ISEP 2008

Road Tunnel Safety from Human Factors view

Nastja Pušič
University of Ljubljana,
Faculty of Maritime Studies and Transportation, Portorož, Slovenia
Prof. dr. Stojan Petelin
University of Ljubljana,
Faculty of Maritime Studies and Transportation, Portorož, Slovenia

without the road tunnels, which have became a key

Abstract
A great amount of road traffic accidents in the recent
years, led to fatalities, casualties and a lot of economic
damages. Among the accidents, some with the worst
consequences happened inside the road tunnels, where
the safety level for the fellow road tunnel users is
considerably lower, compared to the open road. When
accident happens in the open road the access of the
rescue and medical team and the release of smoke, in
case of fire, is much easier than it is inside the road
tunnels. This is why when an accident happens inside
the road tunnel the consequences are much more
devastating and take a great number of human
victims.
To this end the road tunnel safety has received quite
some attention. After a number of scientific
researches made on the road tunnel safety issue, we
pointed out the main and most common reason that
causes the accidents, which is the human factor. To a
large extent, road tunnel safety is determined by
human behaviour, where the probability, the severity
and the consequences of the accidents, depend to a
great extent on the design and operation of the road
tunnel system. Hence, we have to improve the security
level for all of the fallow road tunnel users, starting
with the construction of the road tunnels by taking
into account human factors. This way road tunnels
will be designed for the optimal human use. This
factor refers to physical, cognitive and psychological
processes, dealing with perception, information
processing, motivation, decision making and action.
The article describes how a road tunnel safety can be
optimised by using knowledge of the human factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
A great number of accidents inside the road tunnels,
made us question their safety. In time it is
impossible to imagine the road traffic system
element in our transportation system. With a rapid
growth of road traffic, the increased number of
fellow road tunnel users takes the road tunnels for
granted. While using the road tunnels, no fellow
user takes into consideration that the abnormal
situation inside the road tunnel might occur.
A road tunnel forms part of the road and traffic
system. The road tunnel system consists of
geometrical design, installations, signalisation and
operation processes. An efficient road tunnel
system plays an important role for the tunnel safety,
because it determines the traffic flow inside the
tunnel in normal and in abnormal situations. A
great contribution to the tunnel safety level is made
by traffic rules and signalization. When working in
the field of road tunnel safety, the human factor
plays crucial role. Human factors are defined as the
psychological and physical properties, knowledge,
experience and mental processes of people involved
in a specific situation, which determines people’s
behaviour.
Firstly, this paper will present some of the models
for decision processing, from which the important
human factors are derived. It will demonstrate the
way people process information and explain human
behaviour.
Secondly, it will describe in more general terms, the
observations of human behaviour in normal and in
deviant situations inside road tunnels. It will point
out some of the main human factors that influence
curtain behaviour.
Fourthly, it will present some functional
descriptions of specific means and measures to
attain road tunnel safety. It will present some of the
existing regulations and recommendations for
improvement by taking into account human factors.

2. INFORMATION PROCESSING information processing, we can list some of the

developed models. One of these models is called
There are many ways people process information. the “Human information processing model”,
Based on years of experimental work on human designed by Wickens in 2000, focused on the
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driver’s central nervous system, which transfers the
given information from the environment into the
feedback reaction. The model represents detailed
journey of the information and formation of the
feedback, which driver sends back into
environment after it was processed by the central
nervous system. The capacity and efficiency of the
driver’s feedback reaction is determined by the
attention resource function. However, this is not the
case when a driver is tired, because the ability to
select useful information from the environment is
reduced and it makes it very difficult to respond
with effective feedback reaction, which may
therefore lead to inadequate response.
For analysing behaviour of the fellow road tunnel
users, more general model was made in 1986 by
Rasmussen and it is called “Rasmussen’s model of
human behaviour”. The model consists of three
levels; based on knowledge, rule and skill,
behaviour. The latter is shown when specific
behaviour is highly trained or automatic. The
problem with the automatic behaviour is that
3. DRIVERS BEHAVIOUR
By analysing drivers’ behaviour while driving,
according to Riemersma (1979), three aspects need
to be considered. First one is the maintenance of
route direction and control over the speed. The
second is ability of manoeuvring, when changing
lanes, pulling over or overtaking. The third one is
the option of choice. Basic intention of this model
is to prevent automatic and self-evident behaviour.
