Air Filtration Fundamentals

. . . . . a primer on high efficiencyair filtration

Air Filtration Pu.ndamentals -- Table of Contents
AIR FILTRATION FUNDAMENTALS
.. .
I.

. - TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

The HEPA Filter

Function
1. Components
Medium
2. Particle Capture Mechanisms
Separators
Frame
Adhesive
Gasket
Faceguards
Assembly

3. Conditions for Design and Testing

Static Pressure Drop 18
Flow Rate 19
Temperature 21
Additional Testing 21
4. Factory Efficiency Testing 22
DOP Aerosol Measuring Equipment 23
5. Field Testing 26

Carbon Adsorption Systems

Components
(1) Media
Nuclear Carbon
Types of Adsorption
Physical
Chemical
Particle Size
Ma) (imum Apparent Density
Ignition Temperature
Media Certifications
Frame, Perforated Material and Fire Protection
General Construction
Adsorber Types
Adsorber Label
Carbon Filling
'Testing
R11 Test Detection Apparatus
Discrimination
Test Penetration Measurements

Air Filtration Fundamentals -- Table of Contents

 Test Examples......................................... 53
Continuous Monitoring Detections.................... 56
Calibration.................................... 57
R11 Generators ...................... 57
R11 Detector Operation .............. 59
Gas Chromatograph 60
Continuous Detection Operation 60

Adsorber Design and Test Conditions .............62

Standard Criteria For An Agentsystem ............ 63
Desorption ...................................... 64
Temperature ..................................... 65
Pressure ........................................ 65
.
Poisons ......................................... 66

Testing of Carbon. Adsorbers and Systems .......................... 67

Laboratory Testing of Carbon .................... 67
Tests For Used Carbons ...................'.......70
Factory Testing of Individual Adsorbers ...........................71
Field Testing ...................................72

11. When to Change A Filter .....................................78

HEPA ...................................... 78
Carbon - Nuclear Syst .................. 78
Carbon -"Agent" Systems ................... 79
Summary..................................................... 80
References .................................................. 81
Figure Source Acknowledgments ...............................83
ERRATA
AIR FILTRATION FUNDAMENTALS

JAMES R. EDWARDS, AUTHOR

CHRISTINE GOLDEN, EDITOR
KENNETH HEFFLEY, GRAPHICS EDITOR

THE ERRATA BELOW ARE NOT TO CORRECT MINOR EDITING PROBLEMS, SUCH
AS THE INCONSISTENT INDENT IN THE FOREWORD OR THE LACK OF A
CAPITAL "T" ON PAGE 9.

RATHER, THE ERRATA ARE TO CORRECT TECHNICAL ERRORS IN THE TEXT.

THE ERRATA ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. PAGE 11 - EXTEND THE IMPACTION CURVE TO INTERCEPT THE

PENETRATION AXIS AT ZERO.

2. PAGE 52 - THE LINEARITY DISCUSSION WAS BASED ON AN OLDER VALCO

MODEL GC. EVEN SO, THE ONLY WAY TO BE SURE OF CONSISTENT FREON
DETECTION PERFORMANCE OVER A RANGE OF UPSTREAM CONCENT-TION
VALUES IS TO CALIBRATE THE DETECTOR WITH CALIBRATION GASSES OVER
THE ENTIRE RANGE OF THOSE VALUES. THE NCS LMP-10 IS CALIBRATED AT
lOPPM FOR UPSTREAM AND 10 PPB FOR DOWNSTREAM. OPERATING AT
UPSTREAM VALUES WHICH ARE (SAY) + / - 208 OF THE CALIBRATION VALUES
MAY LEAD TO ERRORS.
TEST HAVE SHOWN EXCELLENT LINEARITY WITH THE NCS LMP-10, BUT TO
MAKE A BLANKET STATEMENT FOR ALL LMP-10' S WOULD BE INACCURATE.

A REASONABLE ARGUMENT CAN BE MADE THAT BOTH THE UP AND DOWN

VALUES WOULD BE NON-LINEAR IN THE SAME RATIO, AND SO TESTING
VALIDITY IS STILL PRESENT. HOWEVER, THE READER SHOULD BE AWARE OF
THE QUESTION OF LINEARITY.

3. PAGE 59 - THE READER SHOULD KNOW THAT THE VALVES HAVE

APPROXIMATE RATIOS OF 1000:1,.WITH THE UPSTREAM VALVE HAVING A
VOLUME OF APPROXIMENTLY 1 MICROLITER (ul). THE DOWNSTREAM VALVE
WILL WVE A VOLUME OF 1000 TIMES THAT.
4. PAGE 65 - THE FIGURE NEEDS SOME ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATION BY
THE READER. THE FIGURE HAS MORE DATA ON IT THAN IS INDICATED IN
THE TEXT.

5. THE 80C TEMPERATURE ON THE G W H SHOULD BE 70c TO BE

CONSISTENT WITH THE TEXT.
 1 AIR FILTRATION FUNDAMENTAL ERRATA
PAGE 2 OF 2

6. PAGE 71 - "AEROSOL" SHOULD BE "VAPOR".

1982" .
I 7. REFERENCE #8 HAS AN ERROR IN THE DATE "182" SHOULD BE "

8. AT THE RECOMMENDATION OF A LIBRARIAN, THE NAME OF THE BOOK WAS

CHANGED FROM :HIGH EFFICIENCY AIR FILTRATION" TO "AIR FILTRATION
FUNDAMENTALS". THE REFERENCE IN THE FOREWORD TO "HIGH EFFICIENCY
AIR FILTRATION" SHOULD BE "AIR FILTRATION F'UNDAMENTALS"
 AIR FILTRATION FUNDAMENTALS
A PRIMER ON HIGH EFFICIENCY AIR FILTRATION

By: James R. Edwards, BS, MAEd, EdS

Christine Flis Golden, BSME
Edwards has over 20 years experience in the air filter
industry. He started his career by working with Flanders
Filters from 1967 to 1977. In 1977, he founded Charcoal
Service Corporation, and continues as president.
Edwards has presented papers on the subject of air
filtration at many conferences, and along with Fred
Leckie of NCS (Columbus,OH), and the Duke Power Training
Center (Charlotte), founded the Duke Power In-place Test
Training School.
Golden has over 12 years in the nuclear air cleaning
industry, conducting in-place testing, air cleaning unit
troubleshooting and design change implementation. She is
currently employed as an HVAC System Engineer in an
operating nuclear facility. She serves on the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASMJ3) Committee on
Nuclear Air and Gas Treatment, its Subcommittee on
Ventilation Air Cleaning Equipment, and is on the Board
of Directors for the International Society of Nuclear Air
Treatment Technologies. She Chairs the American Nuclear
Society Committee which is presently revising ANS 59.2,
Safety Criteria for Ventilation Systems Located Outside
Primary Containment.

Heffley holds a BS Degree in chemistry from the University of

North Carolina Chapel Hill. In addition to computer skills,
he has been involved in adsorption by activated and
impregnated carbon for over eight years. He has been the lead
engineer at CSC in the start-up of complicated metal working
machinery, carbon impregnation equipment, and many other
tasks associated with high efficiency air filtration.
The author and editors can be contacted as follows:
JAMES R. EDWARDS AND KENNETH W. HEFFLEY
CSC
PO BOX 3
BATH, NC 27808
CHRISTINE FLIS GOLDEN
INDIANA MICHIGAN POWER COMPANY
DONALD C. COOK PLANT
ONE COOK PLACE
BRIDGMAN, M I 49106
Air Filtration Fundamentals is a comprehensive work about
air filtration. It is applied to containment systems,
which is a filter system used to capture and "containnan
undesirable contaminant. The primary focus is on two
filtering devices:
1. High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters, and
how they work
2. Carbon adsorbers, and how they work

Each of these filtering devices is explored

by discussing the following topics:
1. Components
2. Design considerations
3. Assembly
4. Factory Testing
5. Field testing

This work is not intended to replace any plant QA program

or documents. All legal document, such as plant
Technical Specifications, FSARs, and others take
precedence over the'information herein.
High Efficiency Air Filtration is intended to be an
informational handbook to supplement background knowledge of
the air filtering process.
 DISCLAIMER

Theinformationcontainedinthisworkwas d e v e l o p e d b y t h e
a u t h o r s fromexperience, r e s e a r c h , exposure t o r e s e a r c h b y
o t h e r s , and l o r e obtained by a s s o c i a t i o n with e x p e r t s i n
t h e f i e l d of a i r f i l t r a t i o n .

The a u t h o r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e information i s t r u e and

a c c u r a t e . However, as i n any work, mistakes can be made.

Before t h e u s e r relies on any of t h e information h e r e i n i n

any s i t u a t i o n which may have an e f f e c t on t h e h e a l t h and
s a f e t y o f t h e p u b l i c , p l a n t p e r s o n n e l , oranyotherhumans,
any process, o r any product, t h e u s e r should v e r i f y t h e
u s e r ' s s p e c i f i c d e s i g n a n d applicationbyhavingcompetent
review by engineering p r o f e s s i o n a l s , and o t h e r s who have
f i r s t - h a n d knowledge of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n .

.*.
111
INTRODUCTION

An a i r f i l t r a t i o n system is designed t o :

(I) remove p a r t i c l e s from t h e a i r s t r e a m ,

( 2 ) remove unwanted g a s e s and vapors from t h e a i r s t r e a m , o r
( 3 ) remove both p a r t i c l e s and gases,

P a r t i c u l a t e , thosecomponentscommonlyinthe formof d u s t ,
smoke, o r p o l l e n , are removed by p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r s
through t h e f i l t r a t i o n process. G a s e s o r vapors are
removed by carbon f i l t e r s , through t h e a d s o r p t i o n process.
These l a t t e r f i l t e r s a r e t h u s r e f e r r e d t o as carbon
adsorbers .
The r e q u i r e d c a p a b i l i t y of an a i r f i l t r a t i o n system t o
remove unwanted p a r t i c l e s w i l l depend on i t s s p e c i f i c
a p p l i c a t i o n . An a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g system, f o r example, may
r e q u i r e t h a t only g r o s s p a r t i c u l a t e be c o n t r o l l e d , s o it
might h a v e p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r s w h i c h a r e 50% ( o r e v e n l e s s )
e f f i c i e n t f o r removingparticles 50micrometersorlarger.
A r e c i r c u l a t i n g odor c o n t r o l carbon system might r e q u i r e
t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of a carbon adsorber t h a t has an
e f f i c i e n c y of only 25%- An a i r handling u n i t f o r an o f f i c e
b u i l d i n g m i g h t have b o t h t y p e s and e f f i c i e n c i e s i n s t a l l e d ,
Each a i r f i l t r a t i ~ n ~ s y s t eim s designed t o m e e t s p e c i f i c
needs.

A high e f f i c i e n c y f i l t r a t i o n system w i l l have components

which are designed t o remove and c o n t a i n t a r g e t p a r t i c u -
l a t e , vapors, o r both. A s a r u l e , t h e s e contaminants a r e
dangerous, t o x i c , o r noxious, and e f f i c i e n c i e s of greater
t h a n 99.9% a r e required.

~ l m o s t e v e r y a i r c l e a n i n g s y s t e m w i l l h a v ecomponentsother
thanthosewhichperformthe s p e c i f i c t a s k s r e q u i r e d o f t h e
system. These a d d i t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o d o one
t h i n g , t h a t i s t o p r o t e c t t h e p a r t i c u l a t e and g a s f i l t e r s .
For example, a moisture s e p a r a t o r might be i n s t a l l e d t o
remove s e n s i b l e w a t e r f r o m t h e a i r s t r e a m . S e n s i b l e water
has a very d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on both p a r t i c u l a t e and g a s
filters.
Water d r o p l e t s c o l l e c t i n g on p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r s , f o r
example, w i l l i n c r e a s e p r e s s u r e drop t o a p o i n t t h a t t h e f a n
i s incapable of moving t h e r e q u i s i t e amount of a i r through
t h e u n i t . For carbon adsorbers, t h e problem water c r e a t e s
i s not with p r e s s u r e drop. Sensible w a t e r c o a t s t h e carbon
granules, which p r e v e n t s t h e c a r b o n ' s pore s t r u c t u r e from
i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e a i r b o r n e gas o r vapor, preventing
adsorption from t a k i n g p l a c e .

Another component designed t o p r o t e c t both t h e high

e f f i c i e n c y p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r and t h e adsorber i s t h e
p r e f i l t e r , sometimes r e f e r r e d t o as a roughing f i l t e r . These
f i l t e r s remove l a r g e p a r t i c l e s from t h e a i r s t r e a m and
prevent t h e high e f f i c i e n c y f i l t e r s from "face loading" with
t h e l a r g e p a r t i d l e s . T h i s s a v e s t h e more expensive high
e f f i c i e n c y f i l t e r s f o r removing small p a r t i c l e s , which a r e
h a r d e r t o capture. P r e f i l t e r s a l s o prevent l a r g e p a r t i c l e s
from agglomerating on t h e p e r f o r a t e d s c r e e n s of t h e
adsorbers. Large p a r t i c l e s c o l l e c t i n g on t h e adsorbers
i n c r e a s e t h e p r e s s u r e drop a c r o s s t h e adsorber, reduce
a i r f l o w , andobscure t h e carbon granules f r o m t h e airstream.
The a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h i s f u n c t i o n depends on t h e p o s i t i o n
of t h e adsorber i n t h e chain of components. P r e f i l t e r s and
moisture s e p a r a t o r s are among t h e f i r s t components t h a t an
a i r s t r e a m i s e x p o s e d t o w h e n t h e y a r e i n s t a l l e d i n t h e system
f o r p r o t e c t i o n of t h e more s e n s i t i v e components.

~theraccessorieswhichmightbeincludedinhighefficiency .
a i r f i l t r a t i o n system design are f i r e d e t e c t i o n , instrumen-
t a t i o n , h e a t e r s , dampers, adsorbent t e s t c a n i s t e r s , and
sampling connections. This t e x t w i l l d e a l e x c l u s i v e l y with
a i r f i l t e r s y s t e m s t h a t c o n t a i n High E f f i c i e n c y p a r t i c u l a t e
A i r (HEPA) filtersandadsorberswithactivated, impregnated
carbon a s ' t h e adsorbing. medium.

