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Abstract
In ecological economics the term ‘natural capital’ is widely used. But it is problematic to use
an economic concept of ‘capital’ to describe ecosystems with their wide range of functions,
services and values. In the history of economic thought (especially in neoclassical economics)
the capital concept was used for manufactured capital, seldom for soil, not very often for
natural resources (renewable and non-renewable) and never for ecosystems. So especially
‘nature’ was ignored in neoclassical economic growth theory since the beginning. The same
happened with some very little exemptions in the so-called endogenous growth theory.
The paper starts with a short introduction into the history of natural capital in
economic theory (classical and neoclassical economics) and its use in modern and new
economic growth theory. Especially problematic is the homogenizing view on capital and the
use of market values as indicator of wealth (with GDP as indicator). Different from that is the
demand of a constant natural capital stock in Ecological Economics. But here again a
homogenized assumption on natural capital is problematic and the theory of funds can be used
as an alternative as the definition of natural capital by Ott & Doering shows. The use of
individual funds (not exceeding critical boundaries (SMS)) must be accompanied by
investment in other funds of natural capital. In the last section we outline thoughts on a way
forward to integrate ‘natural capital’ in economic growth theory.
1
Problematic is the estimation of the world’s total value of nature’s functions and services by Costanza et al.
1999 (Ott & Doering 2004).
of monetary valuation of nature’s functions and services with the example of the new or
endogenous growth theory. After that we outline the definition for natural capital developed
by Ott & Doering (2004). An outlook what this definition can mean for economic growth
theory follows.
2
Still today one reason for the need of economic growth is related to labor saving technical progress (‘if we not
grow 2% we will have a higher unemployment rate’).
Conversely in some sense to the assumption of the importants of land, natural products
were seen as ‘gifts of nature’. And here the classical economists are not different from Marx
or the early marginalists (Jevons 1871, Walras 1954 and Menger 1871). Marx saw thread not
used as bad cotton (Marx 2001). This interpretation of resources and the decreasing
importance of the agricultural sector in the newly industrialized countries paved the way to
the assumption that land can be combined with manufactured capital in one overall ‘capital
stock’. It was presumably I. Fisher who introduced this interpretation for the first time. He
declared all stocks, which creates a stream of wealth, as capital. There is in principle no
difference between 100 $ as a rent on land or a return on capital (Fisher 1906: 56). Also
natural (renewable) resources, as a stream of wealth from a stock, are now integrated in this
definition.3
Capital Resources
Classical Land Labor
Economists
Systematically, Solow separated stocks of non-renewable resources now from the overall
capital stock (Fig. 2).
Fisher 1906 Capital (K) Labor
Solow 1974
K R Labor
2.1.2 Solow/Hartwick-rule
Hartwick (1977) also analyzed the conditions for a constant production level of the economy
with a decreasing availability of non-renewable resources. The afterwards so-called
Solow/Hartwick-rule demands the investment of the resource rents in substitutes.
As a basic assumption Hartwick used the Hotelling-rule, including the assumptions
that all reserves are known, all owners are price takers and that an auctioneer, knowing
everything on reserves, future demand and supply, keeps everything in equilibrium. The result
of Hotelling’s (1931) model for the optimal use of oil resources is that the resource price
increases with the market interest rate. In the case of perfect markets the resource price then
also equals the marginal productivity of the resource and the interest rate equals the rate of
4
In reality, this changed nothing at all. In the meantime there is some evidence that the elasticity of substitution
is less than 1 in many cases. For Canada a study came to the conclusion that σ = 0,25 for the substitution of
energy resources (Bataille 1998).
marginal productivity of capital. This leads, following Hartwick by using the original
production function Y = K α R 1−α of Solow, for the growth rate of Y to:
γ Y = [ s − (1 − α ) ]Y / K
The quotient Y/K is in the long-term equilibrium constant (the main result of the neoclassical
growth theory). A constant income over time is then possible with the following savings rate:
S=1-α
The investment of the resource rents in manufactured capital (= the Solow/Hartwick-rule)
guarantees constant per capital income. Income from the resource use will be replaced with
income from a growing stock of K.
It is also possible to use the Solow/Hartwick-rule in models including non-renewable
and renewable resource use. The results are similar. Investment of the resource rents from the
use of the exhaustible resource in manufactured capital; at the same time keep the input of the
renewable resource constant (Hediger 2004). So, again, the production process can go on
forever with fewer and fewer resource inputs. This raises critical questions what happens if
the elasticity of substitution is less than 1.
2.2 Monetary valuation of nature’s functions and services and the endogenous growth
theory
The second main point in this analysis is the role of monetary valuation of goods and services,
including public goods. This point is especially crucial because of the use of an indicator for
public wealth, the GDP, who demands market prices for tradable goods and services. Public
goods, including nature’s functions and services, are often not easily valuable in monetary
terms and rarely tradable on markets! Except its limited meaningfulness, because a lot is not
measurable, the GDP dominates our understanding of public wealth in the meantime.