Drivers have limited ability to process the given
information from the environment, which can be
caused by tiredness or stress. This indicates that the
limited number of information should be carefully
selected and motley, before presenting it to the
fellow drivers. Not only human behaviour but
firstly the technical improvement contributes a
great deal to the safety of road tunnels, but it still
lacks in explaining the traffic flow situations with
correlation to human behaviour. Drivers are willing
to take a limited level of risk for the price of
modernisation and their own benefit. Fellow users
also tend not to think constantly of possible danger
on the road, because that would definitely caused
paranoia. Taking this into consideration, we can
conclude that the relation between the technological
improvement for road safety and human behaviour
is very high, which means that technology should
be friendly to their users and a bit challenging to
avoid monotony.
drivers tend to react equal even if it is not
appropriate, due to the changed situation. The level
of rule-based behaviour interprets everyday
situations, traffic rules and regulations. Fellow road
users know which rule applies to a certain situation.
Problems may occur in case the fellow road users
apply the wrong rule or misinterpret the situation.
By creating a complex situation in non typical
environment the drivers achieve the last level,
known as the knowledge-based behaviour. This
applies to a situation, which drivers and fellow
users have never seen or experienced before. It
demands specific knowledge for which the drivers
may not have enough resources to apply the
relevant skill in order to execute the task. Those
levels tell us how it is expected to drive and what it
is expected from the fellow drivers to do. The
Rasmussen’s model of human behaviour is
important because it correlates the fellow road users
with the road traffic system.
4. PERCEPTION OF TRAFFIC SIGNS AND
SIGNALS
Road safety is ensured by the traffic signs and
signals. Road signs are permanent, vertical and
horizontal marks. Traffic signals on the other hand
need special attention, because they are not
permanent and they vary with time. Both, signs and
signals, may be fixed when they contain unique or
variable information, which can be changed. For
attracting more attention, reinforcement is used.
Considering signs and signals from a human factor
point of view, they have to be perceivable, simple,
readable, credible, reliable and easy to understand
and memorize. It would be suggested that the traffic
signs and signals are equal all over the world to
avoid foreign drivers to cause road traffic accidents
because of misinterpretation. The reason for
misinterpretation may also be bad sight conditions
at the road tunnel entrance. Too much light may
blind the eye and too little may prevent the driver to
notice the traffic signalization. In any case the
inside of the road tunnel has artificial lightening
and it tends to be a bit darker, hence a quick
adaptation of the eye to the light in the tunnel in
important. A driver may also make wrong
estimation upon the distance of the vehicles in front
of him, which is mostly caused by the lack of
contrast. Researches and analysis have shown
reduced number of accidents inside the road tunnels
after installing a proper lightening and using proper
colours for the design.
5. ROAD TUNNEL SAFETY
The main reason that causes accidents is improper
human behaviour. As it was mentioned, the close
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environment of a road tunnels increases the severity
of consequences in case of an accident, especial in
case of fire. In most cases fires are caused by self-
ignition of a vehicle, failure of the electric system
or vehicle motor overheating (Commission of the
EC, 2002). Because of the high number of victims
the need for special behaviour of fellow users was
applied. Two groups were formed. One group
consist of fellow road tunnel users and the other of
the personnel responsible for the fellow users. The
main reasons for accidents are divided into three
groups, according to Aty (2002). First group deals
with internal causes were mechanical or electronic
error take place, together with failure of control
centre or logistic system. External causes are placed
second and consist of earthquakes, floods or
landslides. The human behaviour is considered to
be in the third group, which is the most common
reason to cause an accident.
6. HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN A ROAD
TUNNEL
It is important to realize how fellow road users in
general behave and react during a curtain situation
in a road tunnel. Several different stages are known
in human minds, which the information passes
before the feedback reaction is produced.
Therefore, the information must be convincing,
reliable and given “just in time”. Fellow road users
tend to use knowledge which was learned in the
past. That kind of reaction is especially utilised in
critical situations. Evacuating from road tunnels is
most likely something that has not been learned or
practised before, hence it is hard to evoke this kind
of behaviour in crisis situation. Moreover, stress
caused by critical situation does not necessarily
have to be negative; it can result in a state of
hyperactivity and even help the fellow road users to
respond quicker, due to their intention to minimize
the crisis. On the other hand, stress can result in
panic and fellow road users may be unable to act,
because of the delayed awareness of danger and
reduced ability to think. Their behaviour appears
highly irrational to someone who knows that
evacuation exits are available and that evacuation is
obligatory. Another none or little stress activation
may occur in crisis situation, when a fellow user
indicates a form of denial, which decreases the
perception of crisis and ignores the instructions
given by the control centre on what to do. The
reaction caused by denial can result in memory
loss, passive behaviour and prevent all movement
or reactions for evacuation or even self-protection.
One of the typical human behaviour is emotional
denial of crisis situation, which is, in most cases,
caused by shock. Shock has different influence on
each individual fellow user. In general it reduces
the consciousness of the severity of the crisis. On
this particular reaction an experiment was made by
Boer in 2002, with random selected participants in
a real road tunnel with smoke. The conclusions
were a bit concerning, since all the fellow users
calmly stayed in their vehicles and waited, while
the road tunnel was covered with smoke.
Supposedly they find it safer to stay inside the
vehicle rather then to go out and look for an
emergency exit. Even if there is a specific message
or a signal on what to do, the reaction to fallow the
given instructions depends completely upon a
fellow users state of stress and ability to react.
International reports dealing with human
behaviour, especially in critical situations, show
that the fellow users experiencing a fire, are not
aware of the seriousness of the crisis. According to
Sime and Kimura (1988) the early stage of
evacuation shows a behaviour pattern characterized
by uncertainty, confusion and inefficiency. Human
behaviour pattern tend to change in abnormal or
stressful situations and neither previous knowledge
nor experiences serve their use. For that reason new
information needs to be presented is a simple, brief,
clear, understandable and reliable way. Crisis
situations fallowed by stress have a narrowing
effect to a fellow users focus and they reduce the
ability to process basic information from the
environment. If users have difficulties processing
simple instruction, it is obvious that long and
complicated instructions have no effect on the
fellow road users. To this end the proper way of
delivering instructions, positioning and architecture
needs to be considered to achieve desired human
behaviour. However, even after taking all of the
mentioned factors into consideration it is not
guaranteed that provided instructions will be
followed by the fellow users.
It is important to consider that some of the drivers
fear to drive trough the road tunnel and they prefer
to take another way to avoid driving trough the
tunnel. In case those drivers are not warned on time
that a road tunnel is on their route, they may react
unreasonably. They might stop in front or even
inside the road tunnel, causing congestion or even
accident to happen. Even if a sign is placed to
indicate the approaching road tunnel, drivers may
still drive by without recognising it. An explanation
for that kind of behaviour is the possibility that the
sign is not familiar to the drivers or that it is placed
to close to the road tunnel and therefore leaves no
safe exit possibility. Financial and time costs may
also be the reason for curtain human behaviour and
for choosing the route which they can not handle
reasonably. Statistic data show that high percentage
of accidents in road tunnels occur in zone of 50 m
in front of the road tunnel portal up to 50 m past the
road tunnel portal.
Speed reduction is also important at the road tunnel
entrance (Theeuwes et al, 1995). Driver may also
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change the driving lane before entering to a road
tunnel, because in most road tunnels the number of
lanes is reduced. Because drivers tend to focus on
the entrance of a road tunnel portal, the traffic
signalisation placed up to 200 m before the tunnel
entrance is not noticed. Drivers also increase the
distance to the side wall of the road inside the
tunnel. Another important element that needs to be
considered is the weather condition. When it rains
the windscreen of a vehicle might get steam inside
the tunnel, causing reduced visibility.
