CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Soil is obviously the medium necessity for the terrestrial life. Soil is a natural

body consisting of layers of minerals constituents of variable thickness, which differ from

the parent material in their morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical

characteristics. It is composed of particles of broken rocks that have been altered by

chemical and environmental processes that includes weathering and erosion. Soil is

used in agriculture, where it is the primary nutrient base for plants. Soil is also a

restricting factor as to which plants can grow in a specific environment. As for the

mountainous area, the soil found there are supposed to be rich and fertile. (Wikipedia®,

2000)

However, vicinity in Caribao, Mainit a part of the Iligan City hinterlands is said to

have a small scale mining site. Brgy. Mainit is said to be one of the 44 barangays here in

Iligan City. Natural resources such as Gold (Au), Chromite and other associated

minerals are said to be present in the area. The usual color of the soil in that particular

area is red and brown which the researcher cogitate to be Iron or Chromite-rich. Color is

also an indicator towards the soil fertility. Thorough observation and interviews have

been conducted by the researcher. Conversely, red color is an indicator of poor soil

depending on the factors itself. In all probability, it can be the cause for small plants and

herbs not to grow in the locale which is the crucial problem of the people living in the

said region.

1
Background of the Study

Purok Caribao, Mainit is a one of the farthest barangays in Iligan City, where it is

located in the mountainous areas. The main livelihood of the said place is small mining

scale which is perilous to the environment especially to the human health. Agricultural

source is diverted in this activity because of the soil’s unproductive factors.

By observations and interviews of the people living in the said place, the

researcher was interested towards the factors that cause the soil’s infertility. In the entire

scope of Mainit, plants are slightly visible, but in this purok named Caribao, plants are

hardly seen especially shrubs and herbs which is mandatory to humans. Soil pH

however, is vital to plants for it can affect its growth. Various plants can adapt to acidic or

basic soil but the usual soil pH needed and adapted by plants is 6.0 – 7.0. Chromite is

also said to be present in the soil, where it has some hazardous effects not only in the

soil and plants but most especially to human health.

The main goal of the researcher is to determine the factor whether it could be the

Chromite content or acidity level or even both factors affects the soil infertility and the

growth of plants specifically herbs and shrubs in Caribao, Mainit; when in fact it is a part

of the Iligan hinterlands (supposed to be rich and fertile). The researcher also wants to

come up with the result to identify the reasons why the soil is infertile causing the reason

of unproductive agricultural of the community.

2
Statement of the Problem

This study was designed to quantitatively analyze the soil acidity and chromite content;

thus answering the following questions:

• Is there any significant mean effect of the Chromite content of the soil as a

seminal factor towards the soil infertility?

• Is there a significant mean effect of the acidity level towards the aspects of soil

infertility?

• Is there a significant mean difference between the Acidity level and Chromite

content as factor towards the soil infertility?

Hypotheses

• There is no significant mean effect of Soil Acidity to plants’ growth.

• There is no significant mean effect of Chromite Content to plants’ growth.

Significance of the Study

The production of crops in the lands of Caribao, Mainit is still a major problem of

the citizens living in that particular area; although mining is the main livelihood of the

people, still there is a need to generate food in order to survive.

With the results of this study, the researcher can inform the people the rationale

of the soil infertility whether it is because of the Chromite content or acidity level of the

soil. It is significant enough to conduct this research study for it enhances learning

towards the advancement of science and it helps the people to comprehend more the

3
situation and later on the researcher can give alternative solutions based also with the

results of the experimentations to solve the common problem.

Scope and Limitations

This study is limited only in the pointing out of the factors determining the soil

infertility; whether it could be the acidity level or the Chromite (FeCr2o4) content of the

soil. There will be three soil samples from different locations from Caribao Mainit; along

the pathway going to the small scale mining site (T1), near the actual small scale mining

site (T2) and 100m away from the actual mining site(T3). Also the alkalinity and testing

of other minerals other than Chromite is not part of the Scope and Limitation of the

study.

Operational Definition

Infertility – refers to the unproductive effects of the soil due to the factors which this

paper is trying to investigate; the soil in the Lands of Caribao, Mainit is unable to

produce edible plants.

Chromite – being test of possible content in soil and is stated to be a reason of infertility.

Soil pH – indicator of the pH level of the soil; whether the soil is greater in acidity level or

alkalinity.

Acidity – refers to the possible level of acid present in the soil of Caribao, Mainit.

pH meter – instrument used to measure the pH level of the soil.

Colorimetric Method – used in this study to determine whether or whether not the soil

sample with each trial contains Chromite.

