Basics

A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen to cleanly and efficiently produce electricity
with water and heat as byproducts. Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of their
potential applications; they can provide energy for systems as large as a utility power station
and as small as a laptop computer.

Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-based technologies currently
used in many power plants and passenger vehicles. They emit no emissions at the point of
operation, including greenhouse gases and air pollutants that create smog and cause health
problems. On a life-cycle basis, if pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit only heat
and water as byproducts.

How Does a Fuel Cell Work?

A fuel cell is a device that uses a fuel and oxygen to create electricity by an electrochemical
process. A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte and two catalyst-coated electrodes (a
porous anode and cathode). While there are different fuel cell types, all fuel cells work
similarly:

• A fuel (such as hydrogen) is fed to the anode where a catalyst separates hydrogen's
negatively charged electrons from positively charged ions (protons).
• At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with species such
as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions, respectively.
• For polymer electrolyte membrane and phosphoric acid fuel cells, protons move
through the electrolyte to the cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons,
producing water and heat.
 • For alkaline, molten carbonate, and solid oxide fuel cells, negative ions travel through
the electrolyte to the anode where they combine with hydrogen to generate water and
electrons.
• The electrons from the anode cannot pass through the electrolyte to the positively
charged cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical circuit to reach the other
side of the cell. This movement of electrons is an electrical current.

Fuel Cell Systems

The design of fuel cell systems is complex and can vary significantly depending upon fuel
cell type and application. However, most fuel cell systems consist of four basic components:

• Fuel cell stack

• Fuel processor
• Current inverters and conditioners
• Heat recovery system

Most fuel cell systems also include other components and subsystems to control fuel cell
humidity, temperature, gas pressure, and wastewater.

Fuel Cell Stack

The fuel cell stack is the heart of a fuel cell power system. It generates electricity in the form
of direct current (DC) from chemical reactions that take place in the fuel cell. A single fuel
cell produces enough electricity for only the smallest applications. Therefore, individual fuel
cells are typically combined in series into a fuel cell stack. A typical fuel cell stack may
consist of hundreds of fuel cells. The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon
several factors, such as fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it operates, and the
pressure at which the gases are supplied to the cell. Learn more about the parts of a fuel cell.
Fuel Processor

The fuel processor converts fuel into a form useable by the fuel cell. If hydrogen is fed to the
system, a processor may not be required, or it may be needed only to filter impurities out of
the hydrogen gas.

If the system is powered by a hydrogen-rich, conventional fuel, such as methanol, gasoline,

diesel, or gasified coal, a reformer is typically used to convert hydrocarbons into a gas
mixture of hydrogen and carbon compounds called "reformate." In many cases, the reformate
is then sent to another reactor to remove impurities, such as carbon oxides or sulfur, before it
is sent to the fuel cell stack. This process prevents impurities in the gas from binding with the
fuel cell catalysts. This binding process is also called "poisoning" because it reduces the
efficiency and life expectancy of the fuel cell.

Some fuel cells, such as molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells, operate at temperatures
high enough that the fuel can be reformed in the fuel cell itself. This type is called internal
reforming. Fuel cells that use internal reforming still need traps to remove impurities from the
unreformed fuel before it reaches the fuel cell.

Both internal and external reforming release carbon dioxide, but less than the amount emitted
by internal-combustion engines, such as those used in gasoline-powered vehicles.

Current Inverters and Conditioners

Current inverters and conditioners adapt the electrical current from the fuel cell to suit the
electrical needs of the application, whether it is a simple electrical motor or a complex utility
power grid.

Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of direct current (DC). In a direct current circuit,
electricity flows in only one direction. The electricity in your home and workplace is in the
form of alternating current (AC), which flows in both directions on alternating cycles. If the
fuel cell is used to power equipment using AC, the direct current will have to be converted to
alternating current.
Both AC and DC power must be conditioned. Power conditioning includes controlling
current flow (amperes), voltage, frequency, and other characteristics of the electrical current
to meet the needs of the application. Conversion and conditioning reduce system efficiency
only slightly, around 2%–6%.

Heat Recovery System

Fuel cell systems are not primarily used to generate heat. However, because significant
amounts of heat are generated by some fuel cell systems—especially those that operate at
high temperatures, such as solid oxide and molten carbonate systems—this excess energy can
be used to produce steam or hot water or to be converted to electricity via a gas turbine or
other technology. These methods increase the overall energy efficiency of the systems.

Parts of a Fuel Cell

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of research for fuel cell
vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of different materials, as
shown in the diagram. The three key layers in a PEM fuel cell include:

• Membrane electrode assembly

• Catalyst
• Hardware

Other layers of materials are designed to help draw fuel and air into the cell and to conduct
electrical current through the cell.