A driver simulation study in the frame of the
UPTUN project showed that fellow road tunnel
users are not able to estimate their position inside
the tunnel. Even in case of an accident, they are not
able to estimate the length of the tunnel and locate
the accident. This lack of estimating the location is
important when evacuation is needed and fellow
tunnel users do not have the orientation where to go
in order to get out of the tunnel at the earliest
convenience. For that reason, not only the
signalisation but also the interior design of a road
tunnel plays very important role. Studies on road
tunnel safety showed that drivers behave differently
to the same tunnel interior design. This applies
mostly to long road tunnels, which increases the
feeling of tightness, anxiety and danger, caused by
the monotony. Colours have important effect to
human feelings. Red and yellow colours must be
avoided inside the road tunnels interiors by all
cause, because they create an illusion of fire. Black
colour has frightening effect to most people and it
is dissuade from use.
Listening to the radio inside the road tunnel is
strongly recommended, especially frequency of the
tunnel monitoring group, which constantly informs
the drivers of the situation and condition inside the
tunnel. However, many people choose to listen to
music from other media such as CD or DVD player.
Studies showed also, that people would listen to the
radio, but they can not remember the frequency or
they simply think there is no signal inside the
tunnel, which is true in some cases.
The main problem in human behaviour is in
delayed adaptation to the road tunnel environment.
It takes time for a driver to adopt to the reduced
speed, turn on lights, proper distance, before fellow
users pay attention to the road tunnel interior
design, locations of SOS-stations, emergency exits,
fire extinguishes etc..
7. ROAD TUNNEL IN NORMAL AND
ABNORMAL SITUATION
Human behaviour in road tunnels in normal
situation consists of standard checking points for
consistency that each driver needs to perform to
ensure safety. Level of gas needs to be sufficient
and all lights should be in full function. Sunglasses
are not allowed to be used inside the road tunnel,
which means that the driver should take them off
when entering a tunnel. Proper distance and spacing
must be kept at all times and fellow road users are
obligated to fallow all given instruction. Traffic
signalization should also be fallowed and the speed
needs to be reduced. It is warmly recommended that
fellow tunnel users tray to stick to the right side of
the driving lane inside the tunnel, remember
location of evacuation exits and fire distinguishes,
as well as the location of other safety equipments
inside the tunnel, like SOS phone, etc. It is also
advised for all fellow road users to listen to the
traffic report on the radio.
In cases of abnormal situation human behaviour is
very complex, due to the uniqueness of each
abnormal situation. Four of the most common
abnormal situation will be presented. The most
common abnormal situation on road is congestion,
mostly caused by too much traffic, road
maintenance, incidents, accidents or fire. Traffic in
congestion may come to a complete standstill,
which varies in duration. Sometimes, in best case, it
take a few minutes before it starts moving again but
it can also take hours before vehicles can move
from the spot.
Traffic flow may also be blocked by incident or
accident on the road outside or inside the tunnel.
When a vehicle inside the road tunnel is stopped,
due to a breakdown, driver tends to behave the
same way as if it happened on open air. Tunnels
often do not have emergency lanes, where a vehicle
can be parked in case of accident or car failure. In
tunnels lay-bys are present but only at few
locations, based on the length of a tunnel. Longer
tunnels have more lay-bys. However, fellow car
users, for unknown reason, do not use the lay-bys.
It is possible that the distance of lay-bys is too big
or that drivers are not aware of their function. In
case of breakdown or accident the call for help is
very important. The call can be made by any of the
SOS phones, which are installed trough the tunnel
on marked locations. In case SOS phone can not be
reached it is wise to use mobile phone. For the
control centre it is easier to locate the exact place of
breakdown or accident, when SOS phone is used,
rather than mobile phone. Fellow road users
involved in the accident, physical may not be able
to call for help.
Car failure or accident can result in fire. In this case
the drivers react differently. Some drivers tend to
drive on, even if their car is on fire, because they
are anxious to get out. However, this is not the case
in long tunnels, were it is necessary to try to
extinguish the fire as soon as possible by means
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available. In case of fire the sensors alert the tunnel
control centre. Usually in this case control centre
closes tunnel entrance for traffic, until the fire is
out. The response of other fellow users depends
entirely on the situation. Fire can cause serious
damage to the fellow users and also to the
construction of the road tunnel, hence it is very
important to put out any fire in the starting phase in
order to prevent extension and damage.
