The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept.

Materials Science & Metallurgy

Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

University of Cambridge Safety: statistics

Goldsmiths’ Science for Society 2009
University of Department of
Cambridge Materials Science

Materials for aircraft:

why they don’t fall down

Rob Wallach

http://aviation-safety.net/statistics/period/stats.php?cat=A1

Aircraft weight Why don’t aircraft fall down…

or
Boeing 747 ~400,000 kg or 400 tonnes
how do they lift off ?

… equivalent to ~ 5,000 people each 80 kg weight

NASA Guides to Aeronautics:
•
Aerodynamics
•
Propulsion
•
Hypersonics
•
Compressible Aerodynamics
•
Model Rockets
•
Kites

www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/

Airfoil behaviour Airfoil behaviour: Bernoulli not the whole story

 Coand effect
•
Lift force is perpendicular  = low •
Bernoulli: air moves faster across top curved surface,
to direction of motion.
so air pressure is lower on top surface
Want this force large.
 = mid but then how can an aircraft fly upside down?
•
Drag force is parallel to range
direction of motion. <10o
Want this force small. Due to Coand effect
 = high -
way that a fluid flows
•
Change: attack angle 
 stall across a curved surface
airfoil shape -
plus attack angle 

www.kidwind.org/ppresentations/Powerinthewind.ppt http://jef.raskincenter.org/published/coanda_effect.html

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 1 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Aerofoil design: lift optimisation Aerofoil design: lift optimisation

www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/foil2.html www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/foil2.html

Weight distribution: commercial aircraft Properties relevant to aircraft skin

Weight: mass per unit volume density 

47% 28% fuel
Strength: load for shape change yield stress y
plane
Stiffness: resistance to bending modulus E
4% spare
Fatigue life: resistance to cyclic load endurance limit 

14% payload  income Toughness: energy absorbed to break fracture toughness G
7% carrier

Aim: to optimise those properties which are important.

1% saving in weight of empty aircraft increases available
revenue (payload) to 15% i.e. ~ 7% increase.
Can heavier material with better property, give weight saving?
Weight reduced by: decreasing density of materials - need to consider mechanical loading on component,
increasing mechanical properties - need to consider how it might fail or break.

What are stiffness and strength? Stiffness and strength: summary

Application of a further load leading to

necking and failure
Strength
Failure
stress
Strength
[LOAD]

[yield y]
Ultimate tensile
stress
Stiffness unload Stiffness Yield
stress
E

[SHAPE CHANGE]
Permanent
shape change

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 2 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Stress distribution in an aircraft skin

Stress analysis in aircraft skin
[stress = force or load per unit area ]

 = Pr/t z = Pr/2t

Airbus A380 Hoop stress Longitudinal stress

Optimise materials: merit index for lightness Materials selection maps - usage

Define y /  as the merit index for specific strength

Higher values show materials with higher strengths
r for same mass.
assume r >> t In many design problems, there will be a value of specific
t L
strength that has to be achieved to ensure safety.
Mass m of cylinder length L made from material of density  is:
m = volume (of cylinder and 2 end pieces) x density
To compare different materials, let y 1/n /  = k


.m = (2rrt tLL ++ 2  2r2t)r2t)
m =(2 


and so log (y ) = n log ( ) + k'
Aircraft skin will not fail by yielding (permanent shape change) if Graph of log(y ) versus log( ) gives straight line of gradient n

yield stress y >  hence
. y > Pr/t
where value of n is fixed by design problem & analysis used.
Only variable that is not material property or specified dimension Materials on a given line are equivalent in terms of the ratio of
is wall thickness t . Eliminate t between two equations: the two properties.



m = 2r (L+ r) Pr  /y

Materials selection maps - usage Ashby map for

materials selection:
m = 2r (L+ r) Pr  /y
or y /  = [2r (L+ r) Pr] / m yield strength y
versus density 
Woods
Define y /  as the merit index for specific strength
Hence for lower mass, want higher strength or lower density Foams
In many design problems, there is a value of specific strength
that has to be achieved to ensure safety. Metals
To compare different materials, let y 1/n /  = k


and so log (y ) = n log ( ) + k' Rubbers
Line of gradient n
Graph of log(y ) versus log( ) gives straight line of gradient n
Materials on a given line are equivalent in terms of the ratio of
the two properties.
[Note: value of n is fixed by design problem & analysis used.]