4
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Soil

The term soil generally refers to the loose surface of the Earth, as distinguished from

solid rock. There are many terms of soil depending on the one’s whom uses it: (1) for

farmers or agronomist, it is the natural medium of all land plants; (2) for civil engineers,

they consider it as an easily aggregated earth material that supports most foundations,

roads, runways, and other constructed works and from which earth dams,

embankments, and other earth structures are built (Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge,

p. 170).

a. Components of Soil

Soil can be defined as the top layer of the earth's surface, consisting of rock and

mineral particles mixed with organic matter. Soil is made up of an extensive variety of

substances, minerals, and rocks. These substances can be categorized into four main

groups. These groups are organic materials, inorganic materials, air, and water.

Organic matter makes up only a small fraction of the total materials in soil, yet it is

extremely important. This organic material is made up of living organisms such as plants

and animals, dead plants and animals, and nutrients that have come from decomposed

plants and animals.

The inorganic materials found in soils account for about half of the total mass of

most soil. These inorganic materials take the form of sand, silt, and clay, and are

referred to commonly as dirt. About half of the total mass of soil is made of up vast

interconnecting cavities, or holes. These holes are filled with both air, and water.

The amount of air and the amount of water filling these spaces varies dramatically

throughout the year, and from location to location, but averages about 50% each. The air

5
found is soil is very different from the air found in the atmosphere. The air in soils is not

exposed to moving air currents, and is much more moist, or humid than atmospheric air.

It also tends to be very rich in carbon dioxide, and poor in oxygen. Oxygen is removed

by living organisms, and carbon dioxide is left behind. This carbon dioxide leaks out of

the soil, slowly replenishing the atmospheres carbon dioxide supplies.

Water is one of the most important ingredients in any soil. Without water, soil

formation would not be possible. Water enters soil via a number of different processes.

The most common are through precipitation, such as rain and snow. This precipitation

enters the soil and drains down into it. In many cases, water also enters soil from the dirt

beneath it, as water climbs upward to fill the empty spaces between particles of dirt.

Many substances dissolve into water, and are carried from one portion of the soil to

another. Water makes chemical reactions in the soil possible, and supplies micro-

organisms with the water necessary for life. Water leaves soil via evaporation, as well as

through drainage. Excessive water can rob soils of their nutrients, by carrying them away

to other locations. This process is known as leaching. The maximum amount of water

that a soil can handle is known as the soil’s field capacity.

b. Soil Color

The most obvious property when looking at soil is its color. The color of soil can tell

scientists a lot about it. Geologists officially recognize over 170 different soil colors. Most

of these are shades of black, brown, red, gray, and white.

Generally speaking, the darker a soil is, the more nutrient rich it is. The darker color

often indicates an increase in decomposed organic matter known as humus. Gray soils

often indicate poor drainage, while red soils can indicate very poor soils. These general

rules about soil colors can however be misleading. Under certain conditions, a very poor

6
soil can appear as dark black, while a rich healthy soil can appear as red. (The Kids

Know It network, 1998)

The Red River (Mississippi watershed) carries sediment eroded from extensive

reddish soils like Port Silt Loam in Oklahoma. The Yellow River in China carries yellow

sediment from eroding loessal soils. Mollisols in the Great Plains are darkened and

enriched by organic matter. Podsols in boreal forests have highly contrasting layers due

to acidity and leaching. Soil color is primarily influenced by soil mineralogy.

Many soil colors are due to the extensive and various iron minerals. The

development and distribution of color in a soil profile result from chemical and biological

weathering, especially redox reactions. As the primary minerals in soil parent material

weather, the elements combine into new and colorful compounds. Iron forms secondary

minerals with a yellow or red color, organic matter decomposes into black and brown

compounds, and manganese, sulfur and nitrogen can form black mineral deposits.

These pigments produce various color patterns due to effects by the environment during

soil formation. Aerobic conditions produce uniform or gradual color changes, while

reducing environments result in disrupted color flow with complex, mottled patterns and

points of color concentration. (Wikipedia®, 2005)

c. Use of Soil

There are different classifications on the use of soil; but primarily, soil is used by

plants to grow. Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the primary nutrient base

for the plants. The types of soil used in agriculture (among other things, such as the

purported level of moisture in the soil) vary with respect to the species of plants that are

cultivated. Soil material is a critical component in the mining and construction industries.

Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. Massive volumes of soil can

be involved in surface mining, road building, and dam construction. Earth sheltering is

7
the architectural practice of using soil for external thermal mass against building

walls.Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and fiber

production. Soil provides minerals and water to plants. Soil absorbs rainwater and

releases it later thus preventing floods and drought. Soil cleans the water as it

percolates. Soil is the habitat for many organisms.

Waste management often has a soil component. Septic drain fields treat septic tank

effluent using aerobic soil processes. Landfills use soil for daily cover.