Human behaviour is based on the relationship
between perception of traffic signalization and
situation, and reaction to these circumstances from
the memory of previous experience or knowledge.
Printed instruction on how to behave in specific
situation is usually not read by the fellow road
tunnel users, because there is not enough time
before entering into the tunnel. For that reason it
would be very useful to teach young drivers how to
drive trough the road tunnel and how to react in
certain situations while obtaining the driving
licence. A practical drive trough a road tunnel is
much recommended for a young driver to get to
know the tunnel environment.
8. IMPROVING ROAD TUNNEL SAFETY
BY TAKING HUMAN FACTOR INTO
CONSIDERTATION
The most important factor, to be considered when
dealing with road tunnel safety, is the human factor.
To start with the tunnel entrance, it needs to be
ensured that fellow road users are informed on
time. If they know that a tunnel is approaching,
they will not be taken by surprise by the presence of
a tunnel and it will give them enough time to switch
on the lights, take off sun glasses or leave the road
for an alternative route, in case they fear to drive
trough the tunnel. The number of traffic signs
placed outside on open space needs to be limited
and should not distract the drivers. Drivers need to
be informed on time with concrete and sufficient
information to ensure safe entering into the road
tunnel. The drivers should be informed also of
special regulations, proper distance, speed reduction
and prohibitions. Radio frequency needs to be
available for traffic report and conditions inside the
tunnel. Fellow road tunnel users also need to be
informed upon possible abnormal situation in case
of which, proper instructions will fallow in order
not to overload drivers with too much information.
Safety information for the location of emergency
exits, SOS telephones, fire extinguishers etc. must
be visible to the drivers at all length of the tunnel.
As mentioned before the important signs and
information need to be presented at sufficient
distance before the tunnel portal. Information
should be kept at minimum and not put all at the
same place; it is also recommended to be placed at
both sides of the road and repeated for a few times.
Dynamic signs are use in specific situations, when
full driver attention is needed. Last but not least, the
use of international signs and information should be
standardized; to make them recognized by both,
domestic and foreign drivers.
Driving trough the tunnel should be relaxed and
safe. The important role plays the transition from
open space to the inside of a tunnel. Using proper
tunnel design can make drivers feel relaxed and
safe, while driving trough the tunnel, which is
recommended to be tested before installation.
More studies on human factor and behaviour in
road tunnels should be made, since the road tunnels
are inevitable in today’s modern transport system
and widely used by all groups of fellow road users
from complete amateurs to professional and highly
trained drivers. In general a balance has to be found
between safety and costs.
9. CONCLUSIONS
On one hand we have the technical side of a road
tunnel, with the information system, monitoring and
alarming in case of emergency, all of which needs
to be in full function round the clock. Secondly, the
construction of a road tunnel must be reliable and
safe, based on selected quality material and
equipment. The proper and effective ventilation
needs to be installed for safe tunnel functioning and
sufficient amount of water needs to be ensured, to
put out fires. In case of emergency, accident or fire,
the fire department, the rescue and medical team
must have ensured and undisturbed access in order
to assure quick assistance. As for the human factor
is concerned the information system must function
flawlessly. When constructing and building a road
tunnel the architects, engineers, performers and the
state, need to fully cooperate and consider the
human factors in all stages of the project. This
represents enormous financial cost, because of
installation, isolation, internal equipment,
signalization and equipment for the case of
emergency. To ensure smooth traffic flow, all
elements of human factors needs to be considered,
and the newest technology needs to be installed. All
of that needs to be friendly to the users and to the
environment. The question how to enlarge the
safety of road tunnels and reduce the victims and
material damage remains. The answer is to inform
the fellow road users, to provide them with all
necessary information in advance and to prepare
them on how to react in specific situation. Fellow
drivers need to fallow instructions, prohibitions and
pay attention to the traffic signalisation. By doing
so, we will ensure safe entrance, drive trough and
exit from the road tunnel, not only for our selves
but also for our fellow road tunnel users.
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