In modern welfare economics the assumption of the highest present value of future
utility is often combined with the assumption that consuming is equivalent to gaining utility.
The indicator for future utility is then the possible amount of consumption goods in the future
(U(C(t)) in combination with GDP as indicator). Nature’s functions and services are rarely
‘market goods’ and therefore not part of the GDP. This is closing a cycle. On one side welfare
is interpreted as the amount of consumption goods measured with market prices, on the other
side natural capital, also with a lot of direct consumption qualities, is not measurable with
market prices and therefore not included at all.
Resources so far seen as free gifts are only measurable with their short-term supply
and demand dimension or with their mining costs. Again, only in their dimension as resources
sold on the world market measurable within the GDP.
So, when in neoclassical growth theory now all is covered under one production factor
K (see Fig. 1), with the assumption that everything is substitutable within this factor, and the
problems of the GDP as an indicator for welfare this lead to a systematic underestimation of
the role of natural capital in the production process.
unrealistic depending not only on the assumption of a social discount rate δ (see Ott
2003 for the problems of a social discount rate).
2. Romer (1986) used knowledge capital as the only capital stock, Lucas (1988) assumed
only human capital. Land, natural resources or labor are assumed as not scarce in these
models. Except of different capital stocks from the modern growth theory
(manufactured, knowledge and human capital instead of K), the models require also
5
Which is observable and differs from results of the modern growth theory (Y/K = const.).
the assumption of a single capital stock.
Rents
Solow/Hartwick R K Labor
Endogenous
growth theory
R MC HC KC Labor
Rents
Y = ( aN ℵ )( TL L ) K β ( TP P )
α ω
with α + β + ω = 1
„…where N is environmental quality, L is labour input, K is capital, P is natural
resource use or pollution, TL (TP) is labour augmenting (resource-augmenting) technological
progress, aN ℵ is the total factor productivity term that depends positively on the quality of
the environment, and α, β ⋅ and ⋅ ω are the production elasticity’s of labour, capital and
resources respectively (they are all positive)” (Smulders 1999: 4).
6
Birner (2002: 129 ff. for Levhari’s proof (Levhari 1965) that reswitching in capital theory can’t occur)
demonstrates that this is not unusual in theory development. From a certain point on economists introduce this
kind of assumptions to reach a mathematically feasible result. In some cases there is then no plausible economic
interpretation anymore. Other authors like Dasgupta (1995) or Heal (1998) use ‘heroic oversimplifications’ to be
able to stay within the neoclassical theoretical framework.
Due to the use of a Cobb-Douglas-Production function, a constant (or increasing)
production level is possible with less and less of P. The interesting point in Smulders
argumentation is that he demands ‘investment in the environment’. These investments lead to
a lower use of a renewable resource, in this case the ability of the atmosphere to absorb
pollution. Integrated is also a consumptions function of the atmosphere. Good air quality
improves the standard of living, which leads to better results in the production sector (over the
input of L). Smulders integrated in some sense functions and services of ‘natural capital’.
However, in his analysis of different results for different cases Smulders had to use
standard assumptions at some point as well. So he assumed an elasticity of substitution of 1
between consumptions goods and ecological services “which is a necessary condition for
balanced growth to be optimal (…)” (1999: 6). Also the use of terms is not clear at every
point in the analysis. The optimal level of environmental quality is the ‘golden stock of
natural capital’.
The objective of Smulders model is to show conditions under which a society is
possibly invest in environmental quality. From there it seems only a small step to accept
natural capital as one necessary capital stock for society with a need for investment or at least
avoiding of further loss. However, Smulders only argued with the absorption capacity of the
atmosphere for pollution, in this case SO2.
A necessary condition for investments in environmental quality is a low social
discount rate and increasing productivity of the input of natural resources in sectors
responsible for pollutions. Another condition can be high amenity values for a good air
quality. Then people are willing to invest in abatement efforts. This last point is an argument
to accept also non-market values as part of the investment decisions. But it seems a little bit
grotesque, that now higher investments in abatement technology are reflected in a higher
GDP7, the better air quality not.
So far the endogenous growth theory seems to be a step forward. There are also some
models, which include many of the assumptions necessary to address the importance of
natural capital for the production process. Toman (2003) described one of these models and
necessary conditions: “The foregoing discussion of shadow prices focuses on an
intertemporally efficient program for consumption and investment. We can use the same
framework to highlight what goes wrong when market and institutional failures cause
divergence from an efficient path. Consider first the case in which environmental values are
not fully internalized in market prices. In effect, when [the shadow price for environmental
7
There are estimations that premature deaths and costs of illness grew to 20% of urban income in 11 major cities
of China (Worldbank 2000: 84).
quality] is being undervalued. Looking at the other shadow price expressions, we see that
undervaluation of the environment leads to:
- excessive investment in productive plant (…) and therefore too much final output
- under-investment in byproducts management capacity (…)
- under-investment in environmental remediation capacity (…)
- indirectly, too much natural resource extraction (…)”.