This t e x t u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o a Nuclear A i r Treatment System

( N A T S ) , u s e d t o controlradioactivematerialinacommercial
l i g h t water r e a c t o r . This i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h o s e
involved i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n have experience i n t h e f i e l d and
NATS c o n t a i n s some of t h e most s t r i n g e n t requirements f o r
a i r f i l t r a t i o n of any process t o be found. The f i l t r a t i o n
technology d i s c u s s e d h e r e i n can be t r a n s f e r r e d t o any o t h e r
applicationusingthesetypesof f i l t e r s . O t h e r u s e s i n c ~ u d e
t h e c o n t r o l of pathogens, c o n t r o l of dangerous o r t o x i c
gases, vapors, of p a r t i c u l a t e (such as m i l i t a r y chemical
a g e n t s ) , recombinant RNA and DNA m a t e r i a l , and c o n t r o l of
noxious m a t e r i a l (such as p a r t i c l e s t h a t a f f e c t t h e t h r o u g h -
p u t of e l e c t r o n i c micro-chip manufacturing, o r t h e through-
p u t of a pharmaceutical p l a n t ) .

This t e x t w i l l f i r s t d e s c r i b e t h e components of a HEPA

f i l t e r , and i t s c a p t u r e mechanisms. The equipment used t o
t e s t HEPA f i l t e r s w i l l t h e n be presented. Finally, t h e
v a r i o u s t e s t s required f o r HEPA f i l t e r s a r e included. Since
t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y has t h e most rigidHEPA s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
a n d t e s t requirements, t h e d i s c u s s i o n w i l l b e f o r t h e n u c l e a r
application. Other o p e r a t i o n s may have less s t r i n g e n t
requirements. The reader. can determine t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
l e v e l of f i l t r a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n .
Adsorbers w i l l be addressed i n t h e same o r d e r as HEPA
filters.

I t i s not p o s s i b l e t o address t h e s u b j e c t of f i l t r a t i o n
thoroughly without some mention of t h e f i l t e r system which
houses t h e components. The i n c o r p o r a t i o n of HEPA f i l t e r s
and adsorbers i n t o a f i l t e r system, and t h e s u c c e s s f u l
t e s t i n g of them, w i l l conclude t h e d i s c u s s i o n . Even though
HEPAs and adsorbers a r e t h e main' t o p i c , o t h e r f a c t o r s w i l l
have necessary r o l e s i n t h e development of t h e HEPA and
adsorber c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Reference t o o t h e r f i l t e r system
components w i l l be included i n t h i s document. These may
i n c l u d e moisture s e p a r a t o r s , a i r h e a t e r s , p r e f i l t e r s , f a n s ,
and performance monitoring systems. These components w i l l
n o t be discussed i n d e t a i l , however.

READER HELPS

The a u t h o r recommends t h a t t h e r e a d e r have c o p i e s of t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n s denoted' i n t h e REFERENCES s e c t i o n a t t h e i r
d i s p o s a l . The r e f e r e n c e s are not a requirement f o r use of
t h i s text, b u t r e f e r r a l t o them where noted w i l l lend much
understanding t o t h e reading of t h i s work.

NOTE: The United S t a t e s Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

w i l l be referenced herein. The a u t h o r s are not represen-
tativesoftheNRCandhavenoNRCconnections. NRCpositions
are being r e l a t e d a s t h e y a r e understood by t h e a u t h o r s .
THE HEPA FILTER

Since t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y i s believed t o have t h e most

r i g i d H E P A s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and requirements, t h e d i s c u s s i o n
w i l l be fornucleargradeHEPAfilters. Other a p p l i c a t i o n s
may have less s t r i n g e n t requirements. The r e a d e r i s l e f t
t o determine t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l of f i l t r a t i o n f o r t h e i r
application.

I n t h e paragraph above, "most r i g i d " and "less s t r i n g e n t "

a r e terms a p p l i e d t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l requirements of t h e
HEPA f i l t e r , not t h e e f f i c i e n c i e s . Some c l e a n room
a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e HEPA f i l t e r s with e f f i c i e n c i e s t h a t
exceed 99.999%, f a r higher t h a n t h e 99.97% r e q u i r e d f o r a
NATS .
Function

The f u n c t i o n of a HEPA f i l t e r i s t o remove s m a l l p a r t i c l e s

f r o m t h e a i r s t r e a m . Smallparticlesaredefinedtobethose
with a diameter range of 5 pm t o 0.001 pn. This s i z e range
i s s e l e c t e d f o r two primary reasons. F i r s t , roughing
f i l t e r s a r e used t o remove p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r t h a n 5 pm.
Secondly, p a r t i c l e s less t h a n 0 . 0 0 1 pn are i n a t r a n s i t i o n
s t a g e , and more n e a r l y obey t h e g a s l a w s than t h e laws of
p a r t i c u l a t e physics.

A study of t h e c h a r t (Figure 1. ) on t h e next page is very

instructive.
HEPA Components

A HEPA f i l t e r t y p i c a l l y used i n a United S t a t e s commercial

nuclear industry has a f i l t e r i n g medium, s e p a r a t o r s , a
frame, adhesive ( t o glue themediumtothe frame), a g a s k e t ,
face guards, and a l a b e l as t h e necessary components. The
arrangement of some of t h e s e componentsis showninFigures -
2A and 2B.

Fiqure 2A
B.LmmFibrRck u zz
and lntspal Frame

Filter Medium Figure 2B

The f i l t e r i n g medium is a matrix of boron s i l i c a t e g l a s s

f i b e r s . These f i b e r s have a range of diameters, from sub-
micrometer t o about 5 p.

The matrix i s formedbythe standard paper-makingprocess.

That is, a s l u r r y of f i b e r mix i s s l u i c e d o n t o a f o u r d r i n i e r
screen, and a vacuum p u l l s a s much water from t h e s l u r r y
a s possible. A waterproofing m a t e r i a l , c a l l e d a "binder",
i s applied. The remainder of t h e water i n t h e media and
binder i s removed by drying t h e continuously moving s h e e t
of paper i n an oven. After drying, t h e media, now c a l l e d
"paper", i s wound around a spool t o make a r o l l of paper
about 26 inches wide and about 24 inches i n diameter. The
r o l l weighs about 50 The "basis weight" of t h i s
paper i s 50 pounds per 3000 square f e e t . The paper i s about
18 m i l s t h i c k .

Each media manufacturer has t h e i r own formulae f o r paper

making. The formulae w i l l consider two primary f a c t o r s ,

(1) The desired e f f i c i e n c y of t h e paper, and

( 2 ) The desired pressure drop of t h e paper.
Paper can be made more e f f i c i e n t by i n c r e a s i n g t h e number
of s m a l l f i b e r s , and reducing t h e number of l a r g e ones.
Combining t h e f i b e r s i n t h i s manner c r e a t e s a higher
pressure drop f o r a given e f f i c i e n c y . The paper can be made
more p o r o u s a n d l e s s e f f i c i e n t , w i t h a l o w e r p r e s s u r e d r o p ,
by adding more l a r g e f i b e r s , and fewer s m a l l ones. Since
smaller f i b e r s a r e more expensive t o manufacture, paper
makers t r y t o minimize t h e i r use. However, using few s m a l l
diameter f i b e r s r e q u i r e s a t h i c k e r matrix of l a r g e r f i b e r s
.
f o r a given e f f i c i e n c y Each manufacturer d e r i v e s a paper
formula a f t e r considering t h e manufacturing c o s t , b e n e f i t
o f t h e formula, and t h e intended a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f i l t e r .

M i l i t a r y Standard M i l F 51079 i s t h e reference s p e c i f i c a -

t i o n f o r t h e manufacture o f ' f i l t e r paper f o r nuclear use.
(Note: The U.S. Army p l a n s t o "abandon" M i l F 51079 a t t h e
end of 1995. The requirements i n M i l F 51079 w i l l be
incorporated i n t o an appendix of Section FC of ANSI/ASME
AG-1. )

Figure 3 i s a photomicrograph of t h e f i l t e r media under

lOOOx magnification. The meniscus between t h e f i b e r s i s
t h e waterproof binder used t o make t h e media water
r e s i s t a n t . Notethattherandomlypositionedfiberscreate
i n t e r s t i c e s which are very l a r g e when compared t o a sub-
micrometer p a r t i c l e . The means used t o remove t h e s e small
p a r t i c l e s w i l l be discussed next.

Figure
PARTICLE CAPTURE MECHANISMS

A HEPA f i l t e r captures p a r t i c l e s by s e v e r a l mechanisms.

These include s t r a i n i n g ( a l s o c a l l e d s i e v i n g ) , intercep-
t i o n , i n e r t i a ( a l s o c a l l e d impaction), and diffusion.
Figure 4 d e p i c t s t h e s e capture mechanisms.

To present a c l e a r , graphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s e
capture mechanisms, a s t r i c t mathematical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h e capture mechanisms must be discarded f o r a general
interpretation.

FILTRATION MECHANISM

Figure 4

Sieving, a l s o c a l l e d s t r a i n i n g , i s t h e process whereby a

p a r t i c l e i s removed from t h e a i r s t r e a m by becoming lodged
among s e v e r a l f i l t e r media f i b e r s . Large p a r t i c l e s a r e
easilycapturedbysieving,whichisacollectionphenomena
of minor e f f e c t i v e n e s s . S t r a i n i n g i s an undesirable
capturemechanism, sinceaparticlecapturedinthismanner
has e f f e c t i v e l y screened a p o r t i o n of t h e f i l t e r from
f u r t h e r p a r t i c l e capture.

Sieving occurs more f r e q u e n t l y w i t h p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r t h a n

5 p.m. These l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s block a c c e s s i n t o t h e f i l t e r
media, andpreventsmallerparticles from p e n e t r a t i n g i n t o
t h e depths of t h e f i l t e r media. The screened p o r t i o n of
t h e HEPA f i l t e r can no longer c a p t u r e p a r t i c l e s i n t h e most
d e s i r a b l e s i z e range. Since a d d i t i o n a l p a r t i c l e s cannot
p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e depths of t h e media, new incoming
p a r t i c l e s agglomerate on t h e s i e v e d l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s , and
face load t h e HEPA. Face loading blocks o f f a p o r t i o n of
t h e f i l t e r media from f u r t h e r a i r flow, and t h i s blockage
i n c r e a s e s t h e p r e s s u r e drop a c r o s s t h e f i l t e r , r e d u c i n g i t s
l i f e span.

Interceptionoccurswhenaparticle, whichotherwisemight
avoid a f i b e r , has s u f f i c i e n t s i z e ( i . e . , r a d i a l s i z e )
t h a t , merely because of i t s s i z e , it comes i n c o n t a c t with
a f i b e r and i s captured. I t is a t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a g e between
impaction and d i f f u s i o n and does n o t p l a y a major r o l e i n
p a r t i c l e capture

Impaction o c c u r s when t h e p a r t i c l e has s u f f i c i e n t s i z e

( t h u s , momentum) t h a t it cannot continue i n t h e p a t h of t h e
gasmoleculeswhichcarryit. Thegas stream, a n d p a r t i c l e ,
might e a s i l y go around many f i l t e r f i b e r s , b u t e v e n t u a l l y
i t s p a t h i s blocked by a f i l t e r f i b e r . t h a t is, t h e gas
stream can go around t h e f i l t e r f i b e r , b u t because of t h e
p a r t i c l e ' s momentum, it cannot a v o i d b e i n g d r i v e n onto t h e
fiber .
Diffusion occurs when a p a r t i c l e less t h a n 0.3 pm behaves
similar t o a g a s molecule. That is, t h e p a r t i c l e i s
s u h j e c t e d t o Brownian motion, and has a random p a t h i n t h e
media. This random, t h e r e f o r e l e n g t h y p a t h c o n t r i b u t e s t o
c a p t u r e by t h i s means. P a r t i c l e s want t o achieve
e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h o t h e r p a r t i c l e s of a s i m i l a r s i z e , t h u s
a p a r t i c l e d i f f u s e s i n t o volumes w i t h a lower p a r t i c l e
population i n o r d e r t o reach t h a t equilibrium. One of t h e
volumes t h a t have a low p a r t i c l e population is occupied by
a submicrometer f i l t e r f i b e r . Thus, t h e small p a r t i c l e i s
a t t r a c t e d t o t h e f i l t e r f i b e r and is captured.

P a r t i c l e s i n t h e s i z e range of 5 pm t o 0.001 pm d i s c r e t e l y
a t t a c h themselves t o a media f i b e r . Because of t h e g r e a t
number of f i b e r s i n t h e media of a 24 i n c h x 24 inch x 11.5
inch HEPA f i l t e r , t h e r e i s a l a r g e number of s i t e s t h a t a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r p a r t i c l e capture. Eachfibercanaccommodate
a l a r g e number of p a r t i c l e s . Thus, a HEPA f i l t e r has a huge
capacity f o r t h e s e s m a l l p a r t i c l e s . Figure 5 shows t h i s
i n a conceptual way.

Figure 5

Small p a r t i c l e s which come i n t o c o n t a c t with any media

f i b e r a r e held onto t h e f i b e r s by V a n d e r Waalsl force,
which i s an e l e c t r o s t a t i c force. Once a p a r t i c l e i s
captured, Van d e r Waalsg f o r c e w i l l keep t h e p a r t i c l e
permanently attached t o t h e f i b e r . (Note: some migration
of p a r t i c u l a t e through t h e f i l t e r i s possible, b u t t h i s
migration i s n e g l i g i b l e . )

The a b i l i t y of a f i l t e r t o capture p a r t i c l e s is expressed

i n terms of "efficiency" (.E)and "penetration" ( P ) . These
terms a r e o f t e n used interchangeably, but a r e not
synonymous. Percent e f f i c i e n c y is defined t o be

Even though t h e terms a r e used interchangeably, they do

have d i s t i n c t a p p l i c a t i o n s . E f f i c i e n c y i s atermusedwhen
t h e penetration of a HEPA f i l t e r i s obtained under
laboratory conditions. W e say t h e f i l t e r has "99.97%
 Efficiency". P e n e t r a t i o n is a term used t o express t h e
t r a v e l of contaminants through a f i l t e r when it i s
s u b j e c t e d t o f i e l d t e s t conditions. These c o n d i t i o n s are
not p o s s i b l e t o c o n t r o l as c l o s e l y as t h e conditions i n t h e
laboratory. Also, a f i e l d t e s t determines t h e amount of
contaminants which a c t u a l l y p e n e t r a t e t h e f i l t e r system.
W e say a f i l t e r system has "0.05% Penetration".

I f t h e terminology w a s c o n s i s t e n t , t h e term "penetration"

would be used, and n o t "efficiency". Whether t e s t i n g i n
t h e l a b o r a t o r y o r i n t h e i n s t a l l e d a p p l i c a t i o n , it i s
always t h e p e n e t r a t i o n through a f i l t e r which i s a c t u a l l y
being measured.

