WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK
13.2.11. Increasing
Waterfowl Nesting
Success on Islands
and Peninsulas
John T. Lokemoen
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center
Rural Route 1, Box 96C
Jamestown, North Dakota 58401-9736
Waterfowl that nest in uplands in the prairie
pothole region have had low recruitment rates in
recent decades, primarily because of predation. The
loss of breeding waterfowl and their progeny has
generated interest in management techniques that
safeguard incubating hens and their eggs.
Developing islands and peninsulas for nesting
waterfowl has potential because these sites are
naturally attractive to breeding ducks and geese.
In fact, dense nesting colonies of ducks developed
on some islands when successful females and a
portion of their female progeny returned in
subsequent years.
Managers have successfully duplicated the
beneficial attributes of islands by developing
various nesting habitats that are protected by water
barriers. This chapter addresses the management of
existing islands, the creation of new islands, and
the modification of peninsulas into islands to
increase nesting success in waterfowl.
Locating Manageable Islands and
Peninsulas
Hundreds of natural islands and peninsulas
occur in the prairies and plains of the United
Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.2.11. • 1993
States and Canada. Management of islands and
peninsulas is most successful here, where
waterfowl populations are high and terrestrial
mammals are the primary nest predators.
Many existing islands and peninsulas can be
located with aerial photographs or with maps of
the National Wetlands Inventory. The location of
each potentially manageable island and peninsula
and pertinent management information should be
recorded in a permanent ledger. At each site,
factors such as ownership, number of wetlands
within 1 mile (1.6 km), type and area of existing
nesting cover, and the classification of the present
wetland should be recorded (Table).
Management of Islands
A variety of waterfowl, most notably gadwalls,
mallards, lesser scaups, and Canada geese, nest
on islands (Table). In addition, islands are favored
as breeding habitats by some shorebird species,
such as American avocets and piping plovers, and
by colonial nesters, namely American white
pelicans, common terns, and several species of
gulls.
Site Selection Factors
The safest nesting islands are usually far from
shore in large saline lakes or in open freshwater
wetlands. Islands should be at least 425 feet
(130 m) from shore and 300 feet (91 m) apart. This
distance and separation impede travel of predators
1
Table. Percent species composition of waterfowl that Construction of Islands
nested on islands and peninsulas in North and
South Dakota and of breeding waterfowl in the Construct islands with a packed soil base for
prairie pothole region, 1985−1989. stability and a covering of ≥4 inches (10 cm) of
topsoil to support vegetation for nesting cover. Put
Dakota Peninsula Island
the top of the island 3 or 4 feet (about 1 m) above
breeding nesting nesting
Species population population population the average wetland level. Create a natural
appearance to the island by rounding corners.
American wigeon 6 tr tr Orient the long axis of the island with the direction
Blue-winged teal 28 18 6 of the prevailing storm winds to reduce erosion.
Canada goose tr tr 5 Obtain details for the construction of islands from
Gadwall 10 42 42 Ducks Unlimited or from Ecological Services offices
Green-winged teal 2 tr tr of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Lesser scaup 3 9 7 Spacing and size of natural islands have not
Mallard 17 15 32 been reliable biological predictors of their use by
Northern pintail 8 9 4 ducks, possibly because island location and the
Northern shoveler 11 6 1 quality of nesting cover are more important factors.
Redhead 6 tr 2 However, the spacing and size of islands are
Ruddy duck 6 0 tr important economic considerations in construction
because of the high costs of equipment and labor.
Management is cost effective of natural islands
that are larger than 0.1 acre (>0.04 ha) or of many
islands at a single location. However, no more than
1 acre (0.4 ha) of islands should be built for each
between islands and reduce territorial strife
square mile (2.6 square km) of suitable habitat.
between nesting pairs of Canada geese. Although
Construction of less than 0.25 acre (<0.1 ha)
wide expanses of open water deter moves of
islands is not advised. Small islands probably
mammalian predators, large lakes may harbor
attract fewer nesting hens, their construction
gulls, which can kill small ducklings.
requires proportionately more earth than a 1-acre
Saline, subsaline, or brackish wetlands provide
(0.4 ha) island, yet their annual management costs
the most suitable sites for islands with nesting
are similar. Conversely, larger than 1 acre (0.4 ha)
habitat for ducks. For most aquatic and
islands are not particularly cost-effective in
mammalian predators of waterfowl, saline lakes increasing the number of waterfowl nests.
are a poor source of food and lack adequate cover. Waterfowl in central North Dakota have
A description of saline wetlands can be found in successfully used small rock islands (averaging
Stewart and Kantrud (1971). 0.006 acre [0.002 ha]). These islands are built
More duck nests are on islands in a wetland mainly of rocks that were obtained from cultivated
complex than on other islands. The most suitable fields, piled in the wetland basin, and covered with
island sites have 40 or more wetlands within soil from the wetland bottom. These islands are
1 mile. Wetland complexes are best if they include constructed in open water or in emergent
seasonally flooded ponds for breeding pair habitat vegetation in small prairie wetlands. Rock islands
and semipermanently flooded ponds for broods. usually do not have to be seeded other than having
Nearby wetlands are particularly important to a handful of grass−legume seeds raked into the soil.
breeding birds that use islands in very saline lakes
or in deep freshwater lakes, which may provide
little food and cover to waterfowl.
The presence of adequate nesting cover is Management of Peninsulas
important. Most breeding ducks on islands nest in
low shrubs (≤4 feet [about 1 m]) or in tall grasses The mallard, gadwall, and blue-winged teal are
and forbs. Densities of nesting ducks are lower on the predominant nesting species on peninsulas in
islands with tall shrubs (>4 feet [> 1 m]) and trees, the prairie pothole region (Table). The northern
such as fireberry hawthorn and American plum. pintail and lesser scaup are secondary in
Tall shrubs reduce the amount of low nesting cover importance as nesting species on peninsulas;
that ducks seek and provide perching and nesting nesting of Canada geese, colonial waterbirds, and
sites for avian predators. shorebirds is negligible.