Membrane Electrode Assembly

The electrodes (anode and cathode), catalyst, and polymer electrolyte membrane together
form the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEM fuel cell.

• Anode. The anode, the negative side of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the
electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so they can be used in an
external circuit. Channels etched into the anode disperse the hydrogen gas equally
over the surface of the catalyst.
• Cathode. The cathode, the positive side of the fuel cell, also contains channels that
distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It conducts the electrons back from
the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions
and oxygen to form water.
• Polymer electrolyte membrane. The polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)—a
specially treated material that looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap—
conducts only positively charged ions and blocks the electrons. The PEM is the key to
the fuel cell technology; it must permit only the necessary ions to pass between the
 anode and cathode. Other substances passing through the electrolyte would disrupt the
chemical reaction.

The thickness of the membrane in a membrane electrode assembly can vary with the type of
membrane. The thickness of the catalyst layers depends upon how much platinum (Pt) is used
in each electrode. For catalyst layers containing about 0.15 milligrams (mg) Pt/cm2, the
thickness of the catalyst layer is close to 10 micrometers (μm)—less than half the thickness
of a sheet of paper. This membrane/electrode assembly, with a total thickness of about 200
μm (or 0.2 mm), can generate more than half an ampere of current for every square
centimeter of assembly area at a voltage of 0.7 volts, but only when encased in well-
engineered components—backing layers, flow fields, and current collectors.

Catalyst
All electrochemical reactions in a fuel cell consist of two separate reactions: an oxidation
half-reaction at the anode and a reduction half-reaction at the cathode. Normally, the two
half-reactions would occur very slowly at the low operating temperature of the PEM fuel cell.
Each of the electrodes is coated on one side with a catalyst layer that speeds up the reaction
of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto
carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area of the
platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst
faces the PEM. Platinum-group metals are critical to catalyzing reactions in the fuel cell, but
they are very expensive. DOE's goal is to reduce the use of platinum in fuel cell cathodes by
at least a factor of 20 or eliminate it altogether to decrease the cost of fuel cells to consumers.

Hardware

The backing layers, flow fields, and current collectors are designed to maximize the current
from a membrane/electrode assembly. The backing layers—one next to the anode, the other
next to the cathode—are usually made of a porous carbon paper or carbon cloth, about as
thick as 4 to 12 sheets of paper. The backing layers have to be made of a material (like
carbon) that can conduct the electrons that leave the anode and enter the cathode. The porous
nature of the backing material ensures effective diffusion (flow of gas molecules from a
region of high concentration to a region of low concentration) of each reactant gas to the
catalyst on the membrane/electrode assembly. The gas spreads out as it diffuses so that when
it penetrates the backing, it will be in contact with the entire surface area of the catalyzed
membrane.

The backing layers also help in managing water in the fuel cell; too little or too much water
can cause the cell to stop operating. Water can build up in the flow channels of the plates or
can clog the pores in the carbon cloth (or carbon paper), preventing reactive gases from
reaching the electrodes.

The correct backing material allows the right amount of water vapor to reach the
membrane/electrode assembly and keep the membrane humidified. The backing layers are
often coated with Teflon™ to ensure that at least some, and preferably most, of the pores in
the carbon cloth (or carbon paper) do not become clogged with water, which would prevent
the rapid gas diffusion necessary for a good rate of reaction at the electrodes.

Pressed against the outer surface of each backing layer is a piece of hardware called a bipolar
plate that typically serves as both flow field and current collector. In a single fuel cell, these
two plates are the last of the components making up the cell. The plates are made of a
lightweight, strong, gas-impermeable, electron-conducting material—graphite or metals are
commonly used even though composite plates are now being developed.

The first task served by each plate is to provide a gas "flow field." Channels are etched into
the side of the plate next to the backing layer. The channels carry the reactant gas from the
place where it enters the fuel cell to the place where it exits. The pattern of the flow field in
the plate (as well as the width and depth of the channels) has a large impact on how evenly
the reactant gases are spread across the active area of the membrane/electrode assembly.
Flow field design also affects water supply to the membrane and water removal from the
cathode.

Each plate also acts as a current collector. Electrons produced by the oxidation of hydrogen
must (1) be conducted through the anode, through the backing layer, along the length of the
stack, and through the plate before they can exit the cell; (2) travel through an external
circuit, and (3) re-enter the cell at the cathode plate. With the addition of the flow fields and
current collectors, the PEM fuel cell is complete; only a load-containing external circuit, such
as an electric motor, is required for electric current to flow.