I n t h e e f f e c t i v e s i z e range f o r HEPA f i l t e r s , l a r g e r
p a r t i c l e s are captured by s e v e r a l methods a l r e a d y
discussed. These methods are grouped t o g e t h e r i n t o a
s i n g l e c a p t u r e mechanism which s h a l l be defined a s 110
( i n t e r c e p t i o n , impaction, o t h e r ) . Refer t o t h e e f f i c i e n c y
curve shown i n Figure 6. Notice t h a t as t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e
i n c r e a s e s , t h e e f f i c i e n c y a t t r i b u t e d t o I10 i n c r e a s e s .
Obviously, t h e r e i s a p a r t i c l e i n t h e l a r g e r s i z e range
which w i l l n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e f i l t e r media. That is,
P e n e t r a t i o n = 0 , as shown.
Zero Percent Penetration 100 Percent Eficiency
0.00 A
. 100.00 %

- - - - - - - 99.97%
Percent
Penetration

smaller particles- 0 3 pm -
Particle Size in pm
larger particles

Figure 6
S m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s are captured by d i f f u s i o n . A s the
p a r t i c l e s i z e decreases, t h e e f f i c i e n c y a t t r i b u t e d t o
diffusion increases. When t h e p a r t i c l e approaches
molecular s i z e ( i . e . , l e s s than 0 . 0 0 1 pm). t h e e f f i c i e n c y
curve f o r d i f f u s i o n begins t o t u r n down toward higher
penetration.

These capture mechanisms are working simultaneously.

Therefore, t h e p e n e t r a t i o n curves a r e a d d i t i v e . The
r e s u l t a n t curve is marked a s such.

There are two important p o i n t s i n t h i s curve:

1. The most p e n e t r a t i n g - p a r t i c l e s i z e i n t h i s
i l l u s t r a t i o n i s 0.3 pm.

2. The p e n e t r a t i o n f o r t h i s p a r t i c l e s i z e , i n t h i s
i l l u s t r a t i o n , i s 0.03%.

The d e f i n i t i o n of a HEPA f i l t e r is derived from t h e s e two

important points.

BYDEFINITION,AHEPAFILTERISONEWHICHEXHIBITSAMAXIMUM
PENETRATION OF 0.03% ON 0.3 pm PARTICLES.

The reader should avoid u s i n g t h e phrase "99.97% e f f i c i e n t

on 0.3 pm p a r t i c l e s and larger", as it shows a misunder-
standing of t h e n a t u r e of t h e performance of a HEPA f i l t e r .
The r e s u l t a n t curve from t h e graph shows t h a t as t h e
p a r t i c l e s i z e i n c r e a s e s from 0.3 pm, t h e e f f i c i e n c y
increases. A s t h e p a r t i c l e decreases from 0.3 pm, t h e
e f f i c i e n c y a l s o i n c r e a s e s . I t is appropriate, t h e r e f o r e ,
t o s t a t e t h a t t h e f i l t e r e x h i b i t s "0.03% maximum
p e n e t r a t i o n on 0.3 pm p a r t i c l e s " , s i n c e t h e p e n e t r a t i o n
decreases as t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e i n c r e a s e s o r decreases.

The HEPA f i l t e r d e f i n i t i o n w a s derived from work done i n

t h e 1950's a t t h e US Navy Laboratory, Edgewood Arsenal,
and by p r i v a t e c o n t r a c t o r s . Recent t e s t i n g with l a s e r
p a r t i c l e s i z e a n a l y z e r s h a s shownthatthemostpenetrating
p a r t i c l e is 0.12 pn. This s h i f t i n t h e curve is important
f o r c l e a n room work, where p a r t i c l e s i z e i s a c r i t i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n . However, t h e United S t a t e s ~ u c l e a rRegu-
l a t o r y Commission (USNRC, o r NRC) has n o t required a
change i n its c r i t e r i a from0.3 w t o 0.12 pm. Its p o s i t i o n
i s t h a t t h e impact of t h e r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s t o t h e Health
and S a f e t y of t h e P u b l i c i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . The N R C t s
c h a r t e r is t o p r o t e c t t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y of t h e p u b l i c .
For t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , 0.3 pm w i l l be considered t h e most
penetrating p a r t i c l e size.

A summary of p a r t i c l e c a p t u r e t h e o r y and p a r t i c l e behavior

can be i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e following example.

Consider a s i x f o o t t a l l person, f a c i n g a f o r e s t of a
q u a r t e r of a m i l e t h i c k . . T h e r e i s a moderate amount of
undergrowth i n t h e f o r e s t . This person i s r e p r e s e n t i n g a
0.3 pm p a r t i c l e i n i t s p a t h through a f i l t e r system. The
q u a r t e r m i l e t h i c k woods, with i t s moderate undergrowth,
i s t h e f i l t e r media w i t h both s m a l l and l a r g e f i b e r s .

The person i n t h i s example begins t o go through t h e woods,

t a k i n g c a r e t o a v o i d touching a tree o r any brush, and
continuing a t a uniform v e l o c i t y . The l i k e l i h o o d i s high
t h a t t h e person, i n s p i t e of e f f o r t s t o avoid them, w i l l
come i n c o n t a c t with a t r e e , bush, o r l i m b . When t h a t
happens, t h e person i s "captured". The same happens t o a
small p a r t i c l e by 110.

A very s m a l l person would be more l i k e l y t o avoid a tree,

b u t l a c k i n g c o n s i s t e n t d i r e c t i o n and c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y , i s
more l i k e l y t o wander i n t o a low-growing bush. This i s
analogous t o a p a r t i c l e smaller t h a n 0.3 pm. A very l a r g e
personmay n o t be very a g i l e , and wouldblunder i n t o a t r e e ,
b u s h o r l i m b q u i t e r e a d i l y . This i s analogous t o a p a r t i c l e
l a r g e r t h a n 0.3 p.m.

Suppose t h a t t h e r e is a v i s i b l e , narrow p a t h through t h i s

f o r e s t . A t t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y , t h e person tries t o reach
t h e path. With many o b s t a c l e s i n t h e way, t h e person i s
captured. I f t h e person slows down t o 20% of t h e i n i t i a l
v e l o c i t y , however, t h e r e i s a much b e t t e r chance of
avoiding t h e trees, bushes and l i m b s , and t h e path can be
reached. T h i s i s analogous t o t h e pinhole l e a k previously
 described. (Note: Pinhole l e a k s w i l l be discussed l a t e r .
The reader may wish t o r e f e r t o t h e s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d "FLOW
RATE", pages 1 9 through 2 1 . )

~f 10,000 various s i z e d people began t h e t r i p through t h e

f o r e s t , t h r e e would make it through without touching
anything. This r e p r e s e n t s t h e 0.03% p e n e t r a t i o n allowed
i n a HEPA f i l t e r .

Separators a r e corrugated s p a c e r s made of aluminum, k r a f t

paper, o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l . They a r e about 4i inch high and
k e e p t h e f i l . t e r m e d i a separated, s o t h a t t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e
a r e a of t h e media w i l l be exposed t o airflow. The
s e p a r a t o r s a l s o s e r v e a s f l u t e s , whichchannel t h e incoming
a i r i n t o t h e depths of t h e HEPA f i l t e r . They a l s o provide
some s t r u c t u r a l r i g i d i t y t o t h e f i l t e r .

Some nuclear grade HEPA f i l t e r s have been developed w i t h

. t h e separatorsmoldedintothemediaduringthe f o u r d r i n i e r
process.

The assembly of t h e f i l t e r media and t h e s e p a r a t o r s i s

c a l l e d a "pack", o r "slug".

FRAME

The f i l t e r frame i s a metal, wood, p l a s t i c , o r o t h e r

impenetrable m a t e r i a l enclosure t h a t surrounds and
contains t h e assembled f i l t e r pack. The nuclear i n d u s t r y
has standardized on a corrosion r e s i s t a n t s h e e t metal
frame .
ADHESIVE

The adhesive i s t h e glue which binds and seals t h e f i l t e r

pack t o t h e frame.

GASKET

The gasket is t h e i n t e r f a c e between t h e HEPA f i l t e r frame

(as defined above) and t h e framing systemwhich supports
t h e HEPA f i l t e r i n t h e NATS f i l t e r housing. The terms
" f i l t e r f rame" and "framing system" a r e n o t synonymous. The
gasket i s normally composed of c l o s e - c e l l sponge neoprene
m a t e r i a l and i s secured t o t h e f i l t e r frame with adhesive.

FACE GUARDS

A f a c e guard i s normally k W hardware c l o t h ( m e t a l mesh)

i n s t a l l e d over t h e e n t i r e f a c e of t h e f i l t e r . I t is
attached t o t h e +"
r e c e s s between f i l t e r pack and t h e
frame. Its purpose i s t o p r o t e c t t h e f r a g i l e f i l t e r media
from damage. Another b e n e f i t of t h e f a c e guards is t h e
added r i g i d i t y which t h e y provide t o t h e f i l t e r assembly.

FILTER ASSEMBLY

HEPA f i l t e r components are assembled i n t o a f i l t e r i n t h e

following manner:

A continuous s h e e t of f i l t e r media i s woven i n t o a pack

by p l a c i n g s e p a r a t o r s f i r s t on one s i d e of t h e s h e e t of
media, and t h e n t h e o t h e r . T h i s process i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l
t h e pack is about 23 i n c h e s high. The pack i s 26 inches
wide, due t o t h e width of t h e media. The t h i c k n e s s i s
approximately 11 i n c h e s . The f i l t e r frame i s composed of
f o u r "boards", a term used t o d e s c r i b e t h e frame
components. There are two s i d e boards, as w e l l as t h e t o p
and bottom boards. The boards are % inches t h i c k . Wooden
frames a r e u s u a l l y made of %I1 plywood. Metal frames a r e
u s u a l l y made of 1 4 gage material, with a %I1 double-turned
f l a n g e as t h e o u t e r perimeter. .The f i l t e r pack is trimmed
by a double blade band s a w t o a dimension t h a t , when
assembled w i t h t h e 3" boards, makes a f i l t e r w i t h one 24"
dimension. T h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n i s a t t a i n e d b y r e m o v i n g o n e
o r more s e p a r a t o r s (and media) u n t i l t h e dimension, with
t h e boards, is a l s o 24". The depth of t h e f i l t e r i s 11 4".
The depth of t h e f i l t e r pack, however, i s lltl. This means
t h a t t h e pack i s r e c e s s e d i n t o t h e frame by on both t h e
f r o n t and back of t h e f i l t e r . This HEPA f i l t e r i s r e f e r r e d
t o as "24 x 24 x 11 5". Whenever a d i f f e r e n t s i z e f i l t e r
is t h u s described, t h e f i r s t dimension always r e f e r s t o t h e
h e i g h t of t h e f i l t e r .
The trimmed pack is glued i n t o t h e frame. More c o r r e c t l y ,
the frame i s assembled around t h e pack, gluing t h e
i n t e r f a c e between t h e pack and t h e frame.

A l a y e r of adhesive i s a p p l i e d t o t h e frame j o i n t s t o
prevent a i r f l o w bypass which could occur through t h e
j o i n t s . Wood frames a r e n a i l e d t o g e t h e r a t t h e j o i n t s and
metal frames a r e assembled with r i v e t s .

Astudyoftheassemblypicture ( F i g u r e 2 A ) r e v e a l s a n a r e a
of s p e c i a l concern, i n terms of s e a l i n g t h e pack t o t h e
frame. T h i s i n v o l v e s t h e "cut edge" of t h e pack,

The e n t i r e r o u g h c u t e d g e m u s t b e s e a l e d , o r t h e f i l t e r w i l l
l e a k . That i s , contaminants i n t h e a i r w i l l by-pass t h e
f i l t e r media. To s e a l t h e ' c u t edge, it is "potted" w i t h
g l u e s o t h a t , by c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n , t h e g l u e c r e e p s i n t o t h e
f i l t e r pack f o r approximately + inch, creating a seal.

Other a d h e s i v e t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o m a k e t h i s s e a l ,
i n c l u d i n g two p a r t urethane which "grow" i n t o t h e c u t edge
as t h e y c u r e , and s o l i d urethane, which form a s o l i d g l u e
s h e e t t h a t c o v e r s t h e c u t edge.

The " f l a p edge" of t h e frame is secured by a s i n g l e bead

of glue. T h i s s i n g l e bead extends 'from one s i d e board t o
t h e o t h e r , on both t h e t o p and bottom. The s i n g l e bead of
g l u e s e a l s t h e pack t o t h e t o p and bottom boards.

Gaskets used on HEPA f i l t e r s a r e 3 i n c h e s wide, and % i n c h

t h i c k . The g a s k e t s a r e i n s t a l l e d by g l u i n g s t r i p s of t h e
material t o t h e t i n c h f a c e of t h e frame boards. Care i s
t a k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e g a s k e t i s an i n t e g r a l e n t i t y ,
s i n c e any gaps i n t h e g a s k e t seal w i l l allow u n f i l t e r e d a i r
t o bypass t h e f i l t e r media. The g a s k e t j o i n t s can be b u t t
j o i n t s , d o v e t a i l e d j o i n t s , o r any o t h e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n
w h i c h w i l l m e e t t h e c o n t r a c t t e m s . The g a s k e t i s i n s t a l l e d
onone f a c e , o r b o t h f a c e s o f t h e f i l t e r , a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n
of t h e c o n t r a c t f o r f i l t e r purchase,

The f a c e guards, are i n s t a l l e d by g l u i n g them t o t h e frame

boards, j u s t i n s i d e t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e frame, i n t h e % i n c h
recess previously described.
The l a b e l , with a l l p e r t i n e n t t e s t data, is attached t o t h e
frame.

Component s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , assembly i n s t r u c t i o n s , and t e s t

i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r a nuclear grade HEPA f i l t e r a r e found i n
M i l i t a r y S p e c i f i c a t i o n M i l F 51068. The U. S. Army plans t o
"abandon" M i l F 51068 a t t h e end of 1 9 9 5 . The requirements
i n M i l F 51068 w i l l be incorporated i n t o Section F C of
ANSI/ASME AG-1.
CONDITIONS FOR DESIGN AND TESTING

~ i51068 escribeslimitingconditions f o r t h e operation

l d~
o f ' a HEPA f i l t e r . These a r e discussed a s follows:

Static pressure drop (dp) across the filter

S t a t i c p r e s s u r e drop (dp) i s t h e measurement of t h e f o r c e

requiredtomovethe a i r throughthe f i l t e r . Aclean f i l t e r
has a dp of less t h a n 1.0 i n c h water gage. A filter
manufacturer w i l l warrant a n u c l e a r grade HEPA f i l t e r t o
o p e r a t e p r o p e r l y a t 10.0 i n c h e s water gage.

The design dp i s a f u n c t i o n of economics, ergonomics, and

engineering c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
involve o p e r a t i n g t h e u n i t with a d i r t y f i l t e r v e r s u s t h e
c o s t of changing t h e f i l t e r . I f access t o t h e f i l t e r i s
l i m i t e d due t o high r a d i a t i o n , f o r example, t h e n t h e c o s t
o f t h e e n e r g y t o r u n t h e f i l t e r t o a h i g h d p i s m i n i m a l when
compared t o ALARA consequences t o maintenance personnel.

Another economic example i s i n t h e c a s e of production

o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h r e l y o n H E P A f i l t r a t i o n . I f shuttingdown
a n o p e r a t i o n t o change f i l t e r s m e a n s l o s t p r o d u c t i o n , t h e n
it may bemore economical t o o p e r a t e t h e f i l t e r s a t a h i g h e r
dp, keeping t h e o p e r a t i o n functioning.

An example of an ergonomic c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h a t a h i g h e r
dp w i l l g e n e r a t e a h i g h e r l e v e l of noise. I f t h e f i l t e r
system i s n e a r ( o r i n ) t h e c o n t r o l room of a n u c l e a r p l a n t
(oranyotherareawherequietsurroundingsaredesirable),
t h e n o i s e could be an unnecessary annoyance. This would
argue f o r c h a n g i n g t h e f i l t e r a t a l o w d p . Lowerdprequires
less f a n ,horsepower t o . move a i r through t h e f i l t e r ,
r e s u l t i n g i n q u i e t e r o p e r a t i o n . Another example is i n
c l e a n rooms, which r o u t i n e l y use HEPA f i l t e r s as p a r t of
t h e room boundary. Noise from high v e l o c i t y a i r t r a v e l l i n g
through t h e f i l t e r s , o r from t h e blower (which must be
l a r g e r t o overcome t h e high s t a t i c p r e s s u r e ) , may have an
undesirable e f f e c t .

An example of an e n g i n e e r i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h a t dp i s
r e l a t e d t o f a n horsepower ( h p ) as a cubic function. That
is, it t a k e s 8 t i m e s t h e hp f o r a given f a n t o move t h e same
amount of a i r through a f i l t e r w i t h a 2.0 i n c h w a t e r gage
dp a s through one w i t h a 1.0 i n c h w a t e r gage dp.

For p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , an unconventional v e n t i l a -
t i o n f a n with high hp, l a r g e s i z e , and w i d e o p e r a t i n g range
s t a b i l i t y would have t o be chosen f o r a NATS i f t h e HEPA
f i l t e r were t o o p e r a t e from t h e lower t o t h e upper range
of i t s a b i l i t y .

Flow Rate

F i l t e r flow r a t e , i n cubic f e e t p e r minute (cfrn) i s a

function of t h e square feet of f i l t e r media i n t h e HEPA.
M i l F 51068 l i m i t s t h e allowed v e l o c i t y of a i r f l o w through
t h e media t o a maximum of 5 l i n e a l f e e t p e r minute. Older
HEPA designs contained about 200 square f e e t of media,
meaningthat t h e v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e o f t h e f i l t e r w a s 1000
cfm. Even though s e p a r a t o r f l u t e h e i g h t has decreased
(which allowed more media t o be p u t i n t o t h e H E P A ) , and t h e
medium was designed f o r b e t t e r p o r o s i t y , ' t h e design flow
o f t h e HE~Aremainsa t 1 0 0 0 cfm. T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e i n i t i a l
p r e s s u r e drop has been reduced from 1.0 i n c h water gage ( I t
wg) a t 1000 cfm t o a l e s s e r v a l u e - A t y p i c a l p r e s s u r e drop
value a t 1000 cfm, f o r a new, modern f i l t e r , i s about 0.80tt
wg. A l t e r n a t i v e d e s i g n s f o r 1500 cfm and 2000 cfm a r e
a v a i l a b l e , w i t h h i g h e r i n i t i a l d p . O n l y t h e 1000 cfm design
i s discussed here.

Although flow rate changes w i l l a f f e c t t h e f i l t r a t i o n

mechanisms, a f i l t e r w i l l f u n c t i o n under v a r i a b l e flow
r a t e s . A s t h e flow rate i n c r e a s e s , t h e e f f i c i e n c y due t o
impaction, and i n t e r c e p t i o n , w i l l i n c r e a s e . The e f f i -
ciency due t o d i f f u s i o n . a l o n e , however, w i l l decrease.

The converse i s a l s o t r u e - A s t h e v e l o c i t y through t h e

media decreases, t h e e f f i c i e n c y due t o impaction (and t o
a lesser e x t e n t , i n t e r c e p t i o n ) w i l l decrease, b u t t h e
e f f i c i e n c y due t o d i f f u s i o n w i l l i n c r e a s e . These
statements are s e l f - e v i d e n t c o n s i d e r i n g momentum as a
f u n c t i o n of v e l o c i t y .

Even though f i l t e r s w i l l f u n c t i o n a t v a r i a b l e flow rates,

t h e nuclear i n d u s t r y r e q u i r e s t h e v e l o c i t y through t h e
media not exceed 5 f e e t p e r minute, i n accordance with M i l
F 51068, which is referenced by U.S. NRC Reg Guide 1.52.

F i l t e r s a r e l e a k t e s t e d a t 1000 cfm using a t e s t aerosol.

A f t e r t h i s 1000 cfm t e s t , t h e t e s t a i r f l o w (with i t s
e n t r a i n e d a e r o s o l ) i s reduced t o 200 cfm. This reduction
of a i r f l o w through t h e f i l t e r w i l l d e t e c t a "pinhole" l e a k ,
I f a pinhole l e a k e x i s t s i n t h e f i l t e r , t h e p e n e t r a t i o n
through t h e pinhole w i l l be d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y high a t t h e
lower f l o w r a t e . Disregardingrigorousproof, t h e a p p a r e n t
p e n e t r a t i o n (%P)through t h e f i l t e r m e d i a is approximately
equal t o t h e r o o t flow, o r

P = K ( f low)El/2, where K i s approximately 1. I f t h e flow

i s l o o % , t h e apparent p e n e t r a t i o n i s 1.

When t h e flow i s reduced t o 200 cfm, which i s 20% of t h e

HEPA f i l t e r standard t e s t flow, t h e apparent p e n e t r a t i o n
(from t h e preceding formula) i s approximately 0.45. The
0.45 obtained from t h e 20% flow r a t e i s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y
l a r g e r t h a n t h e 1 . 0 obtainedfromthelOO%f l o w r a t e . Refer
t o Figure 7. f o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h i s phenomenon.

Figure 7

I n c a s e A, a i r i s a p p r o a c h i n g t h e m e d i a a t 5 f e e t p e r m i n u t e
(maximum). Fewparticlesmovingatthatvelocity can a l t e r
t h e i r path t o reach t h e pinhole, even though t h e dp i n t h e
v i c i n i t y of t h e pinhole i s less than through t h e media. I n
t h e second case, however, a i r i s approaching t h e media a t
1 f o o t p e r minute (maximum). A t t h i s slow v e l o c i t y , t h e
lower p r e s s u r e drop i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e pinhole allows
 particles to alter their path, and many more of them can
flow through the hole. Hence, the higher apparent
penetration.

If a HEPA filter exhibits a penetration of 0.01% MORE at

20% flow than at 100% flow, the filter is deemed to have
a pinhole leak which would impair its function. Typical
acceptable values are as follows:

%P at 100% of total flow = 0.010%

%P at 20% of total flow = 0.012%

Unacceptable values at the same flow rates are:

%P at 100% of total flow =.0.010%

%P at 20% of total flow = 0.022%.

Temperature

. A nuclear grade HEPA filter is designed to operate

continuously at 250°F. The filter manufacturer can also
make the filter from components which have a tolerance for
higher temperatures.

Additional Testing

MIL F 51068 defines other tests which the filter must pass
before inclusion on a government Qualified Products List
(QPL). These include over-pressure tests, environmental
tests, tests for resistanceto radiationexposure, andmany
others. At present, only Edgewood arsenal and Rocky Flats
can perform these qualification tests. Only filters
designs that have passed these qualification tests can be
used in a nuclear power plant. ANSI/ASME N509, in its
sectiononHEPAfilters,usesthephrase"otherwisepassing
these tests", which means that the HEPA manufacturer has
the alternative to perform some parts of the qualification
testing. The test results of filter designs claimedto have
passed the qualification tests by means other than a
recognized national laboratory should be audited carefully
to assure compliance with the qualification requirements.
 FACTORY EFFICIENCY TESTING OF HEPA FILTERS

Assumingthat0.3 pmisthemostpenetratingparticle s i z e ,
it i s d e s i r a b l e t o t e s t a H E P A f i l t e r w i t h 0.3 p p a r t i c l e s .
This i s done during t h e f a c t o r y p e n e t r a t i o n test.

D i Octyl P h t h a l a t e (DOP) i s t h e agent used as a challenge

aerosol,

NOTE: DOPisbeingreplacedastheprimarytestagent. DOP's

replacement has not y e t been standardized, but t h e r e a r e
s e v e r a l equivalent products a v a i l a b l e .

The aerosol i s generated i n t h e following manner ( r e f e r t o

Figure 8 ) :

THERMAL DOP PENETROMETER

W E T E R TO
MEASURE
INLET HE4TER

-
. -..
. ..
DILUnONUR
SAMPLING

Figure 8

HEPA f i l t e r e d ambient a i r is pushed i n t o a p o s i t i v e

pressure plenum upstream of t h e f i l t e r by a blower. The
a i r s t r e a m is then divided i n t o t h r e e ducts.

The t o p duct i s equipped with tempering devices, s o t h a t

t h e ambient a i r c a n b e c h a n g e d t o h a v e s p e c i f i c temperature
and r e l a t i v e humidity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

The c e n t e r duct conveys un-tempered ambient a i r .

T h e ,t h i r d duct c a r r i e s a f r a c t i o n of t h e a i r p a s t open
c o n t a i n e r s f i l l e d with heated l i q u i d DOP. This airstream
e n t r a i n s t h e DOPvaporandtransportsthe v a p o r t o aplenum
where t h e a i r e x i t i n g a l l t h r e e of t h e ducts merge. The
c e n t e r duct a i r mass, t h e t o p duct tempered a i r , and t h e
bottom duct DOP vapor laden a i r i s mixed i n t h i s plenum.
A "fogm forms under these conditions. The resultant fog is
a DOP aerosol.of predominantly 0.3 p. Because most of the
particulate in the fog is 0.3 pm, the fog is termed a
MONO-DISPERSED aerosol.

This air/aerosol mixture is pushed through the filter to

be tested. A penetration instrument measures the concen-
tration (C) of the DOP mass upstream (u) of the filter, and
downstream (d) of the filter. A penetration value (%P) is
calculated from the universal penetration equation:

Efficiency (%E) can then be calculated from the

penetration:

DOP AEROSOL MEASURING EQUIPMENT

The DOP aerosol measuring equipment makes use of the Mie

theory of light, which simple states that if light is
scattered, it is scattered in a forward direction
proportional to its concentration.

To measure aerosol concentrations, a device is used as

shown in Figure 9.
PERcENl

--ng
-4 -- -
-- -
VACUUM
PUMP

FLOW CHART 1'1

TEST RLTW
TDA-2D PmEE

Figure 9
 The DOP a e r o s o l d e t e c t o r f u n c t i o n s as follows:

A l i g h t s o u r c e g e n e r a t e s l i g h t rays. These rays, which a r e

generated i n a forward d i r e c t i o n , are made p a r a l l e l by a
l e n s . A second l e n s focuses t h e l i g h t r a y s t o a p o i n t .
The second l e n s has i t s c e n t e r blacked o u t by lamp black,
by a p i e c e of black f e l t , o r by some o t h e r means t o block
l i g h t from passing. The r e s u l t i s a cone of darkness
surrounded by a l i g h t e d sheathe. The cone of darkness i s
focused t o t h e same p o i n t as t h e l i g h t e d sheathe, and
s i m i l a r l y d i v e r g e s . The t h i r d l e n s focuses only t h e dark
cone onto t h e photo m u l t i p l i e r tube. This p a r t of t h e
device i s c a l l e d a scattering chamber. The s c a t t e r i n g
chamber h a s t h e same g e n e r a l shape as t h e l i g h t and dark
cones i n s i d e of it.

During o p e r a t i o n of t h e d e t e c t o r , an a i r sample i s drawn

i n t o t h e s c a t t e r i n g chamber. The sample p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e
p o i n t w h e r e t h e d a r k cone, s u r r o u n d e d b y a l i g h t e d sheathe,
converge. P a r t i c l e s i n t h e a i r sample s c a t t e r t h e l i g h t
, i n t o t h e d i v e r g e n t dark cone. Since t h e dark cone i s
focused on t h e photo m u l t i p l i e r tube, t h e t u b e then senses
s c a t t e r e d l i g h t . The l i g h t it s e n s e s i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s i n t h e a e r o s o l . Under t e s t
c o n d i t i o n s , o p e r a t i o n of t h e a e r o s o l d e t e c t o r i s a s
follows:

1. Air i s continuously drawn through a s m a l l

i n t e r n a l HEPA f i l t e r , which c l e a n s it f o r use
i n t h e detector. I t t h e n p a s s e s through t h e
s c a t t e r i n g chamber a t a r a t e of 1 cubic f o o t p e r
minute (cfm).

2. Using t h i s c l e a n a i r , any s t r a y l i g h t s i g n a l s ,
o r e l e c t r o n i c signals, are damped out by
e l e c t r o n i c means. The d e t e c t o r i s now reading
zero p e n e t r a t i o n .

3. The photo m u l t i p l i e r tube i s t h e n exposed t o an

i n t e r n a l , c a l i b r a t e d , secondary l i g h t source.
The d e t e c t o r i s i n s t r u c t e d t o d e f i n e t h i s l i g h t
source as 100% p e n e t r a t i o n .
4. DoP aerosol is then i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e t e s t
volume. Concentration is measuredby movingthe
d e t e c t o r s sampling valve so t h a t t h e upstream
sample is drawn through t h e s c a t t e r i n g chamber.
The c o n t r o l panel of a t y p i c a l d e t e c t o r i s shown
i n Figure 10.

F i g u r e 10

Theconcentrationof i n j e c t e d D O ~ i s a d j u s t e d s o
t h a t t h e d e t e c t i o n device reads a s c l o s e t o
wlOO%M a s practical. That is, t h e photo
m u l t i p l i e r t u b e i s sensing a l l o f t h e l i g h t w h i c h
it can d e t e c t . The DOP aerosol d e n s i t y , under
t h e s e conditions, is 100 micrograms per l i t e r .
Small adjustments can be made on t h e d e t e c t o r t o
ensure t h a t t h e d e t e c t o r is reading a 100%
concentration. The l i g h t from t h e c a l i b r a t i o n
source is equal t o t h e l i g h t d e n s i t y t h a t t h e
tube is sensing (from t h e l i g h t s c a t t e r e d by t h e
upstreamDOPparticles). I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t
a successful penetration t e s t can be run with
almost any upstream concentration of aerosol.
The concentration need not be 100 pg/l.

5. I n t h e next s t e p , t h e sampling valve i s moved t o

t h e downstream p o s i t i o n . A t t h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e
downstream concentration i s being measured. An
e l e c t r o n i c a t t e n u a t o r i s moved t o successively
more s e n s i t i v e p o s i t i o n s , untilameasurementof
t h e downstream concentration can be made.
 Knowing the upstream and downstream DOP concen-
tration values, the penetration through the
filter can be calculated from the standard
penetration equation.

These tests and the associated test equipment are fully

described inMilitary Standard 282. The Standard contains
complete specifications for the equipment, including
drawings and operating instructions, as well as test
acceptance criteria.

FIELD TESTING

The objective of field testing is different than that of

factory testing. The objective of field testing is to
assure that the components (which have passed all factory
tests) have not been damaged since leaving the factory,
have been installed properly, and that the system into
which it has been placed has the necessary design and
manufacture integrity.

A field test can detect flaws in the filters, incorrectly

installed filters, and inadequacies in filter design. The
amount of downstream penetration of an upstream challenge
aerosol will determine if flaws exist in the system which
will prevent it from performing its design function.

Although the objectives of the field test are different

than those of the manufacturer's test, the method is
similar. In fact, the DOP detection equipment is
essentially the same. The DOP generating equipment is
different; however, apd the generated aerosol has
different size characteristics. Instead of a homogeneous
aerosol of 0.3 , the DOP generator will produce a
POLY-DISPERSED aerosol with a size range as follows:

99+% of the particles will be less than 3.0 pm

50+% of the particles will be less than 0.7 pm
lo+% of the particles will be less than 0.4 p.
 This a e r o s o l can be produced by s e v e r a l methods. The most
common method i s shown i n Figure 11.

. .. .
AND . -
VALVE
OOP HEATER
RESERVOlR BLCCK

F i g u r e 11
An i n e r t gas p r e s s u r i z e s a r e s e r v o i r of l i q u i d DOP. The l i q u i d
DOP i s metered through a valve which can a d j u s t t h e output of
t h e generator. The metered DOP is t h e n forced through an
o r i f i c e by t h e i n e r t gas p r e s s u r e , which c o n v e r t s t h e DOP l i q u i d
i n t o a spray. The s p r a y continues i n t o a heated chamber, and
t h e h e a t llcracksv t h e s p r a y . i n t o an a e r o s o l with t h e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n p r e v i o u s l y noted.

Another method of g e n e r a t i n g t h e r e q u i s i t e a e r o s o l i s by u s i n g
a Laskin nozzle. This method was developed by Echols and Young
a t t h e US Navy Laboratory. The method u s e s compressed a i r t o
'generate t h e a e r o s o l . I n t h e diagrams below ( F i g u r e s 12A and
12B), t h e Laskin nozzle i s submerged i n t o l i q u i d DOP. Air
p r e s s u r e i s a p p l i e d through t h e pipe. A i r e x i t s t h e pipe from
t h e f o u r h o l e s d r i l l e d i n t o t h e pipe. These f o u r h o l e s are
d i r e c t l y above f o u r s i m i l a r h o l e s d r i l l e d i n t o t h e c o l l a r , as
n o t e d i n thediagram. L i q u i d D O P i s p u l l e d u p f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r
through t h e h o l e s i n t h e c o l l a r by Bernoulli I s P r i n c i p l e . The
a i r e x i t i n g t h e pipe s h e a r s o f f t h e DOP l i q u i d i n t o an a e r o s o l
w i t h t h e proper s i z e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Cold DOP Aerosol Generator Ll

Figure 1 2 A F i g u r e 12B

A survey of t h e referenced l i t e r a t u r e w i l l show s e v e r a l more

methodsof a e r o s o l generation, b u t t h e s e two a r e t h e m o s t common.
CARElON ADSORPTION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

~dsorptionis the process by which activated carbon can

control many gas and vapor phase airborne contaminants.
The adsorption process will be discussed in detail in a
later section.

Compound is the term most commonly used to describe an

airborne contaminant. Unlessthetextreferstoaspecific
gas, or a specific vapor, the term compound will be used
to apply to gaseous airborne contamination.

~t is impractical to describe the adsorption characteris-

tics of every airborne compound. This discussion will
focus on two of the most stringent applications. They are :

(1) Radioactive Iodides, which could become air-

borne nuclear contaminants, and

( 2) Chemical Agent Contaminants.

These two are chosen because they could easily impact the
health and safety of the public. The text will focus on
the nuclear application, but the agent application
requires essentially the same high standards of design and
manufacture. Many other uses of adsorption material are
not discussed, such as odor control and liquid filtration.
However, the reader can apply the data herein to a specific
application of this type.

Activated carbon is an excellent adsorber. It has been

called the "universal adsorbent". This discussion will
focus on activated carbon only. Activated carbon has been
used for many years to remove unwanted airborne material.
Doughboys in World War I, for example, used gas masks that
contained nut-shell activated carbon to protect them from
poisonous gasses.

With the advent of commercial nuclear power, the NRC was

forced to address the health effects of radioactive
materials potentially released from nuclear power plants.
They concluded that radioactive methyl iodide (MEI, which
is was t h e most v o l a t i l e of t h e gases o r vapors
t h a t would t h r e a t e n human health. M E 1 i s a body seeker,
t a k e n u p b y t h e t h y r o i d gland. I t e m i t s i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n
which a l t e r s body c e l l s t r u c t u r e , making cancer of t h e
thyroid more l i k e l y . I f t h e most v o l a t i l e ME1 i s
controlled, t h e r e f o r e , t h e l e s s v o l a t i l e s p e c i e s of
organic iodide w i l l a l s o be controlled, minimizing t h e
t h r e a t t o t h e thyroid.

There a r e , of course, o t h e r gas and vapor considerations

a t a nuclear powerplant. Noble off-gas in aBoilingWater
Reactor (BWR) i s one example. Precautionary f i l t e r s , such
a s those used t o supply a i r t o t h e p l a n t c o n t r o l room, a r e
another example. T h i s t e x t w i l l d i s c u s s M E ~removalonly,
i n a nuclear exhaust f i l t e r application.

The s u b j e c t of adsorption w i l l be developed i n a manner

s i m i l a r t o t h a t of HEPA f i l t e r s . F i r s t , an adsorber's
components and t h e i r f u n c t i o n s w i l l be described. Second,
t h e assembly of t h e components i n t o an adsorber u n i t w i l l
be discussed. Third, f a c t o r y t e s t i n g o f t h e adsorber u n i t
w i l l be developed. The f i n a l s e c t i o n w i l l cover t e s t i n g
of t h e i n s t a l l e d adsorbers i n an a i r f i l t r a t i o n system. A s
o t h e r f a c t o r s impact t h e carbon adsorber, t h e s e f a c t o r s
w i l l be discussed.
CARBON ADSORBER COMPO#E~S

A carbon adsorber has t h e following components:

( 1) F i l t e r media
(2) Perforated r e t a i n i n g metal
(3) Frame
(4) I n t e r f a c e between t h e perforated m a t e r i a l and t h e frame
(5) Gasket
(6) Label

These components a r e described below.

(1) FILTER MEDIA:

The f i l t e r media i n a carbon 'adsorber i s a c t i v a t e d carbon.

The process of adsorption i s as follows:

Gas molecules, obeying b a s i c laws of chemistry, r e a d i l y

d i f f u s e i n t o a given volume and a r e e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y
a t t r a c t e d t o any s u r f a c e within t h a t volume. Once a gas
molecule comes near enough t o a s u r f a c e t h a t t h e molecule
and t h e s u r f a c e can s h a r e e l e c t r o n s , t h e molecule is
adsorbed. The sharingofelectronsbetweenthesurface and
t h e compound i s c a l l e d an i n t e r f a c e . A material with a
l a r g e surface and an abundance of e l e c t r o n s is d e s i r a b l e
f o r adsorbing. Activated carbon has t h e s e two character-
. i s t i c s . I t has a very l a r g e s u r f a c e area per u n i t volume,
and it has an abundance of e l e c t r o n s .

Activated carbon can be produced from any carbonaceous

material. To produce a c t i v a t e d carbon, t h e material i s
heatedtoahightemperatureintheabsenceofoxygen, using
a device c a l l e d a r e t o r t . Under t h e s e conditions, many
v o l a t i l e compounds i n t h e material are driven from t h e
carbon s u b s t r a t e . The amount of v o l a t i l e material driven
out of t h e carbon s u b s t r a t e i n c r e a s e s as a function of time
spent i n t h e r e t o r t .

Figure 1 3 i s an a r t i s t ' s concept of a p o r t i o n of a carbon

granule a f t e r a c t i v a t i o n . Note t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
between a micropore and a macropore. A micropore is a p o r t
( c a v i t y ) with an i n t e r n a l r a d i u s of l e s s than 100 A . The
surface pore s i z e i n t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n is about 0.02 p.
CONCEPT OF MOLECULAR SCREENING
IN MICROPORES

F i g u r e 13
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t once t h e v o l a t i l e m a t e r i a l
begins t o l e a v e t h e carbon s u b s t r a t e d u r i n g t h e carbonizing
process, it i s routed i n t o t h e furnace of t h e r e t o r t , f o r
use a s f u e l t o d r i v e o t h e r v o l a t i l e s u b s t a n c e s from t h e
carbon. Once t h e a c t i v a t i o n p r o c e s s i s begun, it can
s u s t a i n i t s e l f . This t y p e of process i s c a l l e d an
exothermic r e a c t i o n .

Figure 1 4 i s a diagram of a t y p i c a l v e r t i c a l s i n g l e t h r o a t
r e t o r t . Other t y p e s of r e t o r t s are used. A l l of them
involve high temperatures, beginning t h e carbonizing
c y c l e a t about 500°C. A t t h e e n d o f t h e a c t i v a t i o n p r o c e s s ,
a t t h e bottom of t h e r e t o r t , t h e temperature can reach as
much as 1 0 0 0 ° C . The e n t i r e process t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e
absence of oxygen.

RAW MATERIAL IN

GAS PATH

Figure 1 4

Inthefigureshown,thereisanindicationoftheactivated
carbon being exposed t o steam. Water (H20), i n t h e form
of steam, r e a c t s with t h e h o t carbon t o enhance t h e
micropore s t r u c t u r e of t h e a c t i v a t e d carbon. T h i s process
was-invented i n Germany around t h e t u r n of t h e century.
NUCLEAR CARBON

Activated carbon f o r n u c l e a r a p p l i c a t i o n s i s p r i m a r i l y
made u s i n g c o c o n u t s h e l l a s t h e r a w carbonaceousmaterial.
Coconut s h e l l carbon i s very hard, and can be used
e f f e c t i v e l y i n an a i r f i l t e r system s i n c e it does not
f r a c t u r e e a s i l y . Coconut s h e l l carbon can be a c t i v a t e d t o
a high state. S h e l l carbon resists coking, which make t h e
granule "puff up".

A mental image of a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n ' s s t r u c t u r e i s a s

follows:

Imagine d r i v i n g along a road c u t through a mountain. The

mountain's c u t r e v e a l s many l a y e r s of rock, i n t e r s p e r s e d
with l a y e r s of s o i l . Trees and g r a s s grow i n t h e s o i l
layers. Now imagine t h e same p i c t u r e , with everything
removed except t h e rock s t r a t a . Assuming t h a t t h e rocks
remain i n t h e same p o s i t i o n s as b e f o r e t h e removal of t h e
non-rock m a t e r i a l , a l l t h a t i s l e f t i s a multitude of
l a y e r s of rock. These l a y e r s make caverns, ledges, and
o t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n s i n t o t h e mountain. From a s i n g l e
surface, r i s i n g v e r t i c a l l y fromthe s i d e ofthe.road, there
i s now a m u l t i t u d e of s u r f a c e s , beginning a t t h e road and
p e n e t r a t i n g i n t o t h e mountain.

This example i s a k i n t o a c t i v a t i n g a g r a n u l e o f carbon. The

s u r f a c e a r e a h a s been g r e a t l y increased. In fact, the
s u r f a c e area of a s i n g l e gram of 60% a c t i v a t e d carbon can
be measured t o be more t h a n 1100 square meters! The
openings c r e a t e d b y t h e a c t i v a t i o n process a r e about t h r e e
n i t r o g e n atoms i n dimension.

A r e f e r e n c e w a s made i n , t h e preceding paragraph t o "60%

a c t i v a t e d carbon". Whatexactlyismeantby"60%a c t i v a t e d
carbon"? The American S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g and Materials
(ASTM) has devised a series of p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s tests
t o which a c t i v a t e d carbon can be subjected. These t e s t s
a r e referenced i n ASME AG-1, which r e f l e c t s work done by
t h e Committee on Nuclear A i r and G a s Treatment (CONAGT)
under t h e ASME auspices. They are t h e b a t t e r y of t e s t s
whichmust be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o m p l e t e d t o q u a l i f y a carbon
f o r use i n t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y . One of t h e s e t e s t s i s
" a c t i v a t i o n per t h e carbon t e t r a c h l o r i d e ( C C 1 4 ) t e s t " ,
CC14, o r carbon t e t , may be recognizable t o many, a s it i s
t h e odor associated with dry cleaning establishments. The
c a r b o n t e t t e s t i s p e r f o r m e d i n a sophisticatedmanner, but
our discussion can simplify it i n t o a simple " s m e l l " t e s t
by u t i l i z i n g t h e following method:

NO!J!E: I f one does t h i s t e s t f o r any reason, t a k e

c a r e t o s n i f f t h e beaker i n a laboratory-safe
manner. Be sure t o read t h e carbon t e t Material
SafetyDataSheet (MSDS), s i n c e c a r b o n t e t i s n o w
considered a carcinogen. Butane i s i n t h e
process of r e p l a c i n g carbon t e t .

One hundred ( 1 0 0 ) grams of an a c t i v a t e d carbon a r e p u t i n t o

a beaker. Ten ( 10 ) grams of CC14 a r e added and t h e beaker
is sniffed.

No smell should come from t h e beaker a t t h i s p o i n t , s i n c e

t h e carbon has adsorbed a l l of t h e CC14 vapors. After
adding 1 0 more grams of carbon t e t , t h e beaker i s s n i f f e d
again and t h e process'repeated. Assume t h a t a f t e r adding
a t o t a l of 60 grams of carbon t e t , no s m e l l i s detected.
I f , a f t e r adding one a d d i t i o n a l gram of CC14, t h e CC14 odor
can be detected, t h e carbon has a 60%a c t i v i t y . That i s ,
it can hold 60% of i t s weight i n CC14 before becoming
"saturated". S a t u r a t e d m e a n s t h a t t h e e x i t concentration
equals t h e i n l e t concentration. Similarly, a 20% a c t i v e
carbon w i l l hold 20% CC14 by weight before s a t u r a t i o n , and
s o on. The laboratory t e s t i s found i n ASTM D 3467.

Carbon a c t i v a t e d t o t h e 60% a c t i v a t i o n value must remain

i n t h e r e t o r t longer, and i s heated t o a higher temperature
than 40%a c t i v e carbon, Therefore, 60%a c t i v a t e d carbon is
more expensive t o manufacture than 40% a c t i v e carbon.

Nuclear grade a c t i v a t e d carbon must have 60% m i n i m i

a c t i v i t y . A 60% a c t i v e carbon w i l l have an approximate 50%
r e t e n t i o n of MEI, The NRC r e q u i r e s t h a t new a c t i v a t e d
carbon have a 97% r e t e n t i o n of MEI. I n o r d e r t o resolve
t h i s apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n between what is possible, and
what i s required by t h e NRC, it i s necessary t o understand
t h e adsorption mechanism.
Adsorption is t h e process whereby a gas molecule i s
a t t r a c t e d t o a surface. Sawdust, chicken f e a t h e r s , egg
s h e l l s , o r any o t h e r m a t e r i a l has surface. But, a s has
already been discussed, a c t i v a t e d carbon has a very l a r g e
surface per u n i t volume. Avolume of a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n c a n ,
t h e r e f o r e , hold an almost uncountable number of gas
molecules.

TYPES OF ADSORPTION

Physical Adsorption

Gas molecules a r e a t t r a c t e d t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e carbon.

These i n n e r s u r f a c e s a r e c o r r e c t l y termed t h e micropore
s t r u c t u r e of t h e carbon. The phenomenon of d i f f u s i o n i s
what a t t r a c t s t h e gas molecules t o t h e s e i n n e r pores. Once
they d i f f u s e i n t o t h e s e i n n e r pores, they come i n close
contact with t h e carbon surface. This close contact is
c a l l e d t h e i n t e r f a c e . A t t h e i n t e r f a c e , t h e y b e g i n t o share
e l e c t r o n s . The molecule i s t h u s p h y s i c a l l y adsorbed.

Chemical Adsorption

Sometimes a gas molecule, a compound, o r a vapor has an

a f f i n i t y t o combine with another gas molecule, compound,
o r v a p o r t o formanew compound. Thisphenomenonisnothing
more than obeying t h e laws of valance chemistry. For
example, sulphur and hydrogen spontaneously combine t o
form H 2 S . Oxygen and hydrogen form H 2 0 . I f a compound is
pre-adsorbed onto t h e carbon, and i f t h i s compound has a
high a f f i n i t y f o r t h e compound t h a t i s t a r g e t e d f o r
removal, then t h e t a r g e t compound can be removed by
combining. with t h e pre-adsorbed compound.

This type of removal is c a l l e d chemical adsorption, o r

chemisorption. I f a compound which has an a f f i n i t y f o r t h e
t a r g e t e d compound i s pre-adsorbed on a c t i v e carbon, t h i s
compound pre-adsorption i s termed impregnation.

physical adsorption and chemisorption a c t simultaneously.

To achieve higher r e t e n t i o n of a t a r g e t e d compound than
physical adsorption alone can achieve, it i s necessary t o
impregnate (pre-adsorb) t h e a c t i v e c a r b o n w i t h a c h e m i c a l t h a t
has an a f f i n i t y f o r t h e t a r g e t compound. For example, carbon
impregnatedwith s u l p h u r w i l l c o n t r o l mercury vapor. The pre-
adsorbed sulphur w i l l r e a c t with t h e mercury vapors i n t h e
airstream, and combine t o form mercuric s u l f i d e . Many such
combinations e x i s t .

Carbon impregnated with T r i Ethylene D i Amine (TEDA) w i l l

combine with ME1 t o form a new compound. The TEDA i s f i x e d
on t h e carbon, and t h e r e s u l t a n t compound adheres t o t h e
carbon a l s o . The r e a c t i o n of one compound w i t h a second
compound t o form a new, t h i r d compound i s c a l l e d complexing.
The r e a c t i o n f o r t h e formation of t h i s s p e c i f i c compound i s
as follows:

I n a d d i t i o n t o TEDA, another compound which can h e l p c o n t r o l

ME1 is KI3. This i s a stable i o d i n e i n combination w i t h
potassium. I t i s i n t h e formof K I + 1 2 , w h e r e t h e I ~ i s l o o s e l y
bound t o t h e K I .

When an ME1 compound comes i n t o c l o s e proximity t o t h e KI3,

t h e r a d i o a c t i v e i o d i n e on t h e ME1 and t h e stable i o d i n e on t h e
K13 spontaneously, i s o t o p i c a l l y interchange, A t t h i s p o i n t ,
t h e a i r b o r n e , v o l a t i l e ME1 has a stable i o d i n e molecule, and
theimpregnatedK13hasaradioactiveiodinemolecule a s a p a r t
of it. This i s e x a c t l y t h e d e s i r e d end r e s u l t . The r e a c t i o n
i s as follows:

The r e a c t i o n does not s t o p a t t h e f i r s t r e a c t i o n . I n t h e n e x t

i n s t a n c e , t h e r a d i o a c t i v e i o d i n e , previously interchanged,
may undergo another interchange. That is, t h e a i r b o r n e stable
i o d i n e i n t h e ME1 may interchange w i t h a r a d i o a c t i v e i o d i n e
previously adsorbed on t h e carbon, making t h e a i r b o r n e ME1
r a d i o a c t i v e again! This c y c l e , with a given r a d i o a c t i v e
i o d i n e , may t a k e p l a c e m i l l i o n s of t i m e s . Each interchange
r e q u i r e s a d i s c r e t e amount of time. I f enough time i s allowed
fortheinterchanges,theiodinewillspontaneouslydecayinto
stable xenon. Since t h e h a l f - l i f e of 1311i s about 8.5 days,
t h e d e l a y time r e q u i r e d i s ,about 64 days.
The h a l f - l i f e of 1311 is about 8.5 days. After e i g h t
h a l f - l i v e s , methyl i o d i n e w i l l decay t o a l e v e l which is
below background. Therefore, if t h e r e i s enough carbon i n
an a i r cleaning u n i t t o delay t h e r a d i o a c t i v e iodine f o r
asufficientperiodoftime, t h e radioactiveiodinedecays.
This c o n t r o l s t h e amount of radioactivematerialreleased.

Activated carbon has an e f f i c i e n c y of about 50% f o r MEI.

Impregnated carbon w i l l have an e f f i c i e n c y of a t l e a s t 97%
f o r ME1 .
To summarize t h i s f i r s t s e c t i o n on adsorption:

1. Gas molecules a r e a t t r a c t e d t o any surface. I f

t h e s u r f a c e has an excess of e l e c t r o n s , t h e
molecule s h a r e s some of those e l e c t r o n s a t t h e
interface.

2. Carbonaceous m a t e r i a l i s a c t i v a t e d t o increase i t s
s u r f a c e area.

3. Activated carbon has both excess e l e c t r o n s and a

l a r g e s u r f a c e area.

4. There a r e two types of adsorption which a r e of

interest:
a ) Physical adsorption
b ) Chemical adsorption

5. Chemicals can be pre-adsorbed (impregnated) onto

a c t i v a t e d carbon t o enhance its a b i l i t y t o control
a t a r g e t compound.

6. When K13 is t h e impregnated compound, ME1 i s

c o n t r o l l e d by i s o t o p i c interchange. I n t h e case
of TEDA impregnate, M E 1 i s c o n t r o l l e d by
complexing t h e ME1 i n t o t h e TEDA molecular
structure.
Carbon Particle S i z e

Before e x p l a i n i n g t h e methods of a d s o r p t i o n i n t h e previous

s e c t i o n , ASTM t e s t s f o r n u c l e a r carbon w e r e being discussed.
To r e t u r n t o t h i s s u b j e c t , another of t h e required ASTM tests
w i l l be introduced. This t e s t i s t h e s i z e range t e s t f o r carbon
granules. T h i s ASTM t e s t i s referenced i n AG-1.

Carbon s i z e is designated by s i e v e s i z e . Nuclear grade carbon

i s 8 x 1 6 USmesh, a n d t h e a l l o w a b l e r a n g e for8x16USmeshcarbon
i s a s follows:
Retained on a #6 s c r e e n 0.1% maximum
Retained on a 88 s c r e e n 5.0% maximum
Through a 88, on #12 60.0% maximum
Through a #12, on #16 40.0% minimum
Through a #16 5.0% maximum
Through a #18 1.0% maximum

Itisimportanttonotethatgranuledistributionina s i z e range
can vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y . This v a r i a t i o n w i l l have a n o t i c e a b l e
e f f e c t on p r e s s u r e drop on otherwise i d e n t i c a l adsorbers, I f
. t h e g r a n u l e s t e n d toward t h e s m a l l e r s i z e s i n a range, t h e dp
f o r agiven adsorberwillbehigher. I f thegranulestendtoward
t h e l a r g e r s i z e s i n t h e range, t h e dp a c r o s s a n adsorber w i l l
be lower.

The s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of carbon granules w i l l a l s o have an

a f f e c t on contaminant removal e f f i c i e n c y . Under design
o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , however, s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n v a r i a n c e s a r e
not s i g n i f i c a n t -

There is no reason r e l a t e d t o adsorption f o r mandating t h a t

n u c l e a r carbon must be 8 x 1 6 mesh- This s i z e is t h e nuclear
s t a n d a r d because m e t a l p e r f o r a t o r s , i n t h e 19601s, could n o t
c o n s i s t e n t l y p e r f o r a t e 24 gage s t a i n l e s s steel with less than
0.045 i n c h diameter holes. P e r f o r a t e d s t a i n l e s s s t e e l is used
t o c o n t a i n carbon i n an adsorber bed. A 0.045 inch h o l e w i l l
r e t a i n a 1 6 mesh carbon. So, i n i t i a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s invoked'
only what w a s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a t t h e time. Early r e s e a r c h
i n t h e r e t e n t i o n of ME1 showed t h a t a 6 x 16 mesh carbon performs
as s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a s an 8 x 1 6 mesh. I n f a c t , some of t h e e a r l y
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d a 6 x 16 mesh carbon. But t h e 8 mesh,
as an upper l i m i t i n s i z e , i s more conservative and e v e n t u a l l y
became t h e standard. The ASTM r e f e r e n c e f o r p a r t i c l e s i z e i s
ASTM 2862.
MAXIMUM APPARENT DEWSITP (MAD) Per ASTM D2854:

Another important physical property of carbon i s i t s

density. A carbon bed packed t o i t s Maximum Apparent
Density (MAD) w i l l not s e t t l e , S e t t l i n g is undesirable,
s i n c e it can c r e a t e v o i d s i n t h e carbonbed, producing leak
paths,

The ASTM D2854 procedure f o r apparent density t e s t i n g has

t h e following elements:

1. A sample of carbon t o be t e s t e d i s placed i n a shallow

r e s e r v o i r with an open end. The r e s e r v o i r is t i l t e d
downward very s l i g h t l y toward t h e open end,

2. The r e s e r v o i r i s vibrated.

3. Carbon slowly migrates toward t h e open end, where it

t r i c k l e s o u t and f a l l s i n t o a graduated cylinder. Each
i r r e g u l a r l y shaped granule must have time t o reach its
n a t u r a l r e s t i n g place i n t h e cylinder. I f t h e carbon
granules a r e not a l l o w e d t o reach t h e i r n a t u r a l r e s t i n g
place, some granules may "bridge" between two o t h e r
granules, and t h e d e n s i t y w i l l not be a t i t s maximum.

4. A s p e c i f i e d amount of carbon is t h u s t r i c k l e d i n t o t h e
cylinder.

5. The sampleisweighed, andthemaximumapparent density

is calculated.

Maximum apparent d e n s i t y i s an important physical

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and t h e concept w i l l be used during t h e
discussion on f i l l i n g and t e s t i n g .

IGNITION TEMPERATURE (Per ASTM D 3466)

I g n i t i o n is t h e temperature a t which a c t i v a t e d , impreg-

nated carbon w i l l combust spontaneously. The ASTM D3466
requirement i s t h a t t h e minimum temperature be 330°C.
Activated carbon r o u t i n e l y m e e t s t h a t requirement.
New a c t i v a t e d carbon does n o t r e a d i l y burn, Sustained
i g n i t i o n almost always r e q u i r e s a secondary h e a t source. If
a mass of new carbon i s i g n i t e d by a h e a t source, such as a
g a s t o r c h , t h e i g n i t i o n w i l l be s u s t a i n e d a s long a s t h e h e a t
source i s p r e s e n t . When t h e h e a t source i s removed, t h e carbon
w i l l usually self-extinguish.

Used a c t i v a t e d carbon w i l l burn r e a d i l y , due t o flammable

m a t e r i a l which h a s been adsorbed on it. Upon i g n i t i o n , used
carbonwillcontinuetoburndespitemosteffortsto e x t i n g u i s h
it. Water s p r a y s w i l l n o t r e a d i l y e x t i n g u i s h burning carbon.
The "burn" is n o t a flame, b u t r a t h e r glowing embers. The f u e l
f o r t h e burn i s i n t h e c a r b o n ' s pore s t r u c t u r e , and s e n s i b l e
water does not r e a d i l y p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e pore s t r u c t u r e .

Carbon f i r e s i n NATS are c o n t r o l l e d by a very few means. The

most common i s t o i s o l a t e t h e NATS by c l o s i n g t h e i n l e t and
o u t l e t dampers, and once t h e carbon u s e s t h e a v a i l a b l e oxygen,
t h e f i r e d i e s o u t , There have been very few carbon f i r e s i n
NATS from which t o g a i n experience i n extinguishing them.

MEDIA CERTIFICATIONS

According t o US NRC Reg Guide 1.52, a batch of carbon i s a m a s s

of carbon with a volume'not t o exceed 350 f t 3 . This equates
t o a weight of no more t h a n about 10,000 pounds.

A l o t o f c a r b o n i s o n e o r m o r e b a t c h e s o f t h e same t y p e o f carbon
which h a s been manufactured under t h e same conditions.

Each.batch of n u c l e a r carbon has t h e following

certifications:

1. A p h y s i c a l t e s t r e p o r t ashowing t h a t t h e carbon media m e e t

t h e ASTM p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s requirements.

2. A l a b o r a t o r y t e s t r e p o r t showing p e n e t r a t i o n of radio-
a c t i v e ME1 and r a d i o a c t i v e elemental Iodine.

3. A copy of t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n t e s t r e s u l t s p@rformedon t h e
carbon t o i n i t i a l l y q u a l i f y it as a nuclear carbon ( t h e
manufacturer's Q u a l i t y Assurance Department normally
keeps t h i s on f i l e ) .
FRAME, PERFORATED MATERIAL, AND FIRE PROTECTION

Nuclear adsorber frames a r e made of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , u s u a l l y

14 gauge, t y p e 300 series s t a i n l e s s s t e e l ( s s ) , and t h e
p e r f o r a t e d s c r e e n s are 24 gage with 0 -45 i n c h diameter h o l e s ,
225 h o l e s p e r s q u a r e i n c h , 37% open. This highly
c o r r o s i v e - r e s i s t a n t m e t a l i s chosen s i n c e t h e m e t a l s a l t s
impregnated on t h e carbon, and any m a t e r i a l p r e v i o u s l y
adsorbed on t h e carbon, w i l l convert i n t o s t r o n g a c i d s i f
wetted. Even when b u i l t of s t a i n l e s s steel, i f t h e carbon
becomes w e t , it is imperative t o remove t h e carbon from t h e
metal c o n t a i n e r s as soon as p o s s i b l e . A f t e r wetting, t h e
s t a i n l e s s steel c o n t a i n e r s may become s o c o r r o d e d t h a t f u r t h e r
use i s i m p r a c t i c a l . For example, i f even two a d j a c e n t
p e r f o r a t i o n margins are destroyed, carbon w i l l l e a k from t h e
c o n t a i n e r , and cause a i r bypass. If t h e w e t t i n g i s discovered
i n time, t h e carbon can be removed from t h e bed and t h e bed
s c r e e n s and frames r i n s e d with water. A f t e r drying, new carbon
can be loaded and t h e r e q u i r e d tests performed t o a s s u r e t h a t
t h e system is operable.

I n s p i t e of every e f f o r t t o prevent it, carbon can

u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y g e t w e t from any of t h e following sources:

1. Airborne s e n s i b l e w a t e r d r o p l e t s

2. Condensationof h o t , high r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y a i r o n c o o l e r
carbon

3. Agglomeration of water molecules i n t o water d r o p l e t s

under t h e r i g h t environmental c o n d i t i o n s

4. Inadvertent a c t i v a t i o n of t h e w a t e r deluge system, which

i s designed t o e x t i n g u i s h a carbon f i r e . (This is t h e
most l i k e l y s o u r c e ) .

5. Leaks from v a l v e s which connect t h e deluge system

t o t h e NATS.

Experiments have shown t h a t a water deluge system w i l l n o t

e x t i n g u i s h a carbon f i r e . This f a c t i s recognized by t h e NRC,
and t h e y do n o t r e q u i r e a w a t e r source as a means t o e x t i n g u i s h
f i r e i n a carbon bed. Many n u c l e a r i n s u r i n g companies do,
however, r e q u i r e a water de.luge system f o r h e a t removal.
General Construction

The general c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s of a carbon adsorber a r e

a s follows:

Aframesupportsaseriesofperforatedmetalplates, which
are positioned s o t h a t t h e y a r e a constant d i s t a n c e a p a r t .
For nuclear use, t h e bed depth must be a t l e a s t 211. They
a r e designed s o t h a t each p a i r of p l a t e s w i l l contain t h e
carbon, with an a i r space between t h e carbon containing
plates. Each p a i r has a perimeter of un-perforated
m a t e r i a l , t o allow a s l i g h t margin of e r r o r f o r s e t t l i n g
of t h e carbon media a f t e r f i l l i n g , Air i s forced from one
s i d e of t h e carbon bed through t o e x i t t h e o t h e r s i d e . The
contaminated a i r i s cleaned by t h e adsorption mechanisms
previously described.

I t i s considered good design t o have as many of these beds

i n a f i l t e r as p o s s i b l e , which w i l l r e s u l t i n a minimum
pressure drop.

Adsorber w p e s

A t p r e s e n t , t h e r e a r e f o u r d i s t i n c t types of adsorbers,
designated as Types I , 11, 111, and I V . Figure 15 shows
t h e design concepts of Types I , 11, and 111.

Type I i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s i n g l e s e r p e n t i n e bed, as
shown. Type I f i l t e r s are very r a r e l y used i n t h e modern
a i r cleaning industry.
 PERFORATED SCREEN
STIFFENERS \
MARGM OR BAFFLE

URBW BED
FTRFORATED Y E I U SCREE*
MCNPERFOLlAlED MARGIN OF
SCREEN
Y P A ~ A T EPLEATS
TO RETARD SETTLING
WONPERF ORATED END CAP .
[BAFFLE)
PERFORATED SCREEN
F L w G E TO SEU A G A W
NEOPRENE PAD
SPOnGE NEOPRENE Y U P a
FACE PLATE ' LOWER CARBON BED
TO Paeveur s r p u r w c OF AIR ,,
CASING

CUING STIFFENERS

PCUtE NEOPRENE FACE GASKET

EXTERUAL TO
T b R B ( k BED

Downstream
Upstream HEPA HEPA filters
filters

Flow

Figure 15. D E S I G N CONCEPTS O F TYPES I , 11, AND I11 ADSORBERS

Type I1 f i l t e r s , a l s o c a l l e d "drawer type" a d s o r b e r s , a r e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two carbon beds i n p a r a l l e l . Each Type
I1 a d s o r b e r c e l l i s r a t e d a t 3 3 3 cfm. ThreeType I1 adsorber
c e l l s would t h e n be r a t e d a t 1000 cfm, t h e same a s a s i n g l e
HEPA f i l t e r . Three Type I1 a d s o r b e r s have roughly t h e same
f a c e a r e a a s a s i n g l e HEPA f i l t e r . Combinations of a s i n g l e
HEPAandthree Type I1 a d s o r b e r s a r r a n g e d i n s e r i e s produce
a c o n s i s t e n t geometry.

A Type I11 f i l t e r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p a r a l l e l beds of a

given h e i g h t and depth and i s b u i l t i n t o t h e a i r f i l t e r
s y s t e m a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t . None o f t h e h a r d w a r e i s removed
from t h e system d u r i n g maintenance, a s opposed t o t h e Type
I1 systems, where t h e a d s o r b e r c e l l s a r e removed f o r
r e f i l l i n g o r sampling. I n t h e Type I11 system, only t h e
carbon i s removed. This i s done by a remote means, u s u a l l y
involving a vacuum system.

A Type I V f i l t e r i s a s e r i e s of V-shaped beds, arranged

i n amanner s i m i l a r t o t h e Type I f i l t e r . Figure 1 6 d e p i c t s
a Type I V f i l t e r .

Figure 16 - TYPE I V ADSORBER

The i n t e r f a c e between t h e p e r f o r a t e d m a t e r i a l and t h e

frame, i n Type I and Type I V f i l t e r s , i s a gasket s e a l i n g
pad, a p o t t i n g of g l u e , o r a n o t h e r a c c e p t a b l e s e a l i n g
method.

The s e a l f u n c t i o n i s t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e carbon i n t h e bed

w i l l n o t l e a k o u t of t h e bed d u r i n g t h e l i f e of t h e f i l t e r ,
and t h a t a i r w i l l n o t by-pass t h e carbon. Gaskets a r e used
on Types I , 11, and I V f i l t e r s a s t h e i n t e r f a c e between t h e
frame and t h e s u p p o r t i n g g r i d (framing system) i n t h e a i r
f i l t e r system. A Type I11 f i l t e r needs no gasket, s i n c e
a l l i t s , j o i n t s a r e e i t h e r welded, o r a r e s e a l e d by a
r e s e r v o i r of carbon a t t h e t o p of it. Good design p r a c t i c e
f o r t h e Type I11 i s t o have a r e s e r v o i r depth of two t i m e s
t h e b e d d e p t h , because it i s d i f f i c u l t t o achieveMADduring
t h e media f i l l i n g process. See Figure 1 7 f o r a graphic
i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r .
Figure 1 7 . TYPE I11 ADSORBER ILLUSTRATING THE CARBON RESERVOIR

Each of t h e s e d e s i g n s has a method of f i l l i n g t h e adsorber

with media and "capping" o f f t h e f i l l p o r t s , making an
a i r t i g h t s e a l . When t h e carbon becomes s a t u r a t e d , t h e o l d
carbon can be removed, and new carbon i n s t a l l e d . A f t e r
t e s t i n g , t h e new carbon i n t h e o l d frame i s a s good as i f
a l l new components were used.

Adsorber Label

Each adsorber has a l a b e l a f f i x e d t o it which shows t h a t

t h e f i l t e r complies w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s i n t h e c o n t r a c t ,
and with a p p l i c a b l e s t a n d a r d s .

CARBON FILLING

Design of an a i r f i l t e r system i n c l u d e s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
t h e adsorber type.

The frames and beds a r e manufactured according t o a

customer approved Q u a l i t y Assurance ( Q A ) program. The
carbon media i s p u t i n t o t h e f i l t e r s i n a p r e v i o u s l y
q u a l i f i e d manner. The goal i s t o achieve MAD w i t h t h e
carbon. Given t h e tendency f o r bed s c r e e n s t o s t r e t c h ,
" o i l can" ( o i l canning i s t h e spontaneous r e l i e f of s t r e s s
i n a p i e c e o f m e t a l ) , o r b e w a v y , t h e precisevolume cannot
be c a l c u l a t e d . However, a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e volume can
be derived. W i t h t h e known bed volume, and t h e known MAD
of t h e carbon which i s going i n t o i t , a weight of carbon
can be determined which i s used a s a guide f o r f i l l i n g t h e
bed s o t h a t no s e t t l i n g w i l l occur d u r i n g system use.
The p r o c e s s of f i l l i n g an adsorber bed i s a compromise i n
technology. I f t h e a d s o r b e r i s t r i c k l e - f i l l e d a l o n e , t h e
method w i l l n o t make every s c r e e n imperfection change t o
maximize t h e volume. A m a x i m u m volume i s one which has a l l
s c r e e n i n d e n t i o n s away from t h e carbon bed. If the
i n d e n t i o n s a r e toward t h e bed, and t h e y pop o u t , o r " o i l
can" due t o some s m a l l stress a t a l a t e r time, t h e volume
of t h e bed w i l l change a t t h e o n s e t of t h e " o i l can" e f f e c t .
With t h i s new, l a r g e r volume, and a f i x e d amount of carbon,
t h e carbon bed w i l l s e t t l e below t h e b a f f l e d perimeter,
causing a i r bypass.

So, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t r i c k l e m e t h o d , which i s nothingmore

t h a n allowing each carbon g r a n u l e t o f i n d i t s lowest
r e s t i n g p l a c e , t h e e n t i r e a d s o r b e r i s "rough h a n d l e d t o
make s u r e t h a t t h e r e a r e no s c r e e n a r e a s which could " o i l
can" l a t e r . Rough handling c o n s i s t s of s u b j e c t i n g t h e
adsorber t o a drop of 3 i n c h a t a r a t e of 200 times p e r
minute. Rough handling e n s u r e s t h a t a l l s c r e e n s a r e
"popped out" t o a s s u r e maximum volume.

A f t e r f i l l i n g , rough handling, and capping off t o f i l l t h e

beds t o a maximum, a cover i s secured over t h e f i l l i n g
ports. Once f i l l e d , w i t h t h e g a s k e t i n s t a l l e d , t h e
adsorber i s ready f o r f a c t o r y t e s t i n g .

TESTING OF ADSORBERS

Factory t e s t i n g of f i l l e d a d s o r b e r s i s s i m i l a r t o f a c t o r y
t e s t i n g of HEPA f i l t e r s . The o b j e c t i v e is t o measure t h e
upstream and downstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , and t o use t h e
formula %P = Cd/CU x 1 0 0 t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p e n e t r a t i o n .

The c h a l l e n g e agent h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y been a Freon 11 (R-

11) o r Freon 1 2 ( R - 1 2 ) vapor. These vapors a r e used f o r
t h e following reasons:

(1) The vapor of t h e s e compounds i s r e a d i l y delayed by

carbon.

(2) Because of t h e i r v o l a t i l i t y , t h e y a r e not f i r m l y

adsorbed. I n time, a l l of t h e R-11 o r R-12 moves
 through t h e carbon bed and e x i t s it, s o t h e bed i s n o t
"poisoned" by t h e R - 1 1 .

(3) R - 1 1 and R-12 a r e , a t t h i s t i m e , r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e ,

commercially o b t a i n e d compounds.

(4) R-11 and R-12 vapors can be e a s i l y measured with

commercial measuring equipment, such a s a Gas
Chromatograph ( G C ) .

Ozone d e p l e t i n g compounds such a s R - 1 1 and R-12 a r e being

phased o u t of production f o r environmental p r o t e c t i o n
reasons. A t t h e p r e s e n t time, s e v e r a l compounds a r e being
t e s t e d a s replacements. While t h e r e has been some s u c c e s s
using o t h e r compounds, t h e r e i s no consensus on which w i l l
replace t h e halides currently referencedby s t a n d a r d s t h a t
apply t o adsorber t e s t i n g .

Whichever compound i s s e l e c t e d , it w i l l produce essen-

t i a l l y t h e same r e a c t i o n a s R - 1 1 i n a halocarbon d e t e c t o r .
Therefore, t h e information and r e f e r e n c e s i n t h i s book
regarding R - l l w i l l apply t o R-12 and s u b s t i t u t e compounds
a s well.

R-11 TEST DETECTION APPARATUS

There a r e two t y p e s of a p p a r a t u s used i n t h e d e t e c t i o n of
- 1 . The f i r s t a p p a r a t u s t o be d i s c u s s e d i s t h e Gas
Chromatograph (GC) . The GC used i s of t h e e l e c t r o n c a p t u r e
d e t e c t o r ( E C D ) type. The GC can be equipped w i t h an
a c c u r a t e v a l v i n g system which can c o n s i s t e n t l y measure
R - 1 1 c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e 1 0 p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n (ppm) and
1 0 p a r t s p e r b i l l i o n (ppb) range. I t is necessary t o
measure both of t h e s e ranges s i n c e t h e upstream R-11 vapor
w i l l be i n ppm, and t h e downstream vapor, having gone
through t h e carbon, w i l l be i n ppb. Refer t o Figure 18 f o r
a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a GC.
 Sample
(elect KO-negat Ive s p e c i e s )

Scperating

Integmclng
h p l i f ier

Heater

Dctcctor Cell
Anode
(Critbted toil)

F i g u r e 18. - GAS CHROMATOGRAPH

A GC f o r R - 1 1 t e s t i n g works i n t h e following manner:

The d e t e c t i n g u n i t c o n s i s t s of a c y l i n d e r t h a t has a
t r i t i a t e d t i t a n i u m f o i l on i t s i n n e r l i n i n g . This f o i l
emitsionizingradiationwaveswhichare f a s t a n d d i f f i c u l t
t o c a p t u r e . A c a r r i e r g a s ( u s u a l l y high p u r i t y Nitrogen,
o r a N i t r o g e n r i c h m i x t u r e , s u c h a s P-5, o r P - 1 0 ) i s i o n i z e d
by t h e r a d i a t i o n , knocking o f f a n e g a t i v e Beta p a r t i c l e .
This negative p a r t i c l e i s much slower t h a n t h e i o n i z i n g
p a r t i c l e , and can e a s i l y be captured by an anode l o c a t e d
i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e c y l i n d e r . The flow of n e g a t i v e Beta
p a r t i c l e s , from t h e i o n i z e d c a r r i e r gas t o t h e anode,
e s t a b l i s h e s an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t which can be measured.

The maximum amount of c u r r e n t generated by t h i s i o n i z i n g

process i s c a l l e d t h e s t a n d i n g c u r r e n t ( S C ) I t s magnitude .
canbemeasuredandexpressedas a p e a k o n a c h a r t r e c o r d e r .
The c h a r t r e c o r d i n g i s a chromatogram.

Any m a t e r i a l which reduces t h i s flow of e l e c t r o n s w i l l

reduce t h e s t a n d i n g c u r r e n t . Such m a t e r i a l i s c a l l e d an
e l e c t r o - n e g a t i v e s p e c i e s , and w i l l reduce t h e magnitude of
t h e c u r r e n t flow.

This r e d u c t i o n i n c u r r e n t flow can be measured and

displayed a s a peak on t h e chromatogram. Oxygen is mildly
e l e c t r o - n e g a t i v e , and w i l l be a major c o n s t i t u e n t of t h e
dilution (or concentration, depending on the GC manufac-
turer) is done using different sample volumes in the
valves.

It is not practical to assume that every valve will have

a ratio of volumes of 1: 1000. However, these volumes can
be measured, and the ratio of the volumes can be
determined. T h i s r a t i o i s c a l l e d a C a l i b r a t i o n F a c t o r (CF)
and must be considered in the %P formula. The CF for each
valve is unique, and is a part of the certification given
by the GC manufacturer. The % P formula must be modified
to include the CF, which then becomes:

%P = Cd/Cu x 100 x CF.

The final CF will also include other factors and will be

discussed in later text, when the entire CF is developed.

Discrimination:

It would be very confusing for the GC operator to try to

distinguish between all of the possible electro-negative
species in the samples, so a GC requires an operation to
be performed between the valve sampling actions and the
ECD. The operation is to push the sample through a heated
column. The column is filled with a material which retards
the progress of the constituent parts of the air sample.
This retardation is a function of the molecular weight of
the constituents.

Oxygen, having a lower molecular weight, goes through the

column quicker than R-11, which has a higher molecular
weight. The ECD can distinctly measure each of the
electro-negative species which pass through it.

Given the proper column design, including operating

temperature, length, and packing, the GC can be designed
so that R-11 exits the ECD in a consistent time interval
relative to oxygen. Under normal conditions, the R-11
passes through the ECD 13 seconds after the oxygen passes
through it.
I t h a s a l r e a d y been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e oxygen component
r e d u c e s t h e SC amaximumamount. T h e r e f o r e , t h e oxygen peak
is a reliable i n d i c a t o r f o r t h e operator t o begin looking
f o r t h e R - 1 1 peak some 13 seconds l a t e r .

The term peak comes from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e SC l e v e l i s

u s u a l l y measured from t h e lower b a s e l i n e of t h e c h a r t
r e c o r d e r , and any r e d u c t i o n of t h e SC i s shown as a n upward
peak, conforming t o GC convention. The peak i s a
measurement of t h e r e d u c t i o n i n SC. The u n i t of measure
i s i n graph p a p e r c h a r t u n i t s ( c u ) .

F i g u r e 1 9 p r e s e n t s a t r a c i n g of a n o p e r a t i n g GC. The t a l l
peaks a r e t h e sxygen peaks a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e
downstreamcycles. Oxygenpeaks a r e n o t v i s i b l e d u r i n g t h e
upstream c y c l e b e c a u s e t h e sample is v e r y s m a l l , and t h e
amount of oxygen i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o cause a peak.

Figure 19
Halfway between t h e s e oxygen peaks i s t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e
upstream c y c l e . Sometimes, t h e r e w i l l be a b l i p i n t h e
t r a c i n g when t h e GC changes c y c l e s . T h i s b l i p c a n be a
number of t h i n g s , a l l unimportant. The b l i p may be from
a s p u r i o u s e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l induced by t h e c i r c u i t r y i n
t h e GC c o n t r o l l i n g t h e v a l v e s . I t may come from an
i n d i c a t i o n of t h e upstream oxygen peak. R e c a l l , however,
t h e upstream oxygen peak w i l l be 1000 t i m e s less a p p a r e n t
t h a n t h e downstreamoxygen peak. A s m a l l l e a k i n t h e t u b i n g
of t h e GC may i n d u c e such a b l i p .
downstream sample. Oxygen w i l l c r e a t e a v e r y high peak a t
t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e downstream c y c l e . W e do n o t have a n
i n t e r e s t i n t h e oxygen peak as a means of measuring R - 1 1 .
T h i s peak w i l l , however, be i m p o r t a n t a s a marker f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g c y c l e s of t h e GC.

R-11 is a l s o an electro-negative material. I f it f l o w s

t h r o u g h t h e d e t e c t i n g c y l i n d e r , it t o o w i l l reduce t h e
c u r r e n t f l o w a measurable amount.

An i m p o r t a n t component of t h e GC i s a v a l v e system whereby

t h e sample of R-11 a i r i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e GC. The v a l v e
i s d e s i g n e d s o t h a t a vacuum pump p u l l s a c o n t i n u o u s a i r
sample from b o t h t h e upstream ( c h a l l e n g e ) and t h e
downstream ( p e n e t r a n t ) t e s t l o c a t i o n s t h r o u g h it.

Atthebeginningoftheupstreammeasuringcycle, t h e v a l v e
r o t a t e s t o c a p t u r e t h e upstream sample flow, and t a k e s a
"grab sample" of t h e c o n t i n u o u s sample b e i n g p u l l e d from
t h e upstream sample l o c a t i o n . I t i n j e c t s t h i s sample i n t o
t h e GC f o r measurement.

A t t h e end of t h e measuring c y c l e , t h e v a l v e r o t a t e s t o t h e
downstream sample flow, and t a k e s a "grab sample" of t h e
downstreamgas volume. T h i s "grabsample"istypically1OOo
t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n t h e upstream sample s o t h a t t h e GC can
measure i n t h e same u n i t s .

A t y p i c a l p e n e t r a t i o n requirement f o r a new f i l t e r i s 0.1%

maximum. T h i s i s a 1:1000 r a t i o of C o n c e n t r a t i o n
Downstream (Cd) t o t h e C o n c e n t r a t i o n Upstream (C,). The
u n i t s f o r C U areppm. T h i s necessarilymeansthattheunits
f o r c d a r e i n p p b . Suchalarge s e n s i t i v i t y r a n g e i s outside
t h e a b i l i t y o f a GC t o assimilate. Because of t h e
r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t h e G C t s s e n s i t i v i t y range, e i t h e r t h e
upstream sample i s d i l u t e d , o r t h e downstream sample i s
c o n c e n t r a t e d s o t h a t e a c h sample w i l l have approximately
t h e same volume of R-11. T h e r e f o r e , e i t h e r t h e volume of
t h e upstream sample must be approximately 1000 t i m e s less
t h a n t h e v o l u m e o f t h e downstream, o r thedownstreamsample
must be 1000 t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n t h e upstream sample. T h i s
a l l o w s t h e GC t o measure b o t h samples w i t h c o n s i s t e n c y ,
s i n c e it i s measuring s i m i l a r amounts of - 1 1 This
So, between any two c o n s e c u t i v e oxygen peaks w i l l be one
complete downstream and upstream c y c l e . The Oxygen peak
r e p r e s e n t s t h e beginning o f t h e downstream c y c l e . Halfway
between t h e two oxygen peaks w i l l be t h e beginning of t h e
upstream c y c l e .

T e s t Penetration Measurements

F a c t o r y t e s t acceptance c r i t e r i o n i s u s u a l l y 0.1% maximum

penetration. On a few o c c a s i o n s , it may be 0.01%
p e n e t r a t i o n , maximum. Some rare a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e a
0.001% p e n e t r a t i o n , maximum. I t i s important t o c o n s i d e r
how t h e s e p e n e t r a t i o n s can be measured.

Under t e s t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e downstream peak h e i g h t ,

r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e downstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n , can be r e a d t o
t h e n e a r e s t 0.5 c h a r t u n i t ( c u ) . An i d e a l l y c a l i b r a t e d GC
w i l l have a 1:l r a t i o between t h e upstream peak
( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e upstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) , and t h e
downstream peak. T h e r e f o r e , an i d e a l l y c a l i b r a t e d GC must
have a t l e a s t a 0.5 ppm upstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o
prove a 0 . 1 % m a x i m u m p e n e t r a t i o n .

I f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n i s n o t 1:1, t e s t personnel must

c a l c u l a t e t h e upstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o m a k e t h e
downstream 0 . 5 cu measurements s i g n i f i c a n t .

I f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n i s 1:1, a 5 ppm upstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n

of R - 1 1 i s r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o prove a 0.01% m a x i m u m
p e n e t r a t i o n . And, i f t h e upstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s 50 ppm,
t h e f i l t e r can be c e r t i f i e d t o have a maximum p e n e t r a t i o n
of 0 . 0 0 1 % .

An upstream c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 50 ppm should be t h e maximum,

s i n c e t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s about t h e upper l i m i t t h a t a
GC can a c c u r a t e l y measure. Above 50 ppm, t h e GC l o s e s
l i n e a r i t y , and t h e peak h e i g h t s do n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured.
Test Examples

Examples of chromatograph t r a c i n g s and p e n e t r a t i o n

c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e shown i n Figures 2 0 , 2 1 , and 22.

Thepeaks a r e n o t a c t u a l t e s t d a t a , b u t w e r e d r a w n o n a b l a n k
t r a c i n g t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e t e s t i n g sequence and p o s s i b l e
results.

The handwritten n o t a t i o n s a r e t y p i c a l of an a c t u a l
chromatogram. The n o t a t i o n s " U l , U 2 ..."a r e u s e d t o denote
t h e d i r e c t i o n which t h e c h a r t i s t r a v e l i n g , and t o h e l p
l o c a t e t h e p a i r s of d a t a p o i n t s used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s
a t a later time. During t e s t i n g , it i s important t o
a n n o t a t e d a t a p o i n t s a n d o t h e r important i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e
t r a c i n g , a s it i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t t h e t e s t r e s u l t s
a t a l a t e r time without t h e s e n o t a t i o n s .

CASE 1 (Figure 2 0 ) :

I n Case 1, t h e r e a r e no background c o n s t i t u e n t s . A t t h e
handwritten n o t a t i o n "R-11 on", R - 1 1 was i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e
a i r c l e a n i n g system. A new'peak caused by t h e R - 1 1
i n j e c t i o n appears i n t h e upstream c y c l e . A new peak t h e n
emergesonthedownstreamcycle. T h i s n e w p e a k i s c o n s t a n t .

A t t h e "R-11 o f f " n o t a t i o n , t h e upstream peak d i s a p p e a r s ,

and t h e downstream peak diminishes d u r i n g t h e next cycle.
I t w i l l d i s a p p e a r w i t h i n a very few c y c l e s , u s u a l l y a f t e r
t h e f i r s t one.

T h i s t r a c i n g i s t y p i c a l of a system with new carbon and a

s m a l l mechanical l e a k . I t i s t y p i c a l of a mechanical l e a k
f o r t h e downstream peak. t o r a p i d l y disappear a f t e r t h e
upstream R - 1 1 i s t u r n e d o f f .
CASE 2 (Figure 21):

I n Case 2 , no background R-11 i s p r e s e n t . The R-11 i s

i n j e c t e d , and t h e downstream peak i s o f f -scale h i g h . T h e
R-11 i s t u r n e d o f f , and t h e downstream r a p i d l y d e c r e a s e s .

T h i s t r a c i n g i s t y p i c a l of a s y s t e m w i t h a l a r g e m e c h a n i c a l
l e a k i n it. The l e a k ( s ) must be found, r e p a i r e d o r
c o r r e c t e d , and t h e system s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e t e s t e d b e f o r e
p l a c i n g it i n s e r v i c e .

CASE 3 (Figure 2 2 ) :

C a s e 3 shows a c o n s t a n t background R-11 peak d u r i n g t h e

downstream c y c l e . T h i s i s R-11 background, which w i l l be
s u b t r a c t e d when t h e p e n e t r a t i o n s are c a l c u l a t e d , and w i l l
n o t a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t s of t h e t e s t .

A t t h e n o t a t i o n "R-11 on", t h e upstream peak a p p e a r s . The

background peak i n c r e a s e s w i t h each c y c l e . The i n c r e a s e
i s due t o d e s o r p t i o n . C a l c u l a t i o n s are performed f o r each
c y c l e , and t h e r e s u l t a n t p l o t o f p e n e t r a t i o n v s . t i m e i s
shown i n F i g u r e 28.