Chapter 10: Geological Structure

1. Folds
The folds are formed due to the effects of compressive forces, in the earth’s crust, necessarily
involve a shortening or contraction of the area are concerned. Thus, the layers of rock are capable of being
crumpled or buckled into folds.

The folding of rocks depends upon:

(i) The physical characteristic of rocks, e.g. layered rocks, the degree of resistance.
(ii) The temperature conditions and the presence of pore fluids.
(iii) The intensity and duration of the compressive movement.

Types of Folds

1. An anticline or anticlinal fold is formed when the strata or beds are

bent upwards.
1 2 2. A syncline or synclinal fold is formed from the strata being bent
downwards.
3. An asymmetrical fold is where one limb in a fold structure is steeper
3 than the other, e.g. asymmetrical anticline, asymmetrical syncline.

4. An overturned anticline occurs when an asymmetrical or inclined

4
upfold is pushed right over to form an overfold.

5. An isoclinal results from the continued lateral compression upon an

5 overfold, crowding it upon the adjacent overfold.
6. A recumbent fold –A fold lying down results from the continuation of
6 pressure; the axial plane and both limbs of a fold lie roughly horizontal.

Type of faults
 1. Normal faults
These are faults which have both hading and the down-throw in
the same direction. The rockmass moves down the dip of the
fault plane. These faults are produced by tension and indicating
pulling apart of the rock mass.

1
2. Reverse faults
Where compression occurs the beds on one side of the fault
plane may shear and be thrust over those on the other side. There
is over-thrusting up the dip and the fault heaves to the up-throw
side.
2
3. Tear faults or Wrench faults
These occur when there is a movement in a horizontal direction
although the fracture is vertical.

4. Thrust faults
Low angle reverse fault: fault dip is less than 30˚.
3

5. Graben and Horst

Horst
Two normal faults hading towards one another produce trough
Graben
faulting and hading apart from a pair of ridge fault where a
stratum approaches a fault it is often bent backwards a little,
away from the direction of movement along the fault palne. A

F F F sunken block, bounded on all sides by faults is called a graben.

A horst is a fault bounded ridge block, the converse of graben.

2. Joints: A joint is a parting plane which separates or trends to separate a once continuous mass of
rock into two parts. Joints differ from faults in that no appreciable movement has taken place along them.
They result from fracture due to stresses within the rock mass.
Process of Unconformities
Processes

IV Subsidence of the older group of rocks and deposition of younger

group of rocks

III Surface of the bed eroded (erosion process)

II Folding and uplifting due to internal earth’s movement

I Layered sedimentary rocks.

Unconformity: A buried surface of erosion or non-deposition that separates younger rocks from the older
rocks is known as unconformity.
Types of unconformity
1. Angular unconformity: An unconformity in which the older
strata dip at an angle different from that of the younger strata is
called an angular unconformity.
2. Disconformity: An unconformity with parallel beds on opposite
side is called disconformity. It is formed when layered
sedimentary rocks are elevated and exposed to erosion, then
lowered to undergo further deposition without being folded.
3. Nonconformity: An unconformity between igneous or
metamorphic rocks that are exposed to erosion and covered by
sedimentary rocks is called nonconformity.
 Chapter 11: Plate Tectonics Theory

1. (a). Plates
The plates are the rigid mass, which shift or move upon the asthenosphere (vicous and about 100
miles thick). These plates consist of the upper portion of mantle and crust.
The theory of plate tectonics suggests that the earth’s surface is divided up into a number of
segments of varying size, which are all slowly moving.
There are at least six major plates together with twenty minor plates which are quiet small. The six
major plates are:
1. The Pacific Plate
2. The Eurasian Plate
3. The African Plate
4. The American Plate
5. The Indian Plate or The Australian Plate (Australian-Indian Plate)
6. The Antartican Plate

(ii). Movement of the Plates

As the plates are slowly moving all the time the rate of movement is found to be 2 to 10 centimeters
per year as the rate are not the same in all areas. By calculation it is found that if the plates move 2
centimeters on both sides it will amount to 4 centimeters within 100 million years (Ma) the plates will
move about 4000 km or approximately 2500 miles apart. (See figure 11.2)

(iii). Margins (Boundaries) of Plates

The plates move apart at least in three ways:
1. Divergent Motion
2. Convergent Motion
3. Shear Motion
1. In divergent motion, the plates move apart from the mid-oceanic ridge.
2. In convergent motion, the plates move towards the oceanic trench.
3. In shear motion, the plates move along the transform faults, i.e. they move side-ways.
On the basis of these three motions there are altogether three plate margins or boundaries such as:
1. The Divergent Margin/Boundary
3. The Shear Margin/Boundary
1. The Divergent Margin/Boundary: These margins (boundaries) are found in the middle part of the mid-
oceanic ridges. Along these margins the sea-floor is developed with newer ones where the deep-seated
basalt slowly moves upward and accumulates on the floor spreading sideways, due to this movement the
friction evolved and the shallow focus earthquakes are vibrated. Along the middle portion of the mid-
oceanic ridge there developed along shallow zone which is known as rift.

2. The Convergent Margin/Boundary: This boundary is also known as the subduction zone or the
Benioff Zone. In this margin sliding down or sinking down of sediments inside the uppermost part of the
mantle is developed. This margin occupies the area where the oceanic plate and the continental plate are in
touch together. In some parts of the area this boundary is facing together with both the continental plates,
e.g. The African and The Eurasian plates. This boundary is remarkable because along this boundary the
three unstable geological phenomena are developed such as the orogeny, the seismicity and the volcanism
are developed.

3. The Shear Margin/Boundary: The types of boundary are exhibited as transform faults.The moundaries
are developed due to the different in speed in spreading of ocean floor. The movement of the boundary is in
sideways and mostly they are accompanied by shallow-focus earthquakes.

(iv). Mechanism of the Plates Movement

1. The plates are still moving and continue moving throughout.

2. Due to the convection currents the plate boundaries are separated from one another.
3. The basic knowledge of convection current theory is accepted but the energy which governs the
convection currents is uncertain.
4. Morgan et al. believed the energy of the movement is in association with the thermal plumes are present
beneath the earth’s surface.
5. Other theories: a) in convergent boundary the two plates meet where the opposite plate dips down into
the crust when the other plate is cool and heavy, b) in the mid-oceanic ridge the sea floor which is
mainly made up of basalt is extruded up making space towards the side making the plates to move
sideways.
(v). Plate Tectonics and the Geological Processes

The geological processes are once thought to be of separate processes but the theory of plate
tectonics combines them into a single process. Thus, this theory explains the following geological
processes:
(a) Formation of Geosynclines
(b) Folded Mountain Movement
(c) Formation of Cycle of Fire
(d) The Earthquake Belts
(e) Formation of the Benioff Zone
(f) Coupled Metamorphic Belts
(g) Development of Mid-oceanic Ridges.
PART TWO

QUESTIONS
 YANGON TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING GEOOGY

GEOLOGY FOR MINING ENGINEERS (Geol - 02012)

G.T.I (Mining) Second Year

Questions

Chapter 1. Structural Geology

1.*** With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, add motes the following types of folds.

(i) Anticline and syncline (iii) Over turned fold (iv) Recumbent fold

(v) Plunging fold (vi) Dome and Basin

2.*** Define “fault”. Add notes the following types of faults (Draw diagrammatic sketches where

necessary)

(i) Normal fault and Reverse fault (ii) Step faults

(iii) Nomenclature of fault (v) thrust fault

3.* Define the following terms. (Draw net diagrammatic sketches when necessary)

(i) dip, (ii) apparent dip

(iii) strike (iv) trend and plunge

________________________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
 Chapter 2. Fracture Analysis

1.** (a) From an engineering geological point of view, define “Joints”.

(b) Discuss thoroughly about the “Rock Joint Description” in relation to engineering geological

investigation of rock materials.

______________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
 Chapter 3. Stereographic Projection

1.* (a) Plot a line with trend 458 and plunge 508.

(b) Plot a plane with dip direction 3308 and angle of dip 358. (stereographic net and tracing paper are

provided)

2.* Plot a line (contained in a plane): a plane (shale bed) with a dip direction of 1218 and dip amount of

508 and a line (intersection of the vertical cut slope with the shale bed) with a trend of 758 and lying in

that plane.

Find the plunge of the line. (stereographic net and tracing paper are provided)

3.* Plot a pole:

A plane with a dip direction of 508 and a dip angle of 658; plot the plane and locate the pole to it.

(stereographic net and tracing paper are provided)

4.* Plot the line of intersection of two planes:

Two intersection planes (joints), having dip amount of 358 and 658 and a dip direction of 1108 and 2508

respectively. Find the trend and plunge of the line. (stereographic net and tracing paper are provided)

______________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
 Chapter 4: Geology of Fuels

1.** Write a short account on “Classification of coal”.

2.* Discuss thoroughly about “Origin of coal”.

3.*** Briefly describe on “Types of oil traps”.

4.** Add notes on any four of the followings:

(i) Moisture content (ii) Volatile matter

(iii) Fuel ratio (iv) Sulphur content

(v) Calorific value

5.*** Explain the formation of coal.

______________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
 Chapter 5: An outline of structural setting for ore deposits

1.* Add notes on any four of the followings:-

(i) Changes of Altitude of veins

(ii) Contact veins

(iii) Normal faults

(iv) Ore shoots of fault veins

(v) Bedding planes deposits

2.** Describe briefly on Anticlinal deposits and Synclinal Deposits.

3.*** Write a short essay on the important geological settings for onr deposits.

_________________________________________________________________________________

* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
 Chapter 6: Mineralogy of industrially important metallic and non-metallic minerals

1.* Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Magnetite (ii) Native copper

(iii) Gold tellurides (iv) Sphalerite

(v) Garnerite

2.** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Wolframite (ii) Stibnite

(iii) Molybdenite (iv) Hematite

(v) Chalcopyrite (vi) Native silver

3.** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Galena (ii) Chromite

(iii) Geothite (iv) Cinnabar

(v) Bauxite (vi) Arsenopyrite

4.* Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Pyrolusite (ii) Limonite

(iii) Azurite (iv) Native gold

(v) Zincite (vi) Cassiterite

5.*** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Scheelite (ii) Psilomelane

 (iii) Realgar (iv) Siderite

(v) Bornite (vi) Argentite

6.*** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Anglesite (ii) Niccolite

(iii) Native mercury (iv) Orpiment

(v) Pyrite (vi) Malachite

7.* Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals.

(i) Coal (any kind of coal) (ii) Limonite

(iii) Malachite (iv) Gold tellurides

(v) Galena (vi) Cassiterite

8.** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Hematite (ii) Azurite

(iii) Galena (iv) Chromite

(v) Wolframite (vi) Bauxite

_________________________________________________________________________________

* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
 Chapter 7: Theories of ore formation

1.* Write a short account on systematic and epigenetic mineral deposits.

2.** Briefly describe on endogenetic mineral deposits.

3.** Discuss thoroughly about exogenetic mineral deposits.

4.*** Add notes on any three of the following.

(i) super gene enrichment of ore deposits

(ii) synzenetic mineral deposits

(iii) epigenetic mineral deposits

(iv) types of mineral deposits

_________________________________________________________________________________

* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
 Chapter 8: An outline of ore microscopy

1.* (a) Write down the physical properties of ore minerals in polished sections.

(b) Discuss thoroughly about crystal forms and habit. (in polished section)

2.** Add notes any three of the following physical properties of ore minerals in polished sections.

(i) Zoning (ii) Cleavage and parting

(iii) Twinning (iv) Colour of powder.

3.*** Write short accounts on the following optical properties of one minerals

(i) colour (ii) bireflectance

(iii) Rotation Properties

_________________________________________________________________________________

* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know
PART TWO

ANSWERS
 YANGON TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING GEOOGY

GEOLOGY FOR MINING ENGINEERS (Geol - 02012)

G.T.I (Mining) Second Year

ANSWERS

Chapter 1: Structural Geology

1.*** With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, add motes the following types of folds.

(i) Anticline and syncline (ii) Over turned fold (iii) Recumbent fold

(iv) Plunging fold (v) Dome and Basin

Answers
(i) Anticline and syncline
A complete fold is composed of an arched portion, or anticline and a depressed trough or syncline.
(Fig)

Fig. Anticline and Syncline

(ii) Over turned fold
Sometimes the middle limb has been brought into a vertical position by the compression which buckled the strata
and under still more severe conditions an overturned fold or over fold, is produced (fig).

Fig. Overturned fold

(iii) Recumbent fold

Where the axial plane is inclined at a low or zero angles, the fold is said to be recumbent (fig-1.10), type which is
met with in intensely folded regions such as the Alps.

Fig. Recumbent fold

(iv) Plunging fold

Plunging folds :It is found in nature that a fold does not continue indefinitely along its length, but dies away sooner
or later. Generally if it can be traced along its length in one direction, the crest line is observed to fall, and the
amplitude of the fold decreased until it becomes merged into unfolded beds (fig.)
(v) Dome and Basin

When strata have been folded so that the dip is everywhere outward from a central area as in fig. 1.14; the
structure is called a dome. If the dip is everywhere inwards, the structural form is basin (Fig. ).

2.*** Define “fault”. Add notes the following types of faults (Draw diagrammatic sketches where

necessary)

(i) Normal fault and Reverse fault (ii) Step faults

(iii) Nomenclature of fault (iv) thrust fault

Answsers

Definition of a fault : Faults are rock fractures along which displacement has taken place; the rock on either
side of the break has moved relatively to one another in opposite directions. The movement may be of any
amount and in any direction on the fault plane.
(i) Normal fault and Reverse fault
In a normal fault, the hanging wall is displaced downwards relatively to the footwall. In reverse fault, the
hanging wall is displaced upwards relative to the footwall. Notice that the effect of the reversed faulting is
to reduce the original horizontal extent of the broken bed and the two displaced ends of a stratum overlap in
plane. On the other hand, the effect of a normal fault is to increase the original horizontal distance between
two points on either side of the fracture.
(ii) Step faults
Several normal faults throwing down in the same direction are spoken of as step faults fig. two normal
fault hading towards one another produce trough faulting and hading apart from a pair of ridge fault
where a stratum approaches a fault it is often bent backwards a little, away from the direction of movement
along the fault plane. A sunken block, bounded on all sides by faults is called a graven. A horst is a fault
bounded ridge block, the converse of graven.

step fault (graven and horst)

(iii) Nomenclature of fault

Up throw block Down throw block

AB = Strike slip fault
A BD = Dip slip fault
B E BE = Net slip
C e
D CD = Heave
BC = Throw
e = Dip of fault
Foot wall Hanging wall

(iv) thrust fault

Low angle reversed faults are called thrust faults .Thrust faults are especially abundant in the upper levels
of the external parts of the compressional orogenic zones and often appear to be the first formed major
tectonic structures in these regions.
 Chapter 2. Fracture Analysis

1.** (a) From an engineering geological point of view, define “Joints”.

(b) Discuss thoroughly about the “Rock Joint Description” in relation to engineering geological

investigation of rock materials.

Answers
(a) In rock mechanics and engineering geology, all different types of discontinuity are generally
called joints.

(b)Rock joint description

In engineering geological investigation of rock materials, the system of joints, faulting , etc should be carefully
described.

In addition to the type of jointing, other aspects to be described are:

(1)spatial orientation (dipping) (ii)extent

(iii)spacing (iv)opening

(v)filling (vi)roughness

These aspects will be treated on the following:-

(i)Spatial orientation: The orientation of a rock separation plane (joint) can be measured with a compass. Different
kinds of compasses and different notation systems are used in geology .In engineering geology, usually the direction
of dipping and the dipping angle are measured and noted. Preferably compasses are used which enable the
reading of both values at the same time. The direction of dipping varies from 0 to 360 from North over East, South
and West to North. The dipping angle varies from 0 for horizontal planes to 90 for vertical planes (for instance;
310/35,010/90, 005/40).

(ii) Extent: Many joints do not strike through completely. The percentage of the plane, which is developed
as a discontinuity is called the extent of a joint. In flat exposures only one direction of a joint is seen
 To determine the extent exactly also a second exposure, perpendicular to the first one would be necessary. As
(Fig.) shows, the extant different joint sets in an exposure can have different extent percentages.
A: horizontal= 100%; vertical= 100%
B: horizontal=100% vertical= 50%
C: horizontal= 60% vertical= 40%
D: horizontal= 40% vertical= 25%

Fig. Illustration of the Extent of rock joint planes

( iii ) Spacing The spacing of joints refers to the average distance between the individual joints from a
joint set measured in the direction perpendicular to the joint. It is expressed in cm or m. The reverse value
is the degree of jointing which is the number of joints per meter measured in direction perpendicular to the
joints.

( iv ) Opening The opening of a joint is the distance between the rock faces at both sides of the joint. The
opening can vary considerably at different locations along the joint; in that case it may be preferable to note
maximum, minimum, as well as average opening for the particular joints can be particular influence on the
permeability of a rock mass.

( v ) Filling The presence of filling materials can have influence on the frictional properties of a joint,
clay for instance can reduce the frictional resistance considerably. The secondary permeability of a rock
mass depends completely on the type of filling material. Clay fillings can be so impermeable that they are
barriers for any water movement so that the secondary permeability is lower than the primary permeability.
When joints are filled with coarse, crushed material or when joints are empty the secondary permeability is
very high. For these reason, it is important to mark the observed grain size (distribution) in the field notes.

(vi) Roughness: The surface roughness of a joint has a great influence on the frictional properties of the
joints. Movement will not so easily take place along rough joints as along flat joints as small scale (micro
roughness over millimetres). Any roughness description should thus also refer to the scale of roughness
which is meant. For practical classification procedures the following roughness description will be
sufficient. (fig. ). On large scale (meters): planar, undulating, stepped; on the small scale (millimetres)
slickensided, smooth, rough.
 Rough

STEPPED Smooth

Slikensided

Rough

Smooth

UNDULATING Slickensided

Rough

PLANAR Smooth

(Fig. ) Slikensided
 Chapter 4: Geology of Fuels

1.** Write a short account on “Classification of coal”.

Answers

On the basis of rank and quality, the coals are classified into four main groups : (i) lignite, (ii)
bituminous coal, (iii) anthracite, and (iv) cannel coal. Peat lies above lignite and graphite below
anthracite.

Peat. Peat is not considered as coal though it is a fuel. It represents the first stage of coal
formation. Peat is a brown porous mass of partly decomposed vegetable material. It contains about
85% moisture, 10.4% volatile matter, and 4.6%. carbon. The dried peat bums readily with the long
smoky flame. Its calorific value is very low.
Lignite. Lignite is also called "brown coal" as its colour is often dark brown.. It represents the
second stage in coal formation. The lignite is composed of finely divided plant tissues. It contains
about 25-45% moisture. Because of high water content, it shrinks, cracks and often disintegrates
when dried in air. The lignite bums freely with a long smoky flame and has a low calorific value
(11000—12500 B.T.U.).
Bituminous Coal.
It is a dense coal of black colour. It shows banded structure in which dull and bright bands
altermate. The bituminous coal breaks parallel to bands but the presence of vertical joints makes it to

(Fig.) Moisture, volatiles, carbon and heat values of different types of coal

give cubical or rectangular blocks. Its moisture content is low, volatile matter medium and fixed
carbon high. It burns easily with a smoky yellow flame. Its calorific value ranges between 13500 to
 16000 B.T.U. Higher -ranks of bituminous coals & have the maximum heating power of all coals
(fig. ).
Anthracite. It is a hard coal with an iron-black colour and submetallic lustre. It does not soil the
fingers and commonly breaks with a conchoidal fracture. The anthracite contains about 92—94%
carbon and 3—8% volatile matter. It is difficult to ignite but bums with a short blue flame and gives
little smoke. Its calorific value ranges between 15000 to 15600 B.T.U.
Cannel Coal. Cannel coal is a special variety of bituminous coal which is very fine grained and
is of uniform texture. It has no banded structure like ordinary bituminous coal. Cannel coal is black in
colour and has dull lustre. It does not soil fingers. It bums easily with a long candle like flame. It is
made up of wind blown spores and pollen. It is commonly found associated with seams of bituminous
coal as lenticles or bands upto about half meter thick.. Cannel coal is essentially a drift deposit laid
down in shallow lakes.

2.* Discuss thoroughly about “Origin of coal”.

Answers

Coals are sedimentary rocks formed by accumulation of plant materials in swamps. Hence
the source material of coal is the vegetation matter. The formation of a coal deposit requires a
large accumulation of vegetation matter. This implies large vegetation growth which is possible
only in subtropical climate with heavy rainfall well distributed throughout the year.
There are two theories to explain the mode of accumulation of plant materials to give rise to
coal seams : (i) the in-situ theory, and (ii) the drift theory.
(i) In-situ Theory
The in-situ theory suggests that the vegetation matter had accumulated at the place of growth
itself in the swamps. This means that the forests grew at the same place where we now fmd coal
seams. The in-situ theory may briefly be summarized as follows.

(i) The vegetable matter was accumulated in the coal forest itself.
(ii) As the land was sinking slowly, the accumulated plant material was kept saturated with
water and therefore it was not decomposed and destroyed.
(iii) In the course of time, the rate of sinking of land was increased and the coal forest was
submerged under water. This resulted in the geological burial of the vegetable matter below sand
and mud layers.
(iv) Then uplifting took place and the land emerged out of water. The coal forests came into
existence again and the above said cycle of coal formation was repeated. In this way alternation
of strata and coal seams were formed.
Evidences. The evidences in support of in-situ theory are as follows.
 1. A huge amount of plant material is accumulating in-situ in the swamps that exist today.
2. In coal seams, the stems of fossil trees are found standing erect with their roots protruding
into the underclays.
3. The underclays which are found beneath the coal seams are supposed to represent the
original soils on which the vegetation grew.
4. The coal seams contain coal which is relatively pure and free from shale bands. This
suggests that the plant material was not transported along with sediments.
5. The uniformity in thickness and composition of coal seams over wide areas suggests that
the deposition of the plant material took place in still waters.
(ii) Drift Theory
This theory suggests that the plant material was transported by stream action from their place
of growth and deposited at suitable places in lakes or sea just like other sediments.
The coal seams of India are of drift origin. The drift theory may briefly be summarized as
follows.
(i) The plant material from the coal forest was transported by water and deposited in lakes or
sea just like other sediments.
(ii) During transportation the various materials were sorted out as usual, in accordance with
their specific gravities.
(iii) The pure coal seam was formed in places to which only the lightest material ( plant
material) had access.
(iv) A stream with shale bands was formed in places where a temporary change in the water
currents and hence the nature of sediment occurred.

(v) Rapid and frequent oscillatory earth-movements had given rise to several coal seams one
above the other separated by sediments.
Evidences. The evidences in favour of the drift theory are as follows.
1. The rocks associated with coal seams are distinctly sedimentary. The coal seam itself
behaves like a sedimentary bed and they are observed to branch out.
2. In some cases the underclays which represent the soil at the root, are not found below the
coal seams.
3. The fossil trees are more usually found lying at angles other than the vertical.

3.*** Briefly describe on “Types of oil traps”.

Answers
The oil traps are classified into two group: (i) Structural traps, and (ii) Stratigraphic traps.
 Structural Traps. The structural oil traps are formed as a result of folding, faulting and igneous
intrusions. The description of some of the important structural traps are as follows.

(i) Anticlines and Domes Shale

(A) (B)
Fig. 1. (A) oil trap in an anticline (B) oil trap along a fault

The anticlines and domes are the most important because they form oil traps in practically all the large oil
field of the world. Here the oil and gas migrate up the limbs and collect at the crest below a cap rock.
[Fig.1 (A)]

(ii) Faults. When a fault affects inclined strata, a reservoir rock may be blocked off by an impervious shale
thereby creating an oil trap [Fig. (B)].

(iii) Salt Domes. Where salt domes intrude into the sedimentary rocks, good oil traps are formed. Here the
oil accumulates near the upturned edges of the reservoir rock which are sealed by the salt [Fig. 2. (A)].

(A) (B)
Fig. 2 (A) Oil trap near a salt dome, (B) Oil trap along an unconformity.

(iv) Igneous Intrusions.

The volcanic necks and dykes may seal the upturned edges of the reservoir rock to form oil traps.
 Stratigraphic Traps.

The stratigraphic oil traps are formed as a result of lateral and vertical changes in the permeability of
the reservoir rocks. These changes are caused by variations in the conditions during the deposition of
rocks. Some of the important Stratigraphic oil traps are as follows.
(i) Unconformities in the rock sequence often give rise to oil traps [Fig. (b)}.
(ii) The shales which are the source rock of petrolium may contain lenses of sandstone.
The oil may accumulate in these sandstone lenses [Fig. 3 (A)].

(A) (B)
Fig. 3 (A) Oil trap in a sandstone lens. (B) Oil trap in a sandstone which is wedging out.

(iii) A porous sandstone may wedge out thereby creating an oil trap [Fig.3 (B)].
 2

Chapter 5: An outline of structural setting for ore deposits

1.* Add notes on any four of the followings:-

(i) Changes of Altitude of veins

(ii) Contact veins

(iii) Normal faults

(iv) Ore shoots of fault veins

(v) Bedding planes deposits

Answers

(i) Changes of Altitude of veins

An ore shoot is the workable part of a deposit. Ore shoots may be surrounded by low-grade vein
matter, or by country rock, or by both. Few lodes are uniformly rich. In general, they have rich
shoots, poorer yet workable shoots, and parts that are too low grade to work. Many lodes are richer
where there is a change of attitude of the vein down dip or along strike, that is, where the lodes
curve. That probably is because there is more shattering of the wall rock at the bends or wider
Openings than elsewhere (Fig.). Rising fluids moreover, tend to converge at or near the tops of
inverted troughs. They seek the places of least pressure, which generally are upward. Where veins
flatten, rising fluids are slowed down, or ponded and more time is available for precipitating
reactions.

FIG..—I. A fissure that changes dip with depth.

II. The same fissure with open space formed by movement at right angles to the plane
but with no tangential movement. A vein fills the fissure.
 3

III. The same after normal faulting and vein filling. The steepest parts of the vein are the
widest.
IV. The same after reverse faulting. The steepest parts of the vein are the narrowest.

(ii) Contact veins

Aside from pyrometasomatic deposits which are formed generally at or near intrusive contacts, there
are many other deposits that lie along contacts. At many places, these contacts are planes of
weakness. The contact has been fractured, and solutions followed the fractures. At other places,
fractures have crossed the contacts of two rocks and have passed from limestone or other easily
fractured bed into an argillaceous or other difficultly fractured bed above; there is a constriction of
openings above, and a channelway is provided that may be mineralized to form a long, narrow
ribbon of ore below the impermeable bed.

FIG. —I. Ideal section across a northeasterly lode, Rico, Colo., and its blanket ore shoot.
II. Ideal section through group tunnel Enterprise mine, showing blanket veins.
III. Section of American Nettie mine, Ouray, Colo. Black is ore.
IV. Plan showing "contact" ore bodies, projected on a single plane in the Bald Moun tain
area near Lead, S. Dak.

These ribbons of ore in limestone below shale have been formed at Rico, Colo. (Figs. , I and II), and
in the Bald Mountain area near Lead, S. Dak. They are localized by numerous verticals, or small
fractures closely spaced, that have led the solutions to, but not through, the shales. At Leadville,
Colo., the chief deposits are blankets of ore that lie in limestone below porphyry sills. The ores have
formed at both "Upper" and "Lower" contacts.
'
(ii) Normal faults

Many contact veins are in fault fissures that bring two kind of rocks together. Normal faults very
commonly are seats of deposition of lodes. Many with large throw are well mineralized. (Fig. 1)
 4

Fig.1 Section through Comstock Lode, Nevada, on Sutro tunnel. Black is quartz and vein matter.

FIG. 2 I. Cross section showing Coronado fault and lode near Morenci, Ariz.
II. Cross section showing Amethyst fault and lode, Creede, Colo.
( iv) Ore shoots of fault veins

Veins along faults, like other veins, commonly carry ore shoots. A fissure (Fig. I) that is formed
without tangential movement is likely to have a comparatively regular width (Fig. ), particularly in a
homogeneous rock such as a uniform igneous rock. Most faults, however, change strike and dip. In
general, where the dip of the vein becomes steeper its width is likely to increase, if the vein fills a
normal fault (Fig. ); but its steeper parts are likely to be narrower if the vein fills a reverse fault (Fig.
IV)

FIG..—I. A fissure that changes dip with depth.

II. The same fissure with open space formed by movement at right angles to the plane
but with no tangential movement. A vein fills the fissure.
 5

III. The same after normal faulting and vein filling. The steepest parts of the vein are the
widest.
IV. The same after reverse faulting. The steepest parts of the vein are the narrowest.

(v) Bedding planes deposits

Epigenetic deposits may be restricted to certain beds, (1) because the beds are permeable, (2)
because they are more easily fractured, or (3) because they are chemically more hospitable and more
easily replaced than associated beds. Metalizing fluids tend to follow beds, since by doing so they
may follow the most permeable beds.
Where they cross a series of beds, they must cross the most impermeable ones. Bedding-plane
fissures and faults that make channelways are common features of deformed areas.
 6

Chapter 6: Mineralogy of industrially important metallic and non-metallic minerals

2.** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Wolframite (ii) Stibnite

(iii) Molybdenite (iv) Hematite

(v) Chalcopyrite (vi) Native silver

Answers

(i) Wolframite

COMP: Tungstate of iron and manganese, (Fe,Mn)W04, the ratio of iron to manganese varying—
one end-member being Ferberite, FeW04 and the other Hubnerite. MnW04.
CRYST. SYST: Monoclinic. COM. FORM: Prismatic crystals, commonly tabular; also massive and
bladed, the latter being very characteristic. CLEAV: Perfect parallel to the clinopinacoid.
COLOUR: Chocolate-brown, dark greyish-black, reddish-brown. STREAK: Chocolate-brown.
LUSTRE: Submetallic, brilliant shining on cleavage surfaces, dull on other surfaces and on
fractures. Fracture: Uneven; Hardness: 5 – 5.5 ; Sp. Gr.: 7.1 – 7.9.
OCCURRENCE: Wolfram occurs in pneumatolytic veins surrounding granite masses, associated
with tinstone and quartz; also in veins formed at lowers, and in certain gold bearing quartz-veins;
the disintegration of these tin wolfram veins result in the formation of alluvial or placer tin and
wolfram deposits, which are worked at many localities in Myanmar.

(ii) Stibnite

COMP: Antimony trisulphide, Sb2S3; antimony 71.7 per cent.

CRYST. SYST: Orthorhombic. COM. FORM: Elongated prisms striated longitudinally commonly
found in masses of radiating crystals, or with a columnar or bladed structure; sometimes granular.
CLEAV: Perfect parallel to the brachy-pinacoid. COLOUR: Lead-grey.
STREAK: Lead-grey. LUSTRE: Metallic; liable to tarnish, and sometimes iridescent on the
surface. FRACT: Subconchoidal; sectile; brittle, but thin laminae slightly flexible. H: 2. SP. GR:
4.5 – 4.6.
OCCURRENCE: The chief mode of occurrence is in quartz-stibnite veins, but it also occurs
associated with other antimony minerals, lead-zinc sulphides, and with quartz, dolomite, cal-cite
and barytes as veinstones.
USES: Antimonite is the chief source of the antimony of commerce.
(iii) Molybdenite
 7

COMP: MOLYBDENUM SULPHIDE, MOS2

CRYST. SYST: Hexagonal. COM. FORM: Usually in scales; also massive, foliaceous, and
sometimes granular. CLEAV: Perfect basal; the laminae are flexible but not elastic. COLOUR:
Lead-grey. STREAK: Greenish lead-grey, the greenish tint distinguishing it from that given by
graphite. LUSTRE. Metallic; opaque. TENACITY: Sectile, and almost malleable. H: 1-1.5, easily
scratched by the fingernail. SP. GR. 4.7 – 4.8.
OCCURRENCE: Molybdenite occurs in deposits that can in most cases be traced to an acid igneous
body; thus it is found in granites and pegmatites as an original constituent, though often of late
formation, and it occurs in quartz veins connected with such rocks; it is also found as a mineral of
contact-metamorphic or pyrometasomatic origin.
USES: Molybdenite is the chief ore of molybdenum.

(iv) Hematite

COMP: Iron oxide, Fe2O3; iron, 70 per cent; clay and sandy impurities are sometimes present.
CRYST. SYST: Hexagonal-trigonal, Calcite Type. COM. FORM: Rhombohedron, often modified,
and frequently in thin tabular forms; also in micaceous or foliaceous aggregates, reniform,
granular, or amorphous; commonly fibrous internally. CLEAV: Poor, parallel to the rhombohedron
and to the basal pinacoid. COLOUR: Steel-grey to iron-black; in particles sufficiently thin to
transmit light, it appears blood-red; earthy forms are red. STREAK: Cherry-red. LUSTRE: When
crystallized metallic and highly splendent—specular iron', in fibrous varieties, silky; in
amorphous varieties, dull and earthy; opaque except in very thin plates. FRACT: Subconchoidal or
uneven. H: 5.5 – 6.5.
SP. GR: 4.9 – 5.3.
VARIETIES: Specular Iron is a variety occurring in rhombo-hedral crystals, black in colour, and
with a metallic splendent lustre; Micaceous Hematite includes the foliaceous and micaceous
forms; Kidney Ore (see Fig. 6.1) is a reniform variety with a metallic lustre, especially on the
mammillated surfaces; beneath this surface, kidney ore usually displays a radiating or divergently
columnar structure; Reddle is the most earthy variety of hematite, red in colour, and used in the
manufacture of crayons, for polishing glass, and as a red paint; Martiteis probably a pseudomorph
of hematite after magnetite; it mostly occurs in small black octa-hedra, which give a reddish-
brown streak.

OCCURRENCE: Hematite occurs in pockets and hollows, replacing

limestone;
 8

here the hematite occurs in irregular masses in and on the surface of the Carboniferous
Limestone, and probably results from the replacement of
that limestone by hematite brought from the ferruginous
Triassic sandstones which overlie the limestones ;
metasomatic deposits of a similar nature are found in the
Forest of Dean, and Cumberland, and much more important
FIG. Hematite, Kidney Ore. deposits of the same origin occur at Bilbao, Spain, Utah,
and elsewhere. The greatest hematite deposits in the
world—those of the Lake Superior district—result from the alteration and concentration of iron
silicates and carbonate of sedimentary origin.

(v) Chalcopyrite
COMP: Sulphide of copper and iron, CuFeS2; copper 34.5 per cent.
CRYST. SYST: Tetragonal. COM. FORM: Crystals often resemble those of tetrahedral type; wedge-
shaped forms are common, and the crystals are frequently twinned; generally found massive.
COLOUR: Brass-yellow, frequently with a tarnish, which is sometimes iridescent.
STREAK: Greenish-black, very slightly shining. LUSTRE. Metallic; opaque.
FRACT: Conchoidal,uneven. H. 3.5 - 4. Sp.GR. 4.1 – 4.3.
OCCURRENCE: Chalcopyrite is the principal commercial source of copper. It occurs in a number
of ways. Magmatic segregations of chalcopyrite are known, but are not important. An important
mode of occurrence is as hydro-thermal or metasomatic veins. Pyrometasomatic deposits are
important; in these the chalcopyrite occurs with other sulphides and skarn minerals at or near the
contact between bodies of intrusive granodioritic rock and limestone.

(vi) Native silver

COMP: Silver, Ag, but usually associated with it are small amounts of other metals, such as
copper, gold, mercury, platinum, bismuth, etc.
CRYST. SYST: Cubic. COM. FORM: Distorted crystals; mostly found filiform, arborescent or
massive. COLOUR: Silver-white, tarnishing readily. STREAK: Silver-white, and shining.
LUSTRE: Metallic. FRACT: Hackly; sectile, malleable and ductile. H: 2.5 - 3. SP.GR; 10.1 –
11.1.
OCCURRENCE: Native silver occurs in the upper parts of silver sulphide lodes below the chloride
capping, and is often concentrated to form rich deposits.

4.* Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Pyrolusite (ii) Limonite

 9

(iii) Azurite (iv) Native gold

(v) Zincite (vi) Cassiterite

(i) Pyrolusite
COMP: Manganese dioxide, MnO2; manganese, 63 per cent
CRYST. SYST:May be orthorhombic, but usually pseudo-morphous. COM. FORM: Occurs in
pseudomorphs after man-ganite, polianite, etc.; usually occurs massive or reniform, and
sometimes with a fibrous and radiate structure. COLOUR: Iron-grey or dark steel-grey.
STREAK: Black or bluish-black, sometimes sub-metallic. LUSTRE: Metallic; opaque. FRACT:
Rather brittle.
H: 2 – 2.5; often soils the fingers. SP. GR: 4.8.
OCCURRENCE: In secondary manganese deposits.
USE: An abundant manganese ore.

(ii) Limonite

COMP: Variable, hydrous ferric oxides, mainly goethite (Fe2O3. H2O, see above) with absorbed
water, clay minerals and other impurities. Limonite is a rock rather than a definite mineral.
COM. FORM: Occurs in mammillated or stalactitic forms, having a radiating fibrous structure,
resembling that of hematite; also in dull earthy condition, and in concretions. COLOUR: Various
shades of brown on fracture-surfaces; when earthy, yellow or brownish-yellow; the exteriors of
mammillated and stalactitic forms frequently exhibit a blackish glazed coating.
STREAK: Yellowish-brown. LUSTRE: Submetallic in some varieties; sometimes silky, sometimes
dull or earthy. H: 5 – 5.5. SP. GR: 3.6 - 4.

VARIETIES: Bog Iron Ore is a loose, porous earthy form of limonite, found in swampy and low-
lying ground, often impregnating and enveloping fragments of wood, leaves, mosses, etc.;
Pea Iron Ore is a variety of limonite having a pisolitic structure;
Ochres are brown or yellow earthy forms of limonite used for paint.
OCCURRENCE: Limonite and goethite result from the alteration of other iron minerals; from a
highly ferruginous rock there may be formed by its degradation weathered residual deposits, con-
sisting largely of ferric hydroxide, mixed with clay and other impurities; these iron caps are
common over the outcrops of pyrites and iron oxide deposits, and the lateritic iron ores are formed
in an analogous manner. The bog iron ores are formed on the floors of some lakes. Some limonite
beds are true chemical precipitates, whilst others result from the alteration of chalybite.
 10

(iii) Azurite

COMP: Basic carbonate of copper, Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2.; copper 55.1 per cent; compare the
composition of malachite.
CRYST. SYST: Monoclinic. COM. FORM: Modified prisms; usually massive or earthy.
COLOUR: Deep azure blue, whence the name. STREAK: Blue, but lighter than the colour.
LUSTRE: Of crystals, vitreous verging on adamantine; crystals are transparent to nearly opaque,
massive and earthy varieties are opaque. FRACT: Conchoidal; brittle. H: 3.5 - 4. SP. GR: 3.7 –
3.8.

OCCURRENCE: Azurite is found associated with other oxidized copper minerals—malachite,

etc.—in the zone of weathering of copper lodes and deposits; when occurring in sufficient
quantity, it is a valuable ore of copper.

(iv) Native gold

COMP: Pure gold, Au, or gold alloyed with silver; the latter metal has been known to amount to
over 26 per cent in argentiferous gold or electrum; copper, iron, palladium and rhodium have also
been found in gold—43 per cent of rhodium has been reported in a variety called rhodium gold
from Mexico; maldonite, a black variety containing bismuth and found in Australia, has a
composition represented by Au2Bi.
CRYST. SYST: Cubic. COM. FORM: Crystals rare, cube, octahedron and rhombdodecahedron;
usually found in grains or scales in alluvial deposits associated with heavy obdurate minerals such
as garnet, zircon, etc.; also rounded masses, called nuggets, in alluvial deposits or embedded in
quartz veins.
COLOUR: The yellow colour of native gold from different localities varies in shade; some
specimens from Kashmir possess a coppery or bronze yellow colour; when much silver is present
the metal may appear almost silver-white; in thin leaves by transmitted light gold is green.
LUSTRE: Metallic; opaque. FRACT: Hackly; very ductile, malleable, and sectile, being easily cut
with a knife. H. 2.5 - 3. SP. GR: 12 - 20—the variation being due to the metals with which the
gold specimen may happen to be alloyed.

(v) Zincite

COMP: Zinc oxide, ZnO; usually contains impurities of oxides of manganese, to which it is
considered the colour is due, since chemically pure oxide of zinc is white; the manganese
impurities have been found to vary from mere traces up to 12 per cent; occasionally traces of iron
oxide are present.
 11

CRYST. SYST: Hexagonal, hemimorphic. COM. FORM : Crystals not common; usually found
massive, foliaceous, granular, or in disseminated grains. CLEAV: Perfect prismatic, poor basal.
COLOUR: Deep red, but when in very thin scales deep yellow by transmitted light; weathers to a
white crust of zinc carbonate. STREAK: Orange-yellow. LUSTRE: Subadamantine; translucent to
subtranslucent. FRACT: Subconchoidal; brittle. H: 4 – 4.5. SP. GR: 5.4 – 5.7.
OCCURRENCE: Occurs with franklinite, willemite and calcite in the Franklin Furnace ore deposit
in New Jersey, and is of pyro-metasomatic or contact-metamorphic origin..

(vi) Cassiterite

COMP: Tin oxide, SnCL: tin, 78.6 per cent.

CRYST. SYST: Tetragonal, Zircon Type. COM. FORM: Crystals consist of tetragonal prisms
terminated by tetragonal bipyramids; knee-shaped twins often seen; also occurs massive, or
fibrous, or disseminated in small grains; in alluvial deposits as rolled water-worn grains.
COLOUR: Usually black or brown, rarely yellow or colourless. STREAK: White or pale grey to
brownish. LUSTRE: Adamantine and, on crystals, usually very brilliant; crystals, when of pale
colour, nearly transparent, when dark, opaque. FRACT: Subconchoidal or uneven; brittle.
H: 6 - 7. Sp.GR: 6.8 – 7.1.

5.*** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Scheelite (ii) Psilomelane

(iii) Realgar (iv) Siderite

(v) Bornite (vi) Argentite

Answers

(i) Scheelite

COMP: Calcium tungstate, CaWO4.

CRYST. SYST: Tetragonal. COM. FORM: Crystals are combinations of tetragonal bipyramids;
usually occurs reniform, with a columnar structure; also massive and granular.
CLEAV: Good parallel to the bipyramid, (111). COLOUR. Yellowish-white or brownish,
sometimes almost orange-yellow. STREAK: White. LUSTRE: Vitreous, inclined to adamantine;
transparent to translucent. FRACT: Uneven, brittle. H: 4.5 - 5. SP. GR: 5.9 – 6.1.

OCCURRENCE: Occurs under the same conditions as wolfram, that is, pneumatolytic and other
veins associated with tinstone, quartz, topaz, and other minerals of pneumatolytic origin.
 12

(ii) Psilomelane

COMP: Hydrated oxide of manganese, with or without varying amounts of barium and potassium
oxides. CRYST. SYST: Monoclinic. COM. FORM: Massive, botryoidal, reniform and stalactitic.
COLOUR: Iron-black, passing into dark steel-grey. STREAK: Brownish-black and shining.
LUSTRE: Sub-metallic ; looks as if an attempt had been made to polish the mineral; opaque.
H: 5 - 6. SP. GR: 3.7 – 4.7.

OCCURRENCE: In secondary manganese deposits, it was probably a colloidal

precipitate.
USES : With pyrolusite, the important ore of manganese.

(iii) Realgar

COMP: Arsenic monosulphide, As2S2; arsenic 70.1 per cent. CRYST. SYST: Monoclinic.
COM. FORM: Prismatic crystals, rare, usually occurs massive or granular. COLOUR: Fine red, or
orange. STREAK: Red or orange. LUSTRE: Resinous; transparent to translucent.
FRACT: Conchoidal or uneven. H: 1.5 - 2. SP. GR. 3.56.
OCCURRENCE. Occurs associated with orpiment, to which mineral it changes on exposure; occurs
as a deposit from hot springs, and as a volcanic sublimate; common in veins, where it may occur
as nests or nodules in clay, or associated with cinnabar.

(iv) Siderite

COMP: Iron carbonate, FeC03; iron, 48-3 per cent; often a little manganese, magnesium and
calcium are present.
CRYST. SYST: Hexagonal-trigonal, Calcite Type. COM. FORM: Rhombohedra, the faces often
curved; also massive, cleavable and granular. CLEAV: Perfect rhombohedral. COLOUR: Pale
yellowish or buff-brownish, and brownish-black or brownish-red.
STREAK: White. LUSTRE: Pearly or vitreous; