, as of 2006,
London's foreign-born population is 2,288,000 (31%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997
The table to the right shows the 'Country of Birth' of London residents in
2001, the date of the last UK Census. (Top 21).
Note that a portion of the German-born population are likely to be British
nationals born to parents serving in the British armed forces in Germany.
Religion
See also: List of churches and cathedrals of London
The largest religious groupings in London are Christian (58.2%), No Religion
(15.8%), Muslim (8.2%), Hindu (4.1%), Jewish (2.1%), and Sikh (1.5%). London
has traditionally been dominated by Christianity, and has a large number of
churches, particularly in the City. The famous St Paul's Cathedral in the City and
Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while
the head of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, the
Archbishop of Canterbury has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the
London Borough of Lambeth. Important national and royal ceremonies are shared
between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with
nearby Westminster Cathedral, a relatively recent edifice which is the largest
Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Most London "Christians" are
only nominally so.[citation needed]. Religious practice is lower than any other part
of the UK or Western Europe and is around seven times lower than American
averages.[citation needed]. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches,
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observance is very low within the Anglican denomination, although in recent years
church attendance, particularly at evangelical Anglican churches in London, has
started to increase.[66] Observance is considerably higher among London's Roman
Catholic and Christian Orthodox communities.
Transport
Main articles: Transport in London and Walking in London
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Heathrow Airport is the world's busiest airport in terms of numbers of
international passengers
Transport is one of the four areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London.
However the mayor's financial control is limited and he does not control the heavy
rail network (although in November 2007 he will assume responsibility for the
North London Railway). The public transport network, administered by Transport
for London (TfL), is the most extensive in the world,[citation needed] but faces
congestion and reliability issues, which a large investment programme is
attempting to address, including £7 billion (€10 billion) of improvements planned
for the Olympics. London was recently commended as the city with the best public
transport.
Rail
The centrepiece of the public transport network is the London Underground,
commonly referred to as The Tube, with sixteen interconnecting lines, and plans
for expansion — especially deeper into South London, and at least one new line. It
is the oldest, largest, and most expensive metro system in the world, dating from
1863. The system was home to the world's first underground electric line, the City
& South London Railway, which began service in 1890. Over three million
journeys a day are made on the Underground network, around nearly 1 billion
journeys are made each year. The Underground serves the central area and most
suburbs to the north of the Thames, while those to the south are served by an
extensive suburban rail overland network. The Docklands Light Railway is a
second metro system using smaller and lighter trains, which opened in 1987,
serves East London and Greenwich on both sides of the Thames. Commuter and
intercity railways generally do not cross the city, instead running into fourteen
terminal stations scattered around its historic centre. Since the early 1990s,
increasing pressures on the commuter rail and Underground networks have led to
increasing demands, particularly from businesses and the City of London
Corporation, for Crossrail - a £10 billion east-west heavy rail connection under
central London. Eurostar trains link London Waterloo station with Lille and Paris
in France, and Brussels in Belgium, in two to three hours, making London closer
to continental Europe than the rest of Britain and tying it into the Euro-core.
Bus
The London bus network is a twenty-four hour service and caters for most local
journeys, carrying even more passengers than the Underground. Every weekday,
the London bus network carries six million passengers on over 700 different
routes. In the year to March 2005, the network's ridership was 1.79 billion
passenger trips. The buses are internationally recognised, and are a trademark of
London transport along with black cabs and the Tube.
Air
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London is a major international air transport hub. No fewer than eight
airports use the words London Airport in their name, but most traffic passes
through one of five major airports. London Heathrow Airport is the busiest airport
in the world for international traffic and handles a mixture of full-service
domestic, European and inter-continental scheduled passenger flights. Similar
traffic, with the addition of some low-cost short-haul flights, is also handled at
London Gatwick Airport. London Stansted Airport and London Luton Airport
cater mostly for low-cost short-haul flights. London City Airport, the smallest and
most central airport, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full
service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic.