Soils play an important role in filtrating and purifying water. After coming down as

precipitation, much of the rain water is percolated through the many horizons of a soil

profile and renamed as groundwater. As the water moves through different areas such

as wetlands, forests, and riparian zones many pollutants are removed. Pollutants such

as viruses, oils, metals, excess nutrients, and sediments are filtered out by the soil and

surrounding organisms. Riparian zones act as living filters which absorb and take in

excess nutrients and pollutants brought in from runoff, rainfall, and surrounding areas.

These natural filtration systems are important in purifying our drinking water as much

as possible before it reaches treatment plants to reduce the cost of that treatment and to

minimize the amount of chemicals added in order to make it drinkable.

d. Soil Texture

Another easily experienced property of soil is texture. Pick up a pinch of soil between

your fingers, and rub it back and forth. You will quickly notice that the soil is made up of

a many different sized particles. These particles give the soil its texture. Some soils

have more large particles, and fewer small particles, while other soils have an

abundance of small particles with few large particles. Other soils have an equal balance

between small and large particles. These well balanced soils are the healthiest for plant

life. (Progardening Systems, 2009)

8
 Soil pH

The first order of business is a quick review of pH and the associated

terminology. Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and

is measured in pH units. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point.

As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil increases, the soil pH decreases, thus

becoming more acidic. From pH 7 to 0, the soil is increasingly more acidic, and from pH

7 to 14, the soil is increasingly more alkaline or basic.

Using a strict chemical definition, pH is the negative log of hydrogen (H+) activity in an

aqueous solution. The point to remember from the chemical definition is that pH values

are reported on a negative log scale. So, a 1 unit change in the pH value signifies a 10-

fold change in the actual activity of H+, and the activity increases as the pH value

decreases.

To put this into perspective, a soil pH of 6 has 10 times more hydrogen ions than

a soil with a pH of 7, and a soil with a pH of 5 has 100 times more hydrogen ions than a

soil with a pH of 7. Activity increases as the pH value decreases.

Agronomists generally use soil pH as measured in a 2:1 water-to-soil mixture as

an index of a soil's acidity or alkalinity. In a soil test report, pH is often reported with

descriptive modifier.

Table 1

Soil pH level
3.0 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Very Strongly Strongly Slightly Not Slightly Mildly Moderately
Neutral
Acid Acid Acid Acidic Alkaline Alkaline
Best Range for Most Crops

Soil Acidity

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 Soil acidity, is one of the principal influences for good or bad in soil. This used to

be the province of scientists and chemistry students, but over the years it has become

part of the home gardener's everyday world. In many, many cases, soil pH is the key to

proper plant growth, and a reading of soil acidity can tell you much about what is going

on beneath the surface of your garden.

The pH scale is just as easy to work with as the thermometer scale. You don't

have to know thermodynamics or heat transfer to understand what happens to your

plants when thermometer readings drop to or below 32° Fahrenheit. Similarly, without

knowing a thing about hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, logarithm exponents or other

technical details of the pH theory, you can make practical use of soil pH elements that

your plants (and the soil organisms) need.

The pH scale is a measure of balance between acidity and alkalinity of soil solutions.

The scale is simplicity itself, being a series of numbers starting at 0.0, the most acid, and

running in tenths up to 14.0, the most alkaline. The neutral soil reaction on the scale is

7.0, the mid-point where acid and alkaline elements are in balance. (Soil reaction refers

to the degree of acidity.) Gardeners do not use the entire pH scale, since reactions from

4.0 to 9.0 are just about the limits for plant growth. (Beaulieu, 2006).

Effects of Acidity in Crops

An acid solution has Sakshi Gupta pagala pH value less than 7. While basic

solution always has a pH larger than 7, can also be defined as the negative logarithm of

hydroxide ions in the soil.

Soil pH is an important consideration for farmers and gardeners for several

reasons such as many plants and soil life forms have a preference for either alkaline or

acidic conditions, affecting the choice of crop/plant that can be grown without

10
intervention to adjust the pH, diseases affecting plants also tend to thrive in soil with a

particular pH range, and the pH can affect the availability of nutrients in the soil.

In order for plants to obtain the nutrients they need to survive, these nutrients

must be carried into them by being dissolved into the ground water that the plants

absorb through their roots. If a soil has too much acid in it, the nutrients in the soil will be

dissolved too quickly, and leeched away as the water drains.

The pH value of a soil is influenced by the kinds of parent materials from which

the soil was formed. Soils developed from basic rocks generally have higher pH values

than those formed from acid rocks. Rainfall also affects soil pH. Water passing through

the soil leaches basic nutrients such as calcium and magnesium from the soil. They are

replaced by acidic elements such as aluminium and iron. For this reason, soils formed

under high rainfall conditions are more acidic than those formed under arid (dry)

conditions.

A pH level of around 6.3-6.8 is also the optimum range preferred by most soil

bacteria, although fungi, moulds, and anaerobic bacteria have a broader tolerance and

tend to multiply at lower pH values. Therefore, more acidic soils tend to be susceptible to

souring and putrefaction, rather than undergoing the sweet decay processes associated

with the decay of organic matter, which immeasurably benefit the soil. These processes

also prefer near-neutral conditions.

Many plant diseases are caused or exacerbated by extremes of pH, sometimes

because this makes essential nutrients unavailable to crops or because the soil itself is

unhealthy. For example, chlorosis of leaf vegetables and potato scab occur in overly

alkaline conditions, and acidic soils can cause clubroot in brassicas. (The Kids Know It

network, 1998)

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Table 2: some plant reference

pH Plants preferable to the Soil pH

pH 4.5 – 5.0 Orchid
pH 5.0 – 5.5 Potato, Sweet Potato, Maize,
pH 5.5 – 6.0 Bean, Carrot
pH 6.0 – 6.5 Broccoli, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Egg Plant, Pea, Sweet Corn,

Pumpkin, Squash, Tomato, Turnip, Red Clover, Sweet Clover, White

Clover, Candytuft,
pH 6.5 – 7.0 Asparagus, Beet, Celery, Lettuce, Melons, Onion, Parsnip, Spinach,

Lucerne, Chrysanthemum, Dahlia, Stock, Sweet Pea and Tulip.

pH 7.1 – 8.0 favor soil alkaline conditions.

Knowing the soil pH helps identify the kinds of chemical reactions that are likely

to be taking place in the soil. Generally, the most important reactions from the standard

point of crop production are those dealing with solubility’s of compounds or materials in

soils.

Why Soils are Acid

Based on a study conducted, acid soil conditions are more widespread in eastern

Oklahoma, the more natural occurrence there has resulted in farm operators being

better able to manage soil acidity in that part of the state. However, in central and

western Oklahoma the problem appears to grow with time. These are the three major

causes for soils to become acid:

a. Rainfall and Leaching

Excessive rainfall is an effective agent for removing basic cations over a long period

of time (thousands of years). In Oklahoma, for example, we can generally conclude that

soils are naturally acidic if the rainfall is above 30 inches per year. Therefore soils east of

12
l-35tend to be acidic and those wests of l-35, alkaline. There are many exceptions for

this rule though, mostly as a result of item 4, intensive crop production. Rainfall is most

effective in causing soils to become acidic if a lot of water moves through soil rapidly.

Sandy soils are often the first to become acidic because water percolates rapidly, and

sandy soils contain only a small reservoir of bases (buffer rapidly) due to low clay and

organic matter contents. Since the effect of rainfall on acid soil development is very slow,

it may take hundreds of years for new parent material to become acidic under high

rainfall.

b. Parent Material

Due to differences in chemical composition of parent materials, soils will become

acidic after different lengths of time. Thus, soils that developed from granite material are

likely to be more acidic than soils developed from calcareous shale or limestone.

c. Organic matter Decay

Decaying organic matter produces H+ which is responsible for acidity. The carbon

dioxide (CO2) produced by decaying organic matter reacts with water in the soil to form a

weak acid called carbonic acid. This is the same acid that develops when CO 2 in the

atmosphere reacts with rain to form acid rain naturally. Several organic acids are also

produced by decaying organic matter, but they are also weak acids. Like rainfall, the

contribution to acid soil development by decaying organic matter is generally very small,

and it would only be the accumulated effects of many years that might ever by measured

in a field. (Johnson, 1914)

Chromium (mined as Chromite)

Chromium is the 21st element in earth’s crust in relative abundance. It belongs to

Group VI B (Atomic No.24). It is a hard white metallic transition element occurring

naturally as chromate. It is a salt in which an ion contains both chromium and oxygen. It

13
is a biologically inert metal (20). Chromium occurs in the Valence States of +2, +3 and

+6. The +2 and +3 states are basic whereas +6 are acidic, forming are ions of the type

chromate and dichromate. Exposure to chromium can occur through the three major

routes, via. Absorption through the skin, by direct ingestion and by inhalation of

chromium containing particles. The oral LD 50 of Na2Cr2O7 (sodium chromate) in

humans has been reported to be 50 ppm. Chromium based industries generate

considerable quantity of pollutants containing toxic hexavalent chromium (Cr+6).

Chromite mining has vastly improved the economic status of several people in Orissa.

But it has severely affected the ecology and reduced the forest cover. Pollution from

these mines is mainly in the form of dust, slag and process water. A huge amount of

dust is released into the atmosphere. Moreover, chromium poisoning has had toxic

effects in workers employed in chromite mines. Effluents from the chromite mines, coal

mines and coal utilization sites are discharged into various tributaries of the Brahmani

River. People live in this areas have been found to suffer from toxic effects arising from

exposure to chromium. Such toxic effects may range from ulcers, allergic dermatitis and

lung cancer to renal insufficiency to lever necrosis. (Mastorakis, 2005).

Chromium is a lustrous, brittle, hard metal. Its color is silver-gray and it can be

highly polished. It does not tarnish in air, when heated it burns and forms the green

chromic oxide. Chromium is unstable in oxygen, it immediately produces a thin oxide

layer that is impermeable to oxygen and protects the metal below.

Chromium main uses are in alloys such as stainless steel, in chrome plating and

in metal ceramics. Chromium plating was once widely used to give steel a polished

silvery mirror coating. Chromium is used in metallurgy to impart corrosion resistance and

a shiny finish; as dyes and paints, its salts colour glass an emerald green and it is used

to produce synthetic rubies; as a catalyst in dyeing and in the tanning of leather; to make

14
molds for the firing of bricks. Chromium (IV) oxide (CrO 2) is used to manufacture

magnetic tape.

Chromium is mined as chromite (FeCr2O4) ore. Chromium ores are mined today

in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Finland, India, Kazakihstan and the Philippines. A total of 14

million tonnes of chromite ore is extracted. Reserves are hestimated to be of the order of

1 billion tonnes with unexploited deposits in Greenland, Canada e USA. (lenntech water

treatment and purification holding B.V., 1998-2009)

Effects of Chromite to soil

The water from chromite mines are invariably contaminated with hexavalent

chromium. Mine water is released into the adjoining water sources (drinking and

domestic) without treatment. The slag is usually dumped underground. This contains

chromium compounds in different valence state. Hexavalent chromium is formed due to

still unknown chemical reactions and this percolates to the subsoil and terrestrial water

sources during rainy seasons. Sometimes the slag is manually broken and washed to

retrieve the product and in this process some contaminated water and shine are

generated. Hexavalent Chromium (Cr VI) does not bind to soil and is not affected unless

there is some organic matter. Chromium levels in mine water was tested by using

Atomic absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). It was found that chromium content in the

ground water is higher than 31 mg/1. Effluents are causing irreversible damage to the

subsoil and surface water sources in adjoining areas and waste dumping sites. For

example hexavalent chromium content in certain parts of Orissa has been found to be

550 – 1500 ppm (mg/l) in well water, 25 – 100 ppm in irrigation reservoirs and 4000 ppm

(mg/l) in the soil making it unfit for domestic usages.( Mastorakis, 2005).

Health effects of chromium

People can be exposed to chromium through breathing, eating or drinking and

through skin contact with chromium or chromium compounds. The level of chromium in

15
air and water is generally low. In drinking water the level of chromium is usually low as

well, but contaminated well water may contain the dangerous chromium(IV); hexavalent

chromium. For most people eating food that contains chromium(III) is the main route of

chromium uptake, as chromium(III) occurs naturally in many vegetables, fruits, meats,

yeasts and grains. Various ways of food preparation and storage may alter the

chromium contents of food. When food stores in steel tanks or cans. The chromium

concentrations may rise. Chromium(III) is an essential nutrient for humans and

shortages may cause heart conditions, disruptions of metabolisms and diabetes. But the

uptake of too much chromium (III) can cause health effects as well, for instance skin

rashes.

Chromium (VI) is a danger to human health, mainly for people who work in the steel and

textile industry. People who smoke tobacco also have a higher chance of exposure to

chromium.

Chromium (VI) is known to cause various health effects. When it is a compound in

leather products, it can cause allergic reactions, such as skin rash. After breathing it in

chromium (VI) can cause nose irritations and nosebleeds. Other health problems that

are caused by chromium (VI) are Skin rashes, Upset stomachs and ulcers, Respiratory

problems, weakened immune systems, Kidney and liver damage, Alteration of genetic

material, Lung cancer, Death.

The health hazards associated with exposure to chromium are dependent on its

oxidation state. The metal form (chromium as it exists in this product) is of low toxicity.

The hexavalent form is toxic. Adverse effects of the hexavalent form on the skin may

include ulcerations, dermatitis, and allergic skin reactions. Inhalation of hexavalent

chromium compounds can result in ulceration and perforation of the mucous membranes

of the nasal septum, irritation of the pharynx and larynx, asthmatic bronchitis,

16
bronchospasms and edema. Respiratory symptoms may include coughing and

wheezing, shortness of breath, and nasal itch.

Carcinogenicity- Chromium and most trivalent chromium compounds have been listed by

the National Toxicology Program (NTP) as having inadequate evidence for

carcinogenicity in experimental animals. According to NTP, there is sufficient evidence

for carcinogenicity in experimental animals for the following hexavalent chromium

compounds; calcium chromate, chromium trioxide, lead chromate, strontium

chromate,and zinc chromate. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has

listed chromium metal and its trivalent compounds within Group 3 (The agent is not

classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.) Chromium is not regulated as a

carcinogen by OSHA (29 CFR 1910 Subpart Z). ACGIH has classified chromium metal

and trivalent chromium compounds as A4, not classifiable as a human carcinogen.

(lenntech water treatment and purification holding B.V., 1998-2009)

CHAPTER III

17
 METHODOLOGY

I. Materials • Erlenmeyer Flask

• Volumetric Flask
• Distilled water
• Suction bulb
• Soil Samples
• Pipette
• Digging tool (trowel)
• Colorimeter
• Sealable Cellophanes

• Universal indicator (pH – Fix 0- Method:

14) • pH testing using pH meter

Apparatus • Colorimetric Method

• Stirring Rod Chemicals

• Beakers
• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
• Filter Funnel with Filter Paper
• Diphenyl Carbaxide (DPC)
• Calibrator
• Ethyl Alcohol
• pH meter

• Mortar and Pestle

• Molecular Sieve

• Molecular Balance

• Top Loading Balance

• Drying oven

• Furnace

18
 II. Procedure

A. Mapping of the site

Interval: 100m away from each site

B. Collection of Samples

Three samples from different areas of Caribao, Mainit were collected. Each

sample was labeled as T1, T2 and T3. Using the digging device or trowel, each soil

samples were measured with an approximation of 100g. This is to assure that the

collected sample won’t be deficient.

C. Preparing for experimentation

Each beaker and other apparatus were labeled with the corresponding test soil sample

number to attain accuracy and avoid confusion.

19
D. Preparing the samples

Refining

All the samples were pulverized using mortar and pestle. Samples were assured to be

dry. Wet or even moist soil sample were placed inside the oven for drying. Each sample

undergoes screening using a molecular sieve for the purpose of thorough refinement.

E. Soil pH testing

Each sample was placed inside a 100mL beaker. Every sample was weighed using the

top loading balance and set to 10g per sample. 10mL of distilled water were added to

each soil sample. Each sample was mixed by using stirring rod for 5 minutes. Filter

funnel with the filter paper was used to separate the soil and distilled water. This

procedure was repeated to each sample. Each sample was placed with a universal

indicator (pH – Fix 0-14) for estimated pH level.

Using the pH meter

pH meter was used to give a numerical and exact value of the pH level of soil-water

mixture. A pH electrode senses the difference between the H+ concentration in the soil

solution and in a reference solution inside the electrode. Then the pH meter was

calibrated.

F. Chromite Analysis

Weighing

Each sample was weighed using the molecular balance. Crucibles were also

weighed along with each soil sample. Approximately 0.2g was set to each soil. Each

20
soil samples were divided into trials namely A, B, and C for the purpose of identifying

any errors especially in the colorimetric method.

a. Ignition

Using the furnace, the soil was ignited with the temperature of 800° Celsius for 1

hour. After the ignition, each soil samples were again weighed.

b. Filtration

Each sample was dissolved in a 5mL HCl solution and was boiled at 100° C for

30 minutes. With the use of the filter funnel attached with filter paper, filtration

and disintegration of soil particles from the liquid solution was done. Erlenmeyer

flask is then used to place each solution. The remains in the filter paper were

again ignited for the Sodium Peroxide Fusion.

c. Sodium Peroxide Fusion

Sodium peroxide was mixed with the ignited soil (soil from the filtration). Bunsen

burner was utilized for melting the samples to yield a yellow product. Samples

were observed for visible yellow product. Before the samples can proceed to

colorimetric method, the test samples should be visible of the yellow product to

determine whether or whether not the sample contains chromite. If the samples

will not show any trace of yellow product, then the sample is possibly negative to

Chromite content and therefore will not proceed to Colorimetric Method.

After the fusion, each sample was boiled for 20 minutes. Then the filtration

process was repeated. Volumetric Flask was used for accurate volume and was

set to 100mL per sample.

21
d. Colorimetric Method

In a beaker, ethyl alcohol and Diphenyl Carbazide (DPC) was mixed for 15

minutes. This process was done to filtrate CrO4- , the result will yield a purple

solution if the test samples is positive with Chromite. A pipette and a suction bulb

were used to transport the solution at 10mL to an Erlenmeyer flask. The solution

with DPC and the test sample solutions were then combined. After combining, it

was then placed in a test tube for the colorimeter reading using the Colorimeter.

Reading of the absorbance will be at 542nm. Calculations will follow after this

procedure which will be stated in the results and discussion.

22
Flow of Procedure Mapping of the site

Collection of Samples

Preparing for experimentation

Preparing the samples

Refining

Soil pH Testing Chromite Analysis

Soil – Water Mixture Weighing

pH meter reading Ignition

Quantitative Data/ Filtration

Numerical Value

Sodium Peroxide Fusion

Colorimetric Method

Absorbance Reading

Quantitative Data/
Numerical Value

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 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A. Determining the acidity level of soil

Table 1: pH level of soil

T1 T2 T3
Weight in grams 10.0g 10.0g 10.0g

(g)
pH level 5.20 ± 0.01 5.36 ± 0.01 3.65 ± 0.01

Table 1 shows the result of the pH meter testing of the soil – water mixture. Each sample

was weighed accordingly.

Graph 1: pH level of soil

Based on the results of the pH level test, the graph shows the intensity of acidity

in each soil samples. The data in the x axis are the weight of each soil sample, while the

y axis shows the pH level ranging from 0 – 6 and was based on the results of the testing.

All soil samples are acidic but T3 shows the highest level of acidity.

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 B. Chromium determination

Table 2: Weighing Soil samples before Ignition

T1
Trial # TI-A TI-B TI-C
Wt g Soil 0.2024 0.2101 0.2012

Wt g Crucible, 24.1636 23.6108 19.6068

empty
Wt g Soil 24.3660 23.8209 19.808
+crucible
T2
Trial # T2-A T2-B T2-C
Wt g Soil 0.2179 0.2018 0.2019

Wt g Crucible, 21.6645 23.5303 23.4661

empty
Wt g Soil + 21.8824 23.7321 23.6680
Crucible
T3
Trial # T3-A T3-B T3-C
Wt g Soil 0.2098 0.2062 0.2092
Wt g Crucible, 22.2721 21.6562 22.8116
empty
Wt g Soil + 22.4819 21.8624 23.0208
Crucible

This table shows the weight of each soil samples before igniting it using the furnace.

This was done after pulverizing and refining the soil sample and had been set to 0.2g

each. This is completed along with the crucibles to maintain consistency in the results.

Table 3: Weighing Soil Samples after Ignition

T1
Trial number T1 – A T1 – B T1 – C
Wt. of Soil &crucible 23.3263 23.7781 19.7690

25
 T2
Trial number T2 – A T2 – B T2 – C
Wt. of Soil &crucible 21.8631 23.7151 23.6511

(g)
T3
Trial number T3 – A T3 – B T3 – C
Wt. of Soil &crucible 22.4502 21.8327 22.9893

(g)

After the ignition, each soil samples were again weighed and this table gives the

corresponding weight. Compared to Table 2, the weights of the soil samples were

decreased.

Table 4: Result of Fusion

Yellow product T1 T2 T3
Result + ++ +++

Legend:

+ minute but visible traces +++ clearly visible

++ slightly visible traces – negative/no traces at all

Table 4 shows the test results after the Sodium Peroxide Fusion. All the test

samples prove that Chromite is present. The results stated in this table also tell us that

all soil samples had undergone Colorimetric Method for the quantitative value of

Chromite concentration.

Colorimetric Method

Table 5: Concentration and Absorbance of Chromium content

X - Standard concentration Y - Absorbance

(PPM) (wavelength)
0.00 0.00

26
0.25 0.118

0.52 0.228

0.75 0.344

1.00 0.458

This table shows the standard concentration in PPM (parts per million) needed to

test the chromite content of each soil sample and the absorbance level required for

every concentration.

Equations used:

Concentration = (Abs -0.001)/

0.456

mcg Cr2O3= conc. X dilution factor

mg Cr2O3 = mcg Cr2O3 /1000

%Cr2O3 = (mg Cr2O3/ mg sample)*100

The following tables discussed the analysis on how the Chromite Content was

computed to determine the exact percentage concentration on each soil samples. This

was done on individual Tests. The total average percent concentration of Chromite is

also stated in every test samples.

Table 6: Test Result of T1

Trial No. I II III
weight of s, mg 202.4 202.4 202.4
Total Volume 100 100 100
aliqout, mL 10 10 10
Vfinal 50 50 50
absorbance 0.055 0.053 0.054
concentration, 0.1186 0.1142 0.1164
ppm
dilution factor 500 500 500
mcg Cr2O3 59.3 57.12 58.21

27
mg Cr2O3 0.0593 0.05712 0.05821
% Cr2O3 0.029298419 0.028221344 0.028759881
0.03% 0.03% 0.03%
Ave %Cr2O3 0.03%

Table 7: Test Result of T2

Trial No. I II III
weight of s, mg 217.9 217.9 217.9
Total Volume 100 100 100
aliqout, mL 10 10 10
Vfinal 50 50 50
absorbance 0.208 0.204 0.204
concentration,
ppm 0.4531 0.4444 0.4444
dilution factor 500 500 500
mcg Cr2O3 226.55 222.18 222.18
mg Cr2O3 0.22655 0.22218 0.22218
% Cr2O3 0.103969711 0.101964204 0.101964204
0.10% 0.10% 0.10%
Ave %Cr2O3 0.10%

Table 8: Test Result of T3

Trial No. I II III

weight of s, mg 209.2 209.2 209.2
Total Volume 100 100 100
aliqout, mL 5 5 5
Vfinal 50 50 50
absorbance 0.232 0.232 0.232
conc, ppm 0.1186 0.1142 0.1164
dilution factor 5000 5000 5000
mcg Cr2O3 2,527.87 2,527.87 2,527.87
mg Cr2O3 2.52787 2.52787 2.52787
% Cr2O3 1.20835086 1.20835086 1.20835086
1.21 1.21 1.21
Ave %Cr2O3 1.21%

Based on the quantitative data and computed results, each soil sample contains

Chromite. T3 shows the highest concentration of Chromite compared to the other

samples.

Graph 2: determination of Chromite

28
This graph shows the calibration curve used in determining the chromite content. The X

axis shows the standard concentration in PPM or Parts per Million and the Y axis shows

the absorbance in wavelength. The value of absorbance is fixed (refer to Table 5). R2 is

set at 0.9999 and it is the coefficient of determination.

Chapter V

Conclusions and Recommendation

Based on the results given and the value of each data, the researcher concludes that the

high Acidity Level of soil is a factor towards soil infertility. The presence of Chromite is also

a factor but result shows that chromite concentration was less therefore; it contributes to

the soil’s infertility but cannot be considered the main reason towards the infertility. pH

level on the other hand shows that the maximum test result is not tolerable by plants. Since

29
the endurable acidity level of most common plants is close to neutral, therefore high acidic

level of soil will result to unproductive soil. Although T3 has the highest level of both Acidity

Level and Chromite Content, still traces from T1 and T2 are present.

Recommendations

Since acidic soil is proven based on the result, it is best recommended to take an

action to solve this problem. One way of treating acidic soil is by liming (Calcium

Carbonate), it helps by neutralizing the acid in the soil. Or another way is by informing the

Department of Agriculture, in this way, they will be aware of the situation in Mainit; and by

any other means, they will be able to help the people in their farming.

On the actual lab test, a lot of minerals were found in the soil samples that weren’t

part of scope of this study and may also be a factor towards the infertility. Minerals like

Iron, Silicate and Aluminates was said to be present based on the tests. So the researcher

would likely recommend for the next researchers to study about this potential minerals and

their contribution to the soil’s infertility.

Bibliography

Book

Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowlegde, p. 170

Electronic Sources

Beaulieu, D., “Landscaping Guide” Thursday September 2, 2010

<http://landscaping.about.com/bio/David-Beaulieu-8278.htm>

Forest Preserve District of Cook County (Illinois) March 2, 1963 “Soil Minerals”
<http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/natbltn/700-799/nb707.htm>

30
Johnson, G. V., Extension Soil Specialist “Causes and Effects of Soil Acidity”
<http://www.plantstress.com/articles/toxicity_i/cause-effect%20acidity.pdf>

Lenntech BV, Rotterdamseweg 402 M 2629 HH Delft the Netherlands “Chromium – Cr”
<http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cr.htm#ixzz0yTDYSz9P>

Mines and Geosciences Bureau Region 10, 2008 “MGB-10 Pioneers in the
Establishment of Social Development Council, Date Posted July 24, 2008
<http://www.mgb10.com/iec/updates.html>

Pedosphere.com. 2001. “Searchable Keys to Soil Taxonomy” Eighth Edition. September 2,

2010<http://www.pedosphere.com/resources/sg_usa/>

Pro Gardening Systems, “Soil Structure, The Foundation of Success!” Wednesday,

October 14, 2009 <http://pgsgrow.com/blog/tag/soil-structure/>

SMC 2008: “Discover the Secrets of Soil Mineral Balance and Create Your Own Ideal Soil!”
<http://www.soilminerals.com/>

The KidsKnowIt Network “A Study of The Earth And Her People”<http://kidsgeo.com/>

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