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 3 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Strengths of wood and aluminium Aircraft frame and skin materials

[for a medium strength aluminium alloy]

Wood (pine) Aluminium alloy

Strength y 80 MN m-2 80 MN m-2 Boredom fighter: wood
Density  700 kg m-3 2800 kg m-3

For same strength, wood bar is ~ 4 times lighter than Al bar Concorde: aluminium

www.ultralightnews.com/plansbuyerguide/boredomfighter-aircraftplans.html

…. and stiffness? Stiffness of wood and aluminium

Wood (pine) Aluminium alloy

Resistance to bending but such that no
permanent shape change occurs. Stiffness E 20 GN m-2 80 GN m-2
Density  700 kg m-3 2800 kg m-3
For the same stiffness, need 4 times the area of wood

… but wood is 4 times lighter so
stiffness of larger wood bar is same as aluminium bar
and both weigh the same

Ashby map for

materials selection: …. if so equivalent, why not use wood more?
stiffness E
Choice of shape can improve stiffness considerably:
versus density 

Round solid bar: area A
bending stiffness S

Tube of same area A Lighter tube of area A/4

higher stiffness 2.5 S same stiffness S

Can readily make metallic tubes but more difficult with wood

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 4 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Recap of stiffness and strength Grains in a metallic alloy

Yield.
strength
.

Work–hardening, i.e.
LOAD

strength is higher

.
Stiffness

Permanent
strain SHAPE CHANGE or
INCREASE IN LENGTH

Aluminium – grain size and deformation Metallic crystal structures

100 μm
Before deformation After deformation at 325°C
Strengthening from:
- crystal or grain orientation
- grain size (small better)
- work-hardening ????

Metallic crystal structures How do metals change shape (plastically deform)?

shear stress

face centred
cubic fcc

body centred
cubic bcc but to break all bonds simultaneously, find
stress needed << calculated stress

concept of dislocations
http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/~rkt/tutorials/surfaces/solids.html

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 5 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

What are dislocations? What is work hardening and

what are dislocations?
shear stress

dislocation is a line fault, imperfect lattice edge dislocation screw dislocation

metallic alloy contains typically 1010 m/m3

dislocation is a line fault, imperfect lattice
www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/dislocations/index.php www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/dislocations/index.php

Deformed Cu - 0.7 wt.% Co Aluminium – cold rolled 95% and annealed 300°C

1 μm
1 μm
Deformed grain structure with high dislocation density.
(Humphreys & Martin 1967)

How can we strengthen a metallic alloy more? Strengthening mechanisms: crystalline materials

Strengthening relies on restricting dislocation movement so

yield stress (start of permanent deformation) is higher.

Ease of dislocation movement (yield stress) is affected by:

- melting point
Range of strengths for
- lattice type: available slip systems
aluminium alloys
- crystal or grain orientation
(log scale) - grain size
- extent of work-hardening
- solid-solution alloying
- two-phase hardening
Strongest alloy is ~ 10 times greater - precipitation hardening
than pure Al www.aluminium.matter.org.uk

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 6 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Strengthening – precipitation hardening Precipitate strengthening

Al – 4 wt% Cu alloy

Strengthening relies on restricting dislocation movement so

yield stress (start of plastic deformation) is higher.
GP2 or " zones  ' - semi coherent  - incoherent
Precipitation hardening:
precipitates are small discrete particles in a metal with
different structure & chemical composition to matrix Strengthening from precipitates impeding dislocation motion
www.aluminium.matter.org.uk

Why use different metal alloys in aircraft? Relative costs of metallic alloys

Titanium military aircraft

Aluminium civilian aircraft

www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Costs.html

Relative strengths of aluminium & titanium alloys Aircraft skin temperatures (flying at 0.9 Mach)

Ashby map for At T > 250°C, precipitates in aluminium become

materials selection: less effective (coarsen & can even dissolve).
yield strength y
versus density

www.simtec.gr/.../ cfd-intro/cfd-intro-8.htm

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 7 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

What other properties need to be optimised? Comet disasters 1954

de Havilland Comet

Shape of the Comet windows Fatigue mechanism

Comet had square windows

stress magnification at corners

under alternating stress (vibrations) alternating stress
led to crack initiation and growth
fatigue

Repeated
Metal In in
cycles result
contains tension
crack growth … and In compression:
and cracks cracks
eventually fracture open…
occurs blunt sharpen, and ...
…cracks grow

repeated variation in stress (magnitude < yield)
failure www.key-to-steel.com/Articles/Art162.htm

Fatigue lifetimes: S-N curve for Ti - 6 Al - 4 V Ashby map for

materials selection:
fatigue strength versus 

MPa

fatigue
strength

Higher applied stress (load) means shorter fatigue life.

Define fatigue strength as stress (load) to allow 107 cycles

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 8 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

What is fatigue? Aloha Airlines Flight 243

March 1980: Alexander Keilland oil rig in North Sea Ekofisk field broke
due to fatigue fracture and capsized, killing 123 people.
Boeing 737-200, Hawaii, 28 April 1988
Repeated variation in stress (magnitude < yield)  failure
www.aloha.net/~icarus/

Review: properties relevant to aircraft skin What is toughness?

Load
or stress
Weight: mass per unit volume density 

Strength: load for shape change yield strength y
Stiffness: resistance to bending modulus E
Fatigue life: resistance to cyclic load endurance limit 

Toughness: energy absorbed to break fracture toughness G
Shape change
or strain

 toughness is energy absorbed in breaking [fracture]

 shown by area under stress versus strain curve

Improving toughness Learning from nature: shells and trees

Toughness is energy absorbed when breaking

-
blunting or diverting crack uses energy
-
increase area of fractured surfaces uses energy.

Desirable material properties for strength and toughness:

-
high yield stress with good subsequent ductility
-
small grain size
-
ease of dislocation motion ahead of crack to blunt it
-
phase transformation ahead of crack (specialised)

also delamination in composites

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 9 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Tree branch cross-section Timber cell structure - tracheids

cross-section

micro fibrils in cell walls

Composites: energy absorption Carbon fibre reinforced composites

Burti & Schumacher, Hockenheim track, 29 July 2001

Boeing 787 Dreamliner Ashby map for

materials selection:
KIc versus 

200 – 250Graphite
seats; –range
epoxy7,000
resin -composite
8,500 nautical
bodymiles; Mach 0.85
& wings

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 10 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Aircraft structural materials Joining approaches

Wood: joint design (dovetail)

aluminium steel
wood screws
titanium acrylic
fabric glue
composites rubber
Fabric: sewn
glue
zipper
Aluminium: riveting
Titanium: welding – fusion and stir friction
Composites: joint design
screws
adhesives
www.machinedesign.com/ASP/strArticleID/56410/strSite/MDSite/viewSelectedArticle.asp

Joining approaches: Duxford What gets us up?

aircraft jet engines

Jet engines Jet engine

1. Suck 3. Bang
Squash court per sec. Combust at 2000ºC
2. Squeeze 4. Blow
40x atmospheric pressure Forced through turbine

T1902

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 11 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Materials in gas-turbine aeroengines Rolls Royce 535 engine

Titanium
Nickel
Steel
Aluminium
Composites

Pressure and temperature distributions Properties relevant to aircraft engines

Weight: density

Stiffness: modulus E
Strength: yield strength y
40
Toughness: fracture toughness G
Pressure
(atmospheres) Fatigue life: endurance limit 

0
Creep life: hours under given load applied
1500
at specified temperature
Temperature
(˚C)
0

What is creep?
Stages of creep
Creep : time-dependent permanent deformation
hence plastic and not elastic deformation
transient tertiary
under action of applied stress where applied < yield
[shake down] [run away]

Creep rate depends on: steady state

material
strain
stress 
temperature: creep is negligible unless:
T > 0.3 - 0.4 Tm for metals
T > 0.5 - 0.6 Tm for ceramics
T > Tg for polymers (Tg is glass transition temp.) time t

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 12 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Steady state creep Turbine blade: requirements

Weight: density

Dislocation move
Stiffness: parent alloy selection
plus
atoms diffuse Strength y : small grain size
alloying (solid solution, precipitates)
Toughness: small grain size
Creep strain rate and its temperature dependence are shown by:
no internal defects
Fatigue life: small grain size
where A, A' and A” are constants, no stress raisers
n is power law creep (or stress) exponent (typically ~ 3 - 8)
Creep life: large grains  single crystal
D is the diffusion coefficient at a given temperature T.

Turbine blades in Ni superalloys Nickel-base superalloy (nimonic)

Cube-cube orientation with coherent interfaces

 matrix 65% 

solid solution intermetallic

Ni3(Al,Ti)

disordered fcc ordered cubic-P

Conventionally cast Single crystal Directional solidification

dark field  dark field 

Controlling turbine blade temperatures Maximum turbine-entry temperatures

Directional
Cast solidification
Wrought

Cooling air
thermal barrier
single pass cooling multi-pass cooling
coating

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 13 of 14 July 2009

The Goldsmiths’ Company Dept. Materials Science & Metallurgy
Science for Society Lecture: Aircraft alloys University of Cambridge

Flight: past, now and the future? Aircraft tyres

Wood
Aluminium and titanium
Composites: carbon fibre
Nickel alloys
Steels
Rubber
Concorde
Concorde July 2000
T2545

Properties relevant to aircraft Aircraft sustainability?

Weight: density

Stiffness: modulus E
Strength: yield strength y
Toughness: fracture toughness G
Fatigue life: endurance limit 

Creep life: hours under given load applied
at specified temperature

Materials for aircraft: why they don’t fall down

…. even if we might!

rob.wallach@msm.cam.ac.uk Page 14 of 14 July 2009