Road
Although the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public
transport, travel in outer London is car-dominated. The inner ring road (around the
city centre), the North and South Circular roads (in the suburbs), and the outer
orbital motorway (the M25, outside the built-up area) encircle the city and are
intersected by a number of busy radial routes — but very few motorways penetrate
into inner London. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout
the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled
in the early 1970s. In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic
volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay £8
per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of congested central
London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a vastly reduced
season pass which is renewed monthly and is cheaper than a corresponding bus
fare.
Cycling
Cycling is an increasingly popular way to get around London. The London
Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision.
Education
Main article: Education in London
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Home to a range of universities, colleges and schools, London has a student
population of about 378,000 and is a centre of research and development. Most
primary and secondary schools in London follow the same system as the rest of
England.
With 125,000 students, the University of London is the largest contact teaching
university in the United Kingdom and in Europe. It comprises 20 colleges as well
as several smaller institutes, each with a high degree of autonomy. Constituent
colleges have their own admissions procedures, and are effectively universities in
their own right, although most degrees are awarded by the University of London
rather than the individual colleges. Its constituents include multi-disciplinary
colleges such as UCL, King's and Royal Holloway and more specialised
institutions such as the London School of Economics, SOAS, the Royal Academy
of Music and the Institute of Education.
The London School of Economics, Imperial College London, King's and UCL
have been ranked among some of the best universities in the whole world by The
Times Higher Education Supplement: in 2006 Imperial was ranked 9th, the
London School of Economics was ranked 17th, UCL 25th, and King's 46th in the
world.
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Bond Street, one of Mayfair's main shopping streets
Within the City of Westminster, the entertainment district of the West End has its
focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held,
and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's theatre
district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs and restaurants, including the
city's Chinatown district, and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing
speciality shops. Shoreditch and Hoxton in the East End form a second, less
mainstream, focus of bars, nightclubs, restaurants and galleries. Islington's one
mile (2 km) long Upper Street, extending northwards from The Angel, has more
bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK. It was also the first street in
the UK to have wireless enabled for its cafes.
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London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse
population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick
Lane and the Chinese food restaurants of Chinatown. Soho's variety of restaurants
includes novelties such as Garlic and Shots - an entirely garlic restaurant, while
more upmarket restaurants are scattered around central London, with
concentrations in Mayfair, Knightsbridge and Notting Hill. Across the city, areas
home to particular ethnic groups are often recognisable by restaurants, food shops
and market stalls offering their local fare, and the large supermarket chains stock
such items in areas with sizeable ethnic groups.
London has been the setting for many works of literature. Two writers
closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, famous for his
eyewitness account of the Great Fire, and Charles Dickens, whose representation
of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a
major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London. James Boswell's
biographical Life of Johnson mostly takes place in London, and is the source of
Johnson's famous aphorism: "When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life;
for there is in London all that life can afford." The earlier (1722) A Journal of the
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Plague Year by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great
Plague. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in
London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based in London, and some of his
work - most notably his play The Alchemist - was set in the city. Later important
depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are the afore-
mentioned Dickens novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's famous Sherlock Holmes
stories. Trollope's Palliser novels are largely set in London, vividly depicting
Westminster and its surrounds. The 1933 novel Down and Out in Paris and
London by George Orwell describes life in poverty in both cities. A modern writer
pervasively influenced by the city is Peter Ackroyd, in works such as London: The
Biography, The Lambs of London and Hawksmoor. Along with Bloomsbury, the
hilly area of Hampstead has traditionally been the liberal, literary heartland of
London.
London has played a significant role in the film industry, and has major
studios at Pinewood, Shepperton, Elstree and Leavesden, as well as an important
special effects and post-production community. Many films have also used
London as a location and have done much to shape international perceptions of the
city. See main article London in film.
The city also hosts a number of performing arts schools, including the Central
School of Speech and Drama, whose past students include Judi Dench and
Laurence Olivier, the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (educators of
Jim Broadbent and Donald Sutherland among others) and the prestigious Royal
Academy of Dramatic Art (past students including Joan Collins and Roger
Moore).
The London Film Festival is held in the city each October.
Music
The Royal Albert Hall hosts a wide range of concerts and music events
London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and is
home to one of the five major global music corporations, EMI as well as countless
bands, musicians and industry professionals.
Classical music
London is home to many orchestras and concert halls, including:
Barbican Arts Centre (London Symphony Orchestra)
Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra)
Royal Albert Hall (BBC Promenade Concerts)
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Royal Festival Hall (Philharmonia Orchestra, London Philharmonic Orchestra,
London Sinfonietta)
Wigmore Hall
Opera
London has two main opera houses - the Royal Opera House and the
Coliseum Theatre
Ballet
The Royal Ballet and English National Ballet are based in London and
perform at the Royal Opera House, Sadler's Wells Theatre and the Royal Albert
Hall.
Popular music
As a cultural centre for the United Kingdom, London has had a major role
in many popular music movements. It has numerous famous venues for rock and
pop concerts, including large areans such as Earls Court and Wembley Arena, as
well as more intimate venues, such as Brixton Academy and Hammersmith
Apollo. The area around the northern part of Charing Cross Road in Westminster
is famous for its shops that sell modern musical instruments and audio equipment.
London was home of one of the legs for both the Live Aid and Live 8 concerts.
London and its surrounding Home Counties have spawned iconic and popular
artists. London is home to the first and original Hard Rock Cafe and the famous
Abbey Road Studios. Musicians such asBob Marley, Jimi Hendrix and Freddie
Mercury have lived in London. Famous musicians and groups associated with
London include The Who, Fleetwood Mac, Iron Maiden, Elton John, Elvis
Costello, Paul McCartney, Pink Floyd and The Rolling Stones. London was
instrumental in the development of punk music, with figures such as the Sex
Pistols, The Clash, The Jam, and Vivienne Westwood all based in London.
As Britain's largest urban area, London has played a key role in the development
of most British-born strains of "urban" and electronic music, such as drum and
bass, UK garage, grime and dubstep, and is home to many UK hip hop artists.
Sport
Main article: Sport in London
The new Wembley Stadium is the most expensive stadium ever built costing £793
million ($1.6 billion)
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London has hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1908 and 1948. In July
2005 London was chosen to host the Games in 2012, which will make it the first
city in the world to host the Summer Olympics three times. London was also the
host of the British Empire Games in 1934.
London also has four rugby union teams in the Guinness Premiership
(London Irish, Saracens, Wasps and NEC Harlequins), although only the
Harlequins play in London (all the other three now play outside Greater London),
as well as a rugby league Super League club in Harlequins RL. London also has
many famous other rugby union clubs in lower leagues, including Richmond F.C.,
Blackheath R.C., Rosslyn Park F.C. and Barnes R.F.C.
Since 1924, the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English
national football team, and served as the venue for the FA Cup final as well as
rugby league's Challenge Cup final. The new Wembley Stadium will serve exactly
the same purposes. Twickenham Stadium in west London is the national rugby
union stadium, and has a capacity of 82,000 now that the new south stand has been
completed.
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Cricket in London centres on its two Test cricket grounds at Lord's (home
of Middlesex CC) in St John's Wood, and The Oval (home of Surrey CC) in
Kennington.
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The most well known Tower Bridge
Tower Bridge
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Clearance
8.6 m (closed), 42.5 m (open)
below
Opening date 1894
Tower Bridge is a combined bascule and suspension bridge in London,
England over the River Thames. It is close to the Tower of London, which gives it
its name. It has become an iconic symbol of London and is sometimes mistakenly
called London Bridge, though London Bridge is in fact the next bridge upstream.
Tower Bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates, a charitable trust
overseen by the Corporation of London.
Design
The bridge largely replaced Tower Subway, 400 m to the west, the world's
first underground tube railway (1870). Until the bridge was opened, the subway
was the shortest way to cross the river from Tower Hill to Tooley Street in
Southwark.
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surrounded by controversy, and it was not until 1884 that a design submitted by
Horace Jones, the City Architect (who was also one of the judges), was approved.
Jones' engineer, Sir John Wolfe Barry devised the idea of a bascule bridge
800 feet (244 m) in length with two towers each 213 feet (65 m) high, built on
piers. The central span of 200 feet (61 m) between the towers was split into two
equal bascules or leaves, which could be raised to an angle of 83 degrees to allow
river traffic to pass. The bascules, weighing over 1,000 tons each, were
counterbalanced to minimize the force required and allow raising in five minutes.
The two side-spans are suspension bridges, with the suspension rods anchored
both at the abutments and through rods contained within the bridge's upper
walkway.
Construction started in 1886 and took eight years with five major
contractors – Sir John Jackson (foundations), Baron Armstrong (hydraulics),
William Webster, Sir H.H. Bartlett, and Sir William Arrol and employed 432
construction workers. Two massive piers, containing over 70,000 tons of concrete,
were sunk into the river bed to support the construction. Over 11,000 tons of steel
provided the framework for the towers and walkways. This was then clad in
Cornish granite and Portland stone, both to protect the underlying steelwork and to
give the bridge a pleasing appearance.
Jones died in 1887, and George D. Stevenson took over the project.
Stevenson replaced Jones' original brick facade with the more ornate Victorian
Gothic style that makes the bridge a distinctive landmark.
The bridge was opened on 30 June 1894 by the Prince of Wales, the future
King Edward VII, and his wife, Alexandra of Denmark.
Hydraulic system
,Prepared by
Mohamed Fou’ad
An English instructor
The British academy
The original raising mechanism was powered by pressurised water stored in
six hydraulic accumulators.
The system was designed and installed by Sir W. G. Armstrong Mitchell &
Company of Gateshead. Water, at a pressure of 750psi, was pumped into the
accumulators by two stationary steam engines, each driving a force pump from its
piston tail rod. The accumulators each comprise a 20-inch ram on which sits a
very heavy weight to maintain the desired pressure.
During World War II, as a precaution against the existing engines being
damaged by enemy action, a third engine was installed in 1942. This was a 150hp
horizontal cross-compound engine built by Vickers Armstrong Ltd., at their
Elswick works in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. It was fitted with a 9 feet diameter
flywheel weighing 9 tons, and was governed to a speed of 30 rpm.
The engine became redundant when the rest of the system was modernised
in 1974, and was donated to the Forncett Industrial Steam Museum by the
Corporation of the City of London.
Reaction
Although the bridge is an undoubted landmark, professional commentators
in the early 20th century were critical of its aesthetics. "It represents the vice of
tawdriness and pretentiousness, and of falsification of the actual facts of the
structure", wrote H. H. Statham, while Frank Brangwyn stated that "A more
absurd structure than the Tower Bridge was never thrown across a strategic river".
Incidents
At 21:35 on 30 December 1952, a crowded double-decker London bus (an
RT), on route 78 to Dulwich, jumped over the gap when the bridge started to open
while it was halfway across.
Tower Bridge today
,Prepared by
Mohamed Fou’ad
An English instructor
The British academy
Tower Bridge in its river setting, looking east from the viewing platform of
The Monument. City Hall is the building shaped like a motorcycle helmet, and
below it is HMS Belfast.
River traffic is now a fraction of what it used to be, but it still takes priority
over road traffic. This nearly caused a diplomatic incident in 1996, when the
motorcade of United States President Bill Clinton got stuck on Tower Bridge
,Prepared by
Mohamed Fou’ad
An English instructor
The British academy
while the bascules were opened unexpectedly.[citation needed] Today, 24 hours'
notice is required before opening the bridge.
To the south is Tower Bridge Road, which is part of the London Inner Ring
Road.
Gallery
An extremely high
resolution image of Bridge open to admit
Tower Bridge at Close-up of fully
South view at HMS Northumberland
night opened bascules
dusk (F238)
,Prepared by
Mohamed Fou’ad
An English instructor
The British academy