NEU FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY: SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

PREPARED FOR: ME416 SOLAR ENERGY

PREPARED BY: OSUDE BENEDICT

May 5, 2011

0
PREFACE

The materials provided in this report cover as much information as possible for the
conversion of solar energy to provide heating to domestic homes.

In the first chapter, I will be making a general introduction to the solar heating systems and
their backgrounds.

In chapter 2, I will be reviewing the types of solar heating systems and will mention a
means to differentiate the available types.

Chapter 3 is centered on the passive systems and an elaborate description of the types of
systems that fall under this group.

In the fourth chapter, I will then be discussing the active heating systems and a description
of the types that make up this system.

The fifth chapter is all about the various components that make up the solar heating system
and I will go into details; classes, functions.

The last chapter is focused on the technological improvements that have been made to the
solar heating systems and the future of the solar heaters.

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost a special thanks to almighty God for his abundant
blessings all through the training.

To the authors of the published texts I referred to for information. A

special thanks to you all.

To my supervisor and the course lecturer that helped me through all

the difficulties while getting accustomed the mill.

2
TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

CHAPTER 2

2.1 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEMS………………………………………………………………………….7

CHAPTER 3

3.1 PASSIVE SYSTEMS…………………………………………………………………………………………………..9

3.2 THERMOSIPHON……………………………………………………………………………………………………..9

CHAPTER 4

4.1 ACTIVE SYSTEMS……………………………………………………………………………………………………12

4.2 Forced circulation water heater systems………………………………………………………………….12
4.3 Air-Water heating system………………………………………………………………………………………..14
4.4 Pool heating systems……………………………………………………………………………………………….15

CHAPTER 5

5.1 COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM…………………………..……………………………17

5.2 THERMAL STORAGE TANK…………………………………………………………….………………………17
5.2.1 Air system thermal storage…………………………………………………………….…………………….18
5.2.2 Liquid system thermal storage…………………………………………………………….………………..20

5.3 SOLAR COLLECTORS……………………………………………………………………………………………….22

5.3.1 Flat-Plate Collectors……………………………………………………………………………………………..23

3
5.3.1.1 Liquid Collectors……………………………………………………………………………………………….25
5.3.2 Air Collectors……………………………………………………………………………………………………….27
5.3.3 Evacuated-Tube Collectors……………………………………………………..……………………………28
5.3.4 Concentrating Collectors………………………………………………………………………………………30

CHAPTER 6

6.1 TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS AND FUTURE OF SOLAR HEATERS……………………32

CHAPTER 7

7.1 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………….33

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………34

4
TABLE OF FIGURES

A natural circulation water heater system………………………………………………………………………9

Forced circulation water heater system………………………………………………………………………..12

Water heater system with antifreeze loop and internal heat exchanger………………………….14

Water heater system with antifreeze loop and external heat exchanger…………………………15

Air system thermal storage……………………………………………………………………………………………19

Liquid system thermal storage………………………………………………………………………………………20

A typical flat-plate collector…………………………………………………………………………………………..23

Unglazed collectors………………………………………………………………………………………………………25

An air collector……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..27

An evacuated-tube collector………………………………………………………………………………………….28

Concentrating Collectors……………………………………………………………………………………………….30

5
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The origin and continuation of humankind is based on solar energy. The most basic
processes supporting life on earth such as photosynthesis and the rain cycle are driven by
solar energy. From the very beginning of its history humankind realized that a good use of
solar energy is in humankinds benefit.

Despite this, only recently, during the last 40 years, has solar energy been harnessed with
specialized equipment and used as an alternative source of energy, mainly because it is free
and does not harm the environment.

The cost of fuel oil for residential heating has more than doubled in the past several years.
Further cost increase in the future are likely as the limited supplies are consumed and fuels
become less available and not to mention the recent outbreak of chaos in the major oil
producing nations. These situations have forced a research into other sources for not just
supplying our energy needs but friendly to the environment and at reasonable costs. Solar
energy has shown to be one of the promising sources of steady clean energy.

Solar heating systems have been in use for years. Solar heat storage in iron was used in
1877 as reported, then it moved on to air blowing over heated metal been used to heat a
home. In the 1930s solar water heaters were in widespread but were quickly replaced
when low cost natural gas became available in the 1940s. Several solar heated homes have
been constructed and operated successfully over the past 40 years. The technology
involved in solar heating systems is therefore well understood. The components used are
also simple and reliable in operation and relatively easy to install by the home owner.

In this paper i will be dealing with the fundamental concepts and laws that determine the
operation of solar process components and systems, the formulation of working equations
for the solar system components and their economic evaluations.

I will be dealing mostly with the application of solar energy systems in building for hot
water, by both active and passive processes.

6
CHAPTER 2

SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEMS

A solar water heater is basically a combination of solar collector array, an energy transfer
system, and a storage tank. The main part of the solar water heater is the solar collector
array, which absorbs solar radiation and converts it to heat. The heat is then absorbed by a
heat transfer fluid (In most cases water, or in some cases air) that passes through the
collector. The heat can then be stored or used directly.

Because there are portions of the solar energy system that are exposed to weather
conditions, they must be protected from freezing and overheating caused by high insolation
levels during periods of low energy demand.

There are two types of solar water heating systems:

 Direct(open) loop systems, in which potable water is heated directly in the collector
 Indirect (closed) loop systems, in which potable water is heated indirectly by a heat
transfer fluid that is heated in the collector and passes through a heat exchanger to
transfer its heat to the domestic or service water.

The solar water heating systems can also differ with respect to the way the heat transfer
fluid is transported:

 Passive systems, in which the heat transfer fluid is circulated by heat driven
convection or heat pipes water. They are cheap and have an extremely low
maintenance cost, but on the other hand their efficiency is significantly low with
overheating and freezing problems.
 Active systems in which mechanical components in the form of pumps are used to
circulate the heat transfer fluid; even though it seems to be slightly more
expensive than the passive systems they offer more advantages over the passive
systems:
o The storage tank can be situated anywhere, allowing increased freedom in
system design and allowing pre-existing storage tanks to be used.

7
o The storage tank can always be hidden from view.
o The storage tank can be placed in conditioned or semi-conditioned space,
reducing heat loss.
o Drain back tanks can be used.
o Superior efficiency.
o Increased control over the system.

8
CHAPTER 3

3.1 PASSIVE SYSTEMS

The main type of system that belong this category is the thermosiphon;

3.2 THERMOSIPHON

Fig. 3.1 A natural circulation water heater system

9
Thermosiphon systems heat potable heat transfer fluid and use natural convection to
transport it from the collector to either direct use or storage. The thermosiphoning effect
occurs because the density of water drops with the increase of the temperature. Therefore
by the action of solar radiation absorbed, the water in the collector is heated and thus
expands, becoming less dense, and rises through the collector into the top of the storage
tank. There it is replaced by the cooler water that has sunk to the bottom of the tank, from
which it flows down the collector. Circulation is continuous as long as the sun is shining.
Since the driving force is only a small density difference, larger than normal pipe sizes must
be used to minimize pipe friction. Connecting lines are also well insulated to prevent heat
loss and sloped to prevent formation of air pockets, which would stop circulation.
The advantages of thermosiphon systems are that they do not rely on pumps and
controllers, are more reliable, and have a longer life than forced circulation systems.
Moreover, they do not require an electrical supply to operate and they naturally modulate
the circulation flow rate in phase with the radiation levels, while the main disadvantage of
thermosiphon systems is that they are comparatively tall units, which makes them not very
attractive aesthetically.
The two types of thermosiphon systems are pressurized and unpressurized.
 In pressurized thermosiphon units, the make-up water is from city mains or
pressure units and the collectors and storage tanks must be able to withstand the
working pressure. When city water is used directly, pressure-reducing and relief
valves must be installed to protect the system because the pressure can be greater
than the working pressure of the collectors and storage tank.
 In unpressurized systems, usually installed where the city water supply is
intermittent, a cold water storage tank is installed on top of the solar collector,
supplying both the hot water cylinder and the cold water needs of the house. This
makes the collector unit taller and less attractive. Another disadvantage of the
system is related to the quality of the water used. As the system is open, extremely
hard or acidic water can cause scale deposits that clog or corrode the absorber fluid
passages.
Thermosiphon systems can be built with freeze protection devices, ranging from dump
valves or heaters in the bottom of the collector header for mild freeze areas to inherent

10
freeze resistance by using a natural circulation, antifreeze closed loop between the
collector and the tank.