2 Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.2.11. • 1993

Site Selection Factors
Like islands, peninsulas for intensive
management of waterfowl production should be in
saline or open freshwater lakes. Such wetlands are
usually free of emergent vegetation and therefore
provide good loafing sites for breeding pairs of
ducks but little food and cover for aquatic
mammalian predators. Peninsulas should be
managed in ≥2 feet (0.6 m) deep wetlands because
the water barrier is present during most years and
fences and moats do not have to extend far to reach
>1 foot (0.3 m) deep water. Lakes for the
management of peninsulas should be within 1 mile
(1.6 km) of suitable wetland habitat for pairs and
broods. Duck species that usually nest on
peninsulas prefer moderate to tall cover, including
low shrubs (<4 feet [1 m]) and grass−forb mixtures.
Remove tall shrubs and trees from managed
peninsulas and control all subsequent regrowth.
Because managed peninsulas attract breeding
pairs from a large surrounding area, the
Fig. 1. A dry land section and an adjoining wetland section of an electrified barrier fence to bar access of predators to peninsulas.
All measurements are in inches.
Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.2.11. • 1993
effectiveness of management increases when sites
are 1 mile (1.6 km) or farther apart. Management
of peninsulas that are smaller than 2 acres (0.8 ha)
is probably not cost-effective. The number of
expected ducklings on these small peninsulas is too
modest to justify the cost of management.
Construction of Fences
The most common barriers to predators at
peninsulas are electric fences. Electric fences
should extend across the base of the peninsula and
into the water on each side (Fig. 1). Normally,
fences have to project only 50 feet (15 m) into open
water but must extend into at least 1 foot (0.3 m)
deep water.
Most fences have a permanent portion on
upland and an attached but removable segment
in wetlands. The portion on upland is a wire
barrier of 2 pieces of 1-inch (2.5 cm) mesh,
18-gauge (1.2 mm diameter of wire) poultry
netting. The netting extends from 1 foot (0.3 m)
3
below ground to 5.5 feet (1.7 m) above ground. Use
galvanized wire (which also serves as a ground) for
the energized wires on the upper part of the fence.
Vinyl-clad netting for the lower 2−3 feet (0.6−0.9 m)
of the fence, including the 1 foot (0.3 m) below
ground, retards rusting. The two wire meshes are
woven together with stainless steel wire or
fastened together with hog rings. In some
situations a zinc-coated knotted fence or "horse
fence" is used for the wire barrier. The knotted
fence is more flexible for use on uneven ground and
more resistant to fire. Where fire is a serious
problem, a 3 foot (about 1 m) area on either side of
the fence should be cleared of vegetation to prevent
flames from scorching the wires.
Two 12.5-gauge (wire diameter = 2.7 mm)
energized wires are attached to the side of the
wire barrier facing the base of the peninsula.
These wires are 4 feet (1.2 m) above ground and
2.5 inches (6.3 cm) and 5.0 inches (12.7 cm) from
the poultry netting. The wires are held in place
by fiberglass rods that are driven into the
wooden posts and by insulators that are
attached to the poultry netting. Place another
energized wire 5 inches (12.7 cm) above the top
of the poultry netting. To deter predators from
jumping over the fence, the top 1 foot (0.3 m)
should lean toward the base of the peninsula at a
45° angle. Areas without coyotes may not need the
45° overhang. Electrify wires with small
high-voltage units such as the E-12 energizer
made by Gallagher Power Fence, Inc., San
Antonio, Texas. Power the energizer with a
solar-charged battery. The poultry netting and the
electric wires must be stretched tightly.
To reduce damage to the fences from water
and ice, commercially available "cattle panels"
(16 feet long by 4.25 feet high [about 5.0 m by
1.3 m]) of heavy steel rod can be used for the
removable segment of the fence. Cover each panel
with 1-inch (2.5 cm) poultry netting, and place an
energized wire 5 inches (12.7 cm) above the top of
the panel. The energized wire can be attached to
the top of the panels by welding 1 rod to each
panel, placing an insulator on the rod, and
connecting the wire to the insulator. The panels
can be held together by hog-rings or wire, and they
can be held upright with fence posts that are
driven into the wetland bottom. Extend the panels
into the wetland each spring after the ice melts
and remove them each fall prior to freezing. Check
fences at regular intervals to repair electrical
malfunctions and structural damage.
4 Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.2.11. • 1993
Construction of Moats
Open water moats can also be used to bar
access of predators to peninsulas. Moats should
have a 3:1 side slope, a ≥200 foot (61 m) width, and
a ≥3 foot (≥1 m) water depth at the average
wetland level. Because their construction is
expensive, moats are most suitably employed at
peninsulas with narrow necks because less soil
needs to be moved during construction. Soil
removed from the excavation is usually used to
increase the size of the protected nesting habitat.
Management of Nesting Cover
On islands and peninsulas with poor nesting
habitat, establish plant cover that ducks prefer for
nesting. Canada geese have no specific
requirements for nesting cover but prefer open
sites. For nesting cover for ducks on newly
constructed sites, immediately establish
vegetation, which also prevents soil erosion.
Grass-legume cover can be established by seeding
with small grain drills after construction is
completed in winter. Preferred plant species for
nesting cover include intermediate wheatgrass,
tall wheatgrass, and smooth brome mixed with
alfalfa and small amounts of sweetclover. Grass
and legume seed is available at many grain
elevators and in seed houses in western states and
provinces. Information on seeding rates and
seeding techniques can be found in Duebbert et al.
(1981).
The vigor and attractiveness of grass−legume
plantings decline over time. Plant vigor can be
restored by moderate cultivation. Alternatively,
existing vegetation can be eliminated by spraying
or plowing, and the area can be reseeded. Burning
vegetation on islands is usually not recommended
because fire eliminates all suitable nesting cover
such as tall weeds, grasses, or low shrubs.
Burning is advised only for complete restoration of
cover.
Another option of establishing low−shrub
nesting cover on a portion of the island is the
planting of western snowberry or Wood’s rose. The
planting and weeding of seedling shrubs require
hand labor for the first growing season. However,
once established, low shrubs provide excellent
nesting cover for many years. Plant low shrubs at
a 2.5-foot (0.8 m) spacing during April or May
after the last hard frost. Put grass−legume
seedings and low shrub plantings into soil where
existing plants have been controlled by tillage or
chemicals. Shrub seedlings of the described
species are usually available at nurseries in most
western states and provinces.
Nesting cover that has been reduced by
grazing can be restored by excluding livestock
with fences. Islands and peninsulas are often
grazed in the fall when cattle gain access by
crossing wetlands that dried out or became
shallow during the summer. Exclusion of cattle
may require additional fencing or an agreement
with the neighboring landowner to restrain
livestock. To prevent cattle damage to fences in
the fall, add a low electric wire and keep the fence
energized until the cattle are removed.
Management of Predators
It is crucial that skilled trappers maintain
islands and peninsulas free of predators.
Mammalian predators must be removed annually
with quick-kill body traps set in boxes or, if
necessary, leg-hold traps. Trap from the time the
fences are energized or lakes become ice-free until
mid-July when nesting is completed. Set traps only
on the managed portion of the peninsulas and
islands and not on the adjacent mainland or
shoreline. Disperse traps throughout the upland
habitats to capture foxes, badgers, skunks, and
ground squirrels and along the shorelines to
capture minks and raccoons. Most predators are
trapped along the fence or moat, along the
shoreline, or at natural coverts such as rock piles,
dens, or tall emergent plants. During the
development of a new site, the placement of
6−12 inch (about 15−30 cm) culverts along the
shoreline may be useful for trapping predators.
Cover the culvert with soil, but leave the ends open to
provide natural pathways for minks, raccoons, and
striped skunks. Small islands (<3 acres [<1.2 ha])
are often free of predators, and annual trapping
may not be necessary.
In the western United States and Canada,
ring-billed and California gulls nest on islands and
occasionally feed on ducklings and duck eggs.
Breeding gulls can be deterred from nesting on
islands by establishing tall cover on potential
breeding sites or by adding artificial material to
bare areas.
Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.2.11. • 1993
Barrier and Island Management
Costs
The average capital cost of constructing
barriers in North Dakota in the 1980’s was about
$7,600 (mean length = 1,090 feet [332 m]) for
fences and $207,000 (mean length = 2,070 feet
[631 m]) for moats. The estimated cost of each
fledged duck was about $12 from fenced sites and
$62 from sites with moats. On existing islands
where predator removal was applied, the estimated
cost per fledged duckling was about $2. The cost of
ducks fledged on constructed islands is the highest
because of the high cost of heavy construction
($15,000−$20,000 for a 1-acre [0.4 ha] island).
A feasible strategy for identifying suitable
islands and peninsulas for cost-effective
management starts with the survey of the
management district. First, record the location of
all islands that exceed 0.1 acre (0.04 ha) and all
peninsulas that exceed 2 acres (0.8 ha). Secondly,
visit each site and rate its suitability for waterfowl
management based on the lake, its distance from
shore, and the number of wetlands within 1 mile.
Rate the nesting cover and give preference to
islands with low shrubs or tall grass−legume
mixtures. On islands with suitable conditions for
nesting waterfowl with a history of poor nesting
success, only control of predators is needed. Other
islands may require management of nesting cover,
the addition of low shrubs or a grass-legume
mixture, or the removal of tall shrubs and trees.
The third most cost-effective option is the
construction of electric fences at peninsulas to
create island-like nesting habitat. As a final
option, islands can be constructed or peninsulas
modified at sites with an optimal chance for high
use by breeding waterfowl and high nesting
success.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Keep a permanent record about information on
predators and bird nesting on islands and
peninsulas (Fig. 2). Periodically conduct a survey to
evaluate nesting and nesting success by waterfowl
on islands and peninsulas. Techniques for
searching for nests and evaluating nesting success
can be found in Klett et al. (1986).
5
Fig. 2. Suggested form for recording data on islands and peninsulas with nesting habitat for waterfowl.

of ducks in upland habitats in the prairie pothole

Suggested Reading
Duebbert, H. F., E. T. Jacobson, K. F. Higgins, and E. B.
Podoll. 1981. Establishment of seeded grasslands for
wildlife habitat in the prairie pothole region. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific
Report—Wildlife 234. 21 pp.
Greenwood, R. J., P. M. Arnold, and B. G. McGuire. 1990.
Protecting duck nests from mammalian predators
with fences, traps, and a toxicant. Wildlife Society
Bulletin 18:75−82.
Johnson, D. H., and T. L. Shaffer. 1990. Estimating nest
success: when Mayfield wins. Auk 107:595−600.
Klett, A. T., H. F. Duebbert, C. A. Faanes, and K. F.
Higgins. 1986. Techniques for studying nest success
region. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource
Publication 158. 24 pp.
Lokemoen, J. T. 1984. Examining economic efficiency of
management practices that enhance waterfowl
production. Transactions of the North American
Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference
49:584−607.
Lokemoen, J. T., H. F. Duebbert, and D. E. Sharp. 1984.
Nest spacing, habitat selection, and behavior of
waterfowl on Miller Lake Island, North Dakota.
Journal of Wildlife Management 48:309−321.
Stewart, R. E., and H. A. Kantrud. 1971. Classification of
natural ponds and lakes in the glaciated prairie
region. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource
Publication 92. 57 pp.

6 Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.2.11. • 1993

Appendix. Common and Scientific Names of the Plants and
Animals Named in the Text.
Plants
Tall wheatgrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agropyron elongatum
Intermediate wheatgrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agropyron intermedium
Smooth brome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bromus inermis
Fireberry hawthorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crataegus chrysocarpa
Alfalfa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medicago sativa
Sweetclovers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Melilotus spp.
American plum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prunus americana
Wood’s rose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rosa woodsii
Western snowberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symphoricarpos occidentalis
Animals
Northern pintail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anas acuta
American wigeon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anas americana
Northern shoveler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anas clypeata
Green-winged teal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anas crecca
Blue-winged teal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anas discors
Mallard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anas platyrhynchos
Gadwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anas strepera
Lesser scaup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aythya affinis
Redhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aythya americana
Canada goose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Branta canadensis
Coyote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Canis latrans
Piping plover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charadrius melodus
California gull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Larus californicus
Ring-billed gull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Larus delawarensis
Striped skunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mephitis mephitis
Mink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mustela vison
Ruddy duck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oxyura jamaicensis
American white pelican . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pelecanus erythrorhynchus
Raccoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procyon lotor
American avocet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recurvirostra americana
Ground squirrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spermophilus spp.
Common tern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sterna hirunda
Badger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taxidea taxus
Gray fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Red fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vulpes vulpes

Note: Use of trade names does not imply U.S. Government endorsement of commercial products.

U NI T E D ST AT E S D E PAR T ME NT OF T H E I NT E R I OR
F I SH AND W I L D L I F E SE R VI CE
F ish and Wildlif e L eaf let 13
W ashington, D.C. • 1993

Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.2.11. • 1993 7