The main problem seems to be, again, ‘undervaluation’ of environmental quality. Also his
analysis of distortions in natural resource markets include many price influencing effects,
which lead to overinvestment in K and overuse of resources.
Make the prices right, set the right market incentives was Toman’s answer to solve our
problems. His idea of an investment in environmental quality depends heavily on the right
‘valuation’. The promising demand of Toman that investments in natural capital are necessary
ends with the usual assumption that our models are adequate but the circumstances on
markets are the problem. From the standpoint of Ecological Economics, assuming that we
have not a relative scarcity of resources but an absolute, this seems not adequate to solve our
problems of decreasing stocks of natural capital.
• That it is not only a deliverer of goods and services but that living things are part of
complex ecosystems with a broad variety of functions and services and
• That it is multifunctional.
To address these peculiarities Faber and Manstetten (1998, also Faber et al. 1996) developed
the theory of funds. Funds provide services, material or immaterial. There is a difference
between non-living funds, like sun, air or water, and living funds, which are characterized by
their productivity and the potential to be consumed. As a third category stocks can be seen as
the usable part of living funds, replenished by living funds generating a flow of a usable
amount of individuals or materials (Fig. 4).
Natural capital
consists of
replenish replenish
Economic/Human sphere
Natural Capital
CNC
2005 ? Time t
Stocks/Funds
Critical level
1 2 …. n Periods
4. What is next?
One of the aims of this paper was an analysis of growth theory having a specific
understanding of natural capital in mind. It seems obvious that the new growth theory is a real
progress, at least from the perspective of their instruments. But so far most of the models are
not reflecting the understanding of natural capital outlined in Chapter 3 (theory of funds etc.).
The difference between economic growth theory so far and the definition of natural
9
We are not able to explain the ethical background behind this definition in this paper, the capability approach of
Nussbaum (2003) and Sen (1997).
capital in Ecological Economics is the assumption of only relative scarcity in neoclassical
economics. With the theory of funds we now can integrate the absolute scarcity of individual
funds. The understanding of capital stocks in general differs now from the growth theory. Six
capital stocks can be distinguished (Fig. 7). However, there is no model with the use of six
different capital stocks.
Manufactured Social
Capital Capital
Endogenous
Growth theory/ Knowledge Human
Ecological Capital Capital Labor
Economics
Natural Cultivated
Capital NC
Fig. 7: Capital in Ecological Economics combined with the new growth theory
Investments in natural capital are necessary as investments are necessary in human or
manufactured capital. The shortcoming of growth models is the problem of only dealing with
individual stocks with the need to assume constancy or non-scarcity of other stocks.
To overcome these shortcomings concrete scientifically proved, discourse rational
comprehensible and political manageable targets must be set for individual funds (fish stocks,
forests products, capacity of the atmosphere to absorb greenhouse gases, etc.). It is then the
obligation for economists to find the most efficient way to keep funds above (or below) these
agreed targets. This is opposite to the assumption of total substitutability in economic growth
models and that increasing prices will eventually lead to the preservation of resources or to
the development of backstop technologies. The problem seems the switch from models with
assumption of unlimited supply of raw material to models with inputs that are really scarce,
including functions and services of natural capital.
The agreement of targets for individual funds in scientific based, discourse rational
political processes would also overcome the necessity of monetary valuation of functions and
services of natural capital to be integrated in economic calculations of costs and benefits of
projects. The project, firstly, must show that it not violate target levels, and secondly, if that is
the case opportunity costs of an investment in natural capital elsewhere must be calculated to
substitute for the loss. If costs are too high or a substitution not possible the project must be
abandoned. So the CNCR holds without demanding the preservation of the status quo.
This strategy is not without some negative impacts. Resource and energy prices will
increase, but huge investments in renewable energy sources, at the moment to see in
Germany, will help to lower the costs for these systems because of the economics of scale.
Also other energy sources, like nuclear power plants, were subsidized heavily in the past and
now the supporter of that type of energy claim low costs for their energy. The high costs of no
action in the future (like from climate change) will surely exceed these short-term costs to
switch to a different energy use system.
We use the example of investing in renewable energy systems because for us climate
change is the most severe environmental problem in this century. Every ecosystem on earth
depends on the stability of the climate, a certain range of temperature, amount of rainfall, etc.
A dramatic change as predicted if we not reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases
substantially is fatal for most of our ecosystems on land and in the marine environment.
Therefore it seems obvious that we should also try to analyze under which circumstances it is
optimal to invest in NC in the sense of substitution of fossil fuels with renewable energy
sources.
Investment in MC + NC*
MC
Savings
Firms
Rents
Production
_ C, House-
*
Y=F(K, S, R(t)) Rents holds
NC
CNC L=const.
Consists of
Renewable Non-Renewable
Resources
CNC
* e.g. Investment in renewable energy systems
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