11
CHAPTER 4

4.1 ACTIVE SYSTEMS

In active systems, a heat transfer fluid is pumped through the collectors. These are usually
more expensive and a little less efficient than passive systems, particularly if antifreeze
measures are required. Additionally, active systems are more difficult to retrofit in houses,
especially where there is no basement, because space is required for the additional
equipment, such as the hot water cylinder.
There are three types of systems belong in this category;

4.2 Forced circulation water heater systems:

Fig. 4.1 Forced circulation water heater system

In this system, a pump is used to circulate potable water from storage to the collectors
when there is enough available solar energy to increase its temperature and then return
the heated water to the storage tank until it is needed. Because a pump is used to circulate
the water, the collectors can be mounted either above or below the storage tank. Forced
circulation systems often use a single storage tank equipped with an auxiliary water heater,

12
but two-tank storage systems can also be used. An important feature of this configuration is
the spring-loaded check valve, which is used to prevent reverse thermosiphon circulation
energy losses when the pump is not running.
Forced circulation systems can be used with water supplied from a cold water storage tank
or connected directly to city water mains. Pressure-reducing valves and pressure relief
valves are required, however, when the city water pressure is greater than the working
pressure of the collectors. Forced water heating systems should not be used in areas where
the water is extremely hard or acidic, because scale (calcium) deposits may clog or corrode
the collectors.
Forced circulation systems can be used in areas where freezing is infrequent. For extreme
weather conditions, freeze protection is usually provided by recirculating warm water
from the storage tank. This loses some heat but protects the system. A special thermostat
that operates the pump when temperature drops below a certain value is used in this case.
Such recirculation freeze protection should be used only for locations where freezing
occurs rarely (a few times a year), since stored heat is dumped in the process. A
disadvantage of this system occurs in cases when there is power failure, in which case the
pump will not work and the system could freeze. In such a case, a dump valve can be
installed at the bottom of the collectors to provide additional protection.
For freeze protection, a variation of the forced circulation system, called the drain-down
system is used. In this case, potable water is also pumped from storage to the collector
array, where it is heated. Under a freezing condition or in the case of a power failure, the
systems drains automatically by isolating the collector array and exterior piping from the
make-up water supply with the normally closed valve and draining it using the two
normally open valves. It should be noted that the solar collectors and associated piping
must be carefully sloped to drain the collector’s exterior piping when circulation stops.

13
4.3 Air-Water heating system:

Fig. 4.2 Water heater system with antifreeze loop and internal heat exchanger

Air systems are indirect water heating systems because air, circulated through air
collectors and via ductworks, is directed to an air-to-water heat exchanger. In the heat
exchanger, heat is transferred to the potable water, which is also circulated through the
heat exchanger and returned to the storage tank. This type of system is used most often
because air systems are generally used for preheating domestic hot water and hence the
auxiliary heater is used in only one tank. The advantages of this system are that air does
not need to be protected from freezing or boiling, is non-corrosive, does not suffer from
heat transfer fluid degradation, and is free. Additionally, the system is more cost effective
because no safety valves or expansion vessels are required. The disadvantages are that air-
handling equipment (ducts and fans) needs more space than piping and pumps, air leaks
are difficult to detect, and parasitic power consumption (electricity used to drive the fans)
is generally higher than that of liquid systems.

14
4.4 Pool heating systems

Fig. 4.3 Water heater system with antifreeze loop and external heat exchanger

A radiant heating system is considered "open" any time the same hot water is used for both
heating and domestic hot water. This type of system is very efficient because a single heat
source (in this case, solar with a fossil fuel back-up) provides for all the home's hot water
needs. In other words, the homeowner doesn't need two completely separate systems,
many times with overlapping mechanical components, performing separate heating tasks;
the most common use of this category of system is in pool cooling.

Solar pool heating systems require no separate storage tank, because the pool itself serves
as storage. In most cases, the pool’s filtration pump is used to circulate the water through
solar panels or plastic pipes. For daylong operation, no automatic controls are required,
because the pool usually operates when the sun is shining. If such controls are employed,
they are used to direct the flow of filtered water to the collectors only when solar heat is
available. This can also be achieved by a simple manually operated valve. Normally, these
kinds of solar systems are designed to drain down into the pool when the pump is switched
off; thus the collectors are inherently freeze protected.

Additionally, plastic pipes or tube-on-sheet panels can be used. In all cases, however, a
large area is required and the roof of a nearby building can be used for this purpose.

15
The pool heating load is the total heat loss less any heat gains from incident radiation. The
total heat loss is the sum of losses due to evaporation, radiation, and convection. This
calculation requires knowledge of the air temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity
or partial vapor pressure. Other causes of heat losses, which have a much smaller effect, are
turbulence caused by swimmers, conduction to the ground (usually neglected), and rainfall,
which at substantial quantities can lower the pool temperature. The addition of make-up
water should be considered if the temperature differs considerably from the pool operating
temperature. Pools usually operate in a narrow temperature range of 24–32°C.
Since the pool has a large mass, its temperature does not change quickly. The use of pool
cover reduces heat losses, particularly evaporative losses; however, when designing a solar
pool-heating system, it is often not possible to know with certainty the times during which
a cover will be in place. In addition, the cover may not have a perfect fit. Hence, a
conservative approach should be taken when allowing for the effect of a cover.

16
CHAPTER 5

5.1 COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM

There are three main components that make up a solar heating system
 Storage tank to store the solar heated water or air,
 Solar collector, which converts solar radiation to usable heat,
 Heat exchanger module which transfers the heat from the solar collector to the
potable water.

5.2 THERMAL STORAGE TANK

Thermal storage is one of the main parts of a solar heating, cooling, and power generating
system. Because for approximately half the year any location is in darkness, heat storage is
necessary if the solar system must operate continuously.
For some applications, such as swimming pool heating, daytime air heating, and irrigation
pumping, intermittent operation is acceptable, but most other uses of solar energy require
operating at night and when the sun is hidden behind clouds.
Usually the design and selection of the thermal storage equipment is one of the most
neglected elements of solar energy systems. It should be realized, however, that the energy
storage system has an enormous influence on overall system cost, performance, and
reliability. Furthermore, the design of the storage system affects the other basic elements,
such as the collector loop and the thermal distribution system.
The most important functions of the storage tank are;
 Improvement of the utilization of collected solar energy by providing thermal
capacitance to alleviate the solar availability and load mismatch and improve the
system response to sudden peak loads or loss of solar input.
 Improvement of system efficiency by preventing the array heat transfer fluid from
quickly reaching high temperatures, which lower the collector efficiency.

17
Generally, solar energy can be stored in liquids, solids, or phase-change materials (PCM).
Water is the most frequently used storage medium for liquid systems, even though the
collector loop may use water, oils, water-glycol mixtures, or any other heat transfer
medium as the collector fluid. This is because water is inexpensive and non-toxic and it has
a high storage capacity, based on both weight and volume. Additionally, as a liquid, it is
easy to transport using conventional pumps and plumbing. For service water heating
applications and most building space heating, water is normally contained in some type of
tank, which is usually circular. Air systems typically store heat in rocks or pebbles, but
sometimes the structural mass of the building is used.
An important consideration is that the temperature of the fluid delivered to the load should
be appropriate for the intended application. The lower the temperature of the fluid
supplied to the collectors, the higher is the efficiency of the collectors.
The location of the storage tank should also be given careful consideration. The best
location is indoors, where thermal losses are minimal and weather deterioration will not
be a factor. If the tank cannot be installed inside the building, then it should be located
outside above the ground or on the roof.
Such a storage tank should have a good insulation and good outside protection of the
insulation. The storage tank should also be located as close as possible to the collector
arrays to avoid long pipe runs.

5.2.1 Air system thermal storage.

The most common storage media for air collectors are rocks. Other possible media include
PCM, water, and the inherent building mass. Gravel is widely used as a storage medium
because it is abundant and relatively inexpensive.
In cases where large interior temperature swings can be tolerated, the inherent structure
of the building may be sufficient for thermal storage. Loads requiring no storage are usually
the most cost-effective applications of air collectors, and heated air from the collectors can
be distributed directly to the space.

18
Generally, storage may be eliminated in cases where the array output seldom exceeds the
thermal demand. The main requirements for gravel storage are good insulation, low air
leakage, and low pressure drop. Many different designs can fulfill these requirements.
The container is usually constructed from concrete, masonry, wood, or a combination of
these materials. Airflow can be vertical or horizontal.

Fig. 5.1 Air systems thermal storage

In this arrangement, the solar-heated air enters at the top and exits from the bottom. This
tank can work as effectively as a horizontal flow bed. In these systems, it is important to
heat the bed with the hot air flow in one direction and to retrieve the heat with airflow in
the opposite direction. In this way, pebble beds perform as effective counter-flow heat
exchangers. The size of rocks used in the pebble bed range from 35 to 100 mm in diameter,
depending on airflow, bed geometry, and desired pressure drop. The volume of the rock
needed depends on the fraction of collector output that must be stored. For residential
systems, storage volume is typically in the range of 0.15–0.3m3 per square meter of
collector area. For large systems, pebble beds can be quite large and their large mass and
volume may lead to location problems. Other storage options for air systems include phase
change materials and water. PCMs are functionally attractive because of their high
volumetric heat storage capabilities, since they require only about one tenth the volume of
a pebble bed.

19
Water can also be used as a storage medium for air collectors through the use of a
conventional water-to-air heat exchanger to transfer heat from the air to the water in the
storage tank. This option has two advantages:
 Water storage is compatible with hydraulic heating systems.
 It is relatively compact; the required storage water volume is roughly one third the
pebble bed’s volume.

5.2.2 Liquid system thermal storage.

Fig. 5.2 Liquid system thermal storage

There are two types of water storage for liquid systems available; Pressurized and
unpressurized, the basic differentiation is the use of an external internal heat exchanger
and single or multiple tank configurations. Water may be stored in copper, galvanized
metal or concrete tanks. Whatever storage vessel is selected, however, this should be well
insulated and large tanks should be provided with Pressurized systems are open to city
mains water supply. Pressurized storage is preferred for small service water heating
systems, although in cases like Cyprus, where the water supply is intermittent, it is not
suitable. Typical storage size is about 40 to 80 L per square meter of collector area. With

20
pressurized storage, the heat exchanger is always located on the collector side of the tank.
Either internal or external heat exchanger configurations can be used.
Sometimes, because of the required storage volume, more than one tank is used instead of
one large one, if such a large-capacity tank is not available. Additional tanks offer, in
addition to the extra storage volume, increased heat exchanger surface (when a heat
exchanger is used in each tank) and reduced pressure drop in the collection loop. The heat
exchangers are connected in a reverse return mode to improve flow balance.
An external heat exchanger provides greater flexibility because the tank and the exchanger
can be selected independently of other. The disadvantage of this system is the parasitic
energy consumption, in the form of electrical energy that occurs because of the additional
pump.
For small systems, an internal heat exchanger–tank arrangement is usually used, which has
the advantage of preventing the water side of the heat exchanger from freezing. However,
the energy required to maintain the water above freezing is extracted from storage, thus
the overall system performance is decreased. With this system, a bypass can be arranged to
divert cold fluid around the heat exchanger until it has been heated to an acceptable level of
about 25°C. When the heat transfer fluid is warmed to this level, it can enter the heat
exchanger without causing freezing or extraction of heat from storage. If necessary, this
arrangement can also be used with internal heat exchangers to improve performance.
For systems with sizes greater than about 30 m3, unpressurized storage is usually more
cost effective than pressurized. This system, however, can also be employed in small
domestic flat-plate collector systems, and in this case, the make-up water is usually
supplied from a cold water storage tank located on top of the hot water cylinder.
Unpressurized storage for water and space heating can be combined with the pressurized
city water supply. This implies the use of a heat exchanger on the load side of the tank to
isolate the high-pressure mains’ potable water loop from the low-pressure collector loop.
In an unpressurized system heat is extracted from the top of the solar storage tank and the
cooled water is returned to the bottom of the tank so as not to distract stratification. For
the same reason, on the load side of the heat exchanger, the water to be heated flows from
the bottom of the backup storage tank, where relatively cold water exists, and heated water
returns to the top. Where a heat transfer fluid is circulated in the collector loop, the heat

21
exchanger may have a double-wall construction to protect the potable water supply from
contamination. A differential temperature controller controls the two pumps on either side
of the heat exchanger. When small pumps are used, both may be controlled by the same
controller without overloading problems. The external heat exchanger provides good
system flexibility and freedom in component selection. In some cases, system cost and
parasitic power consumption may be reduced by an internal heat exchanger.
Stratification is the collection of hot water to the top of the storage tank and cold water to
the bottom. This improves the performance of the tank because hotter water is available
for use and colder water is supplied to the collectors, which enables the collector to operate
at higher efficiency.

5.3 SOLAR COLLECTORS

Solar collectors are the heart of most solar energy systems. The collector absorbs the sun’s
light energy and changes it into heat energy. This publication describes the different types
of solar collectors used for residences. It also briefly covers the solar heating systems for
which they are best suited
Solar collectors heat a fluid, either air or liquid. This fluid then is used to heat directly or
indirectly the following;

 Water for household use

 Indoor spaces
 Water for swimming pools
 Water or air for commercial use
 Air to regenerate desiccant (drying) material in a desiccant cooling system.

There are several types of solar collectors used for residences.

22
5.3.1 Flat-Plate Collectors

Fig. 5.3 A typical flat-plate collector

Flat-plate collectors are the most common collector for residential water-heating and
space-heating installations. A typical flat plate collector is an insulated metal box with a
glass or plastic cover called the glazing and a dark-colored absorber plate. The glazing can
be transparent or translucent. Translucent (transmitting light only), low-iron glass is a
common glazing material for flat-plate collectors because low-iron glass transmits a high
percentage of the total available solar energy. The glazing allows the light to strike the
absorber plate but reduces the amount of heat that can escape. The sides and bottom of the
collector are usually insulated, further minimizing heat loss. The absorber plate is usually
black because dark colors absorb more solar energy than light colors. Sunlight passes
through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up, changing solar radiation

23
into heat energy. The heat is transferred to the air or liquid passing through the collector.
Absorber plates are commonly covered with “selective coatings,” which retain the
absorbed sunlight better and are more durable than ordinary black paint. Absorber plates
are often made of metal usually copper or aluminum because they are both good heat
conductors. Copper is more expensive, but is a better conductor and is less prone to
corrosion than aluminum. Flat-plate collectors fall into two basic glazed or unglazed
categories;

24
5.3.1.1 Liquid Collectors

Fig. 5.4 Unglazed collectors

In a liquid collector, solar energy heats a liquid as it flows through tubes in or adjacent to
the absorber plate. For this type of collector, the flow tubes are attached to the absorber
plate so the heat absorbed by the absorber plate is readily conducted to the liquid.
The flow tubes can be routed in parallel, using inlet and outlet headers, or in a serpentine
pattern. A serpentine pattern eliminates the possibility of header leaks and ensures
uniform flow. A serpentine pattern is not appropriate, however, for systems that must

25
drain for freeze protection because the curved flow passages will not drain completely. The
simplest liquid systems use potable household water, which is heated as it passes directly
through the collector and then flows to the house to be used for domestic purposes.
This design is known as an “open-loop” (or “direct”) system. In areas where freezing
temperatures are common, however, liquid collectors must either drain the water when
the temperature drops or use an antifreeze type of heat-transfer fluid.
In systems with heat-transfer fluids, the transfer fluid absorbs heat from the collector and
then passes through a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger, which generally is in the water
storage tank inside the house, transfers heat to the water. Such designs are called “closed
loop” (or “indirect”) systems

Glazed liquid collectors are used for heating household water and sometimes for space
heating. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools.
Because these collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less
expensive materials such as plastic or rubber. They also do not require freeze-proofing
because swimming pools are generally used only in warm weather.

26
5.3.2 Air Collectors

Fig. 5.5 An air collector

Air collectors are simple, flat-plate collectors used primarily for space heating. The
absorber plates in air collectors can be metal sheets, layers of screen, or nonmetallic
materials. The air flows past the absorber by natural convection or when forced by a fan.
Because air conducts heat much less readily than liquid does, less heat is transferred
between the air and the absorber than in a liquid collector. In some solar air-heating
systems, fins or corrugations on the absorber are used to increase air turbulence and
improve heat transfer.
The disadvantage of this strategy is that it can also increase the amount of power needed
for fans and, thus, increase the costs of operating the system. In colder climates, the air is
routed between the absorber plate and the back insulation to reduce heat loss through the

27
glazing. However, if the air will not be heated more than 17°C above the outdoor
temperature, the air can flow on both sides of the absorber plate without sacrificing
efficiency.
Air systems have the advantage of eliminating the freezing and boiling problems associated
with liquid systems. Although leaks are harder to detect and plug in an air system, they are
also less troublesome than leaks in a liquid system.
Air systems can often use less expensive materials, such as plastic glazing, because their
operating temperatures are usually lower than those of liquid collectors.

5.3.3 Evacuated-Tube Collectors

Fig. 5.6 An evacuated-tube collector

Evacuated-tube collectors heat water in residential applications that require higher

temperatures. In an evacuated-tube collector, sunlight enters through the outer glass tube,
strikes the absorber tube, and changes to heat. The heat is transferred to the liquid flowing

28
through the absorber tube. The collector consists of rows of parallel transparent glass
tubes, each of which contains an absorber tube (in place of the absorber plate in a flat-plate
collector) covered with a selective coating. Evacuated-tube collectors are modular tubes
can be added or removed as hot-water needs change.
When evacuated tubes are manufactured, air is evacuated from the space between the two
tubes, forming a vacuum. Conductive and convective heat losses are eliminated because
there is no air to conduct heat or to circulate and cause convective losses. There can still be
some radiant heat loss (heat energy will move through space from a warmer to a cooler
surface, even across a vacuum). However, this loss is small and of little consequence
compared with the amount of heat transferred to the liquid in the absorber tube.
Evacuated-tube collectors are available in a number of designs. Some use a third glass tube
inside the absorber tube or other configurations of heat-transfer fins and fluid tubes. One
commercially available evacuated-tube collector stores 19 liters of water in each tube,
eliminating the need for a separate solar storage tank. Reflectors placed behind the
evacuated tubes can help to focus additional sunlight on the collector.
These collectors are more efficient than flat plate collectors for a couple of reasons.
First, they perform well in both direct and diffuse solar radiation. This characteristic,
combined with the fact that the vacuum minimizes heat losses to the outdoors, makes these
collectors particularly useful in areas with cold, cloudy winters.
Second, because of the circular shape of the evacuated tube, sunlight is perpendicular to the
absorber for most of the day. For comparison, in a flat-plate collector that is in a fixed
position, the sun is only perpendicular to the collector at noon. While evacuated-tube
collectors achieve both higher temperatures and higher efficiencies than flat-plate
collectors, they are also more expensive.

29
5.3.4 Concentrating Collectors

Fig. 5.7 Concentrating Collectors

Concentrating collectors use mirrored surfaces to concentrate the sun’s energy on an

absorber called a receiver. Concentrating collectors also achieve high temperatures, but
unlike evacuated-tube collectors, they can do so only when direct sunlight is available. The
mirrored surface focuses sunlight collected over a large area onto a smaller absorber area
to achieve high temperatures.
Some designs concentrate solar energy onto a focal point, while others concentrate the
sun’s rays along a thin line called the focal line. The receiver is located at the focal point or
along the focal line. A heat-transfer fluid flows through the receiver and absorbs heat.
These collectors reach much higher temperatures than flat-plate collectors. However,
concentrators can only focus direct solar radiation, with the result being that their

30
performance is poor on hazy or cloudy days. Concentrators are most practical in areas of
high insolation (exposure to the sun’s rays), such as those close to the equator.
Concentrators perform best when pointed directly at the sun. To do this, these systems use
tracking mechanisms to move the collectors during the day to keep them focused on the
sun. Single-axis trackers move east to west; dual-axis trackers move east and west and
north and south (to follow the sun throughout the year).
In addition to these mechanical trackers, there are passive trackers that use Freon to
supply the movement. While not widely used, they do provide a low-maintenance
alternative to mechanical systems. Concentrators are used mostly in commercial
applications because they are expensive and because the trackers need frequent
maintenance. Some residential solar energy systems use parabolic-trough concentrating
systems. These installations can provide hot water, space heating, and water purification.
Most residential systems use single-axis trackers, which are less expensive and simpler
than dual-axis trackers.

31
CHAPTER 6

6.1 TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS AND FUTURE OF SOLAR HEATERS

The efficiency of solar heating systems and collectors has improved from the early 1970s
and costs have dropped somewhat. The efficiencies can be attributed to the use of low-iron,
tempered glass for glazing (low-iron glass allows the transmission of more solar energy
than conventional glass), improved insulation, and the development of durable selective
coatings.
Also, a new solar air collector, formerly used primarily for commercial buildings, is now
available for homes. Called a transpired collector, it eliminates the cost of the glazing, the
metal box, and the insulation. This collector is made of black, perforated metal. The sun
heats the metal, and a fan pulls air through the holes in the metal, which heats the air. For
residential installations, these collectors are available in 2.4-meter by 0.8-meter panels
capable of heating 0.002 cubic meters per second of outside air. On a sunny winter day, the
panel can produce temperatures up to 28°C higher than the outdoor air temperature.
Transpired air collectors not only heat air, but also improve indoor air quality by directly
preheating fresh outdoor air. These collectors have achieved very high efficiencies more
than 70% in some commercial applications. Plus, because the collectors require no glazing
or insulation, they are inexpensive to manufacture. All these factors make transpired air
collectors a very cost-effective source of solar heat.
There are other prototype cooling systems operating today. Some use heat from solar
collectors for absorption cooling. Others are being used to renew the desiccant material in
desiccant cooling systems. Desiccants, such as silica gel, naturally attract moisture. They
are used to reduce humidity and the resulting cooling loads in hot, humid climates.

Solar collectors can be used for nearly any process that requires heat. As environmental
laws become stricter and the price of conventional power increases, it is likely that solar
collectors will be integrated into many applications.

32
CHAPTER 7

7.1 CONCLUSION

Water heating is a practical application of solar energy in many parts of the world. Natural
circulation systems are widely used in climates where freezing does not occur. Forced
circulation systems using drain down or non-freezing fluids in collector exchanger loops
are used in climates where freezing is a problem.
Auxiliary energy is used in essentially all systems where high reliability is wanted and care
must be taken to use auxiliary in such a way it does not drive up collector temperature.

33
REFERENCES

Books, Pamphlets, and Reports

Consumer Guide to Solar Energy,
S. Sklar and K. Sheinkopf, Bonus Books, Inc.,
160 East Illinois Street,
Chicago, IL 60611, 1991.

The Fuel Savers,

B. Anderson, Morning Sun Press,
Lafayette, CA, 1991.

The New Solar Home Book,

B. Anderson and M. Riorden,
Brick House,
NH. Amherst.

Periodicals
Home Energy Magazine,
2124 Kittredge Street, No. 95,
Berkeley.

Solar Industry Journal,

Solar Energy Industries Association,
4th Floor 122 C Street,
NW. Washington DC.

Solar Today,
2400 Central Avenue,
Unit G-1,
Boulder, CO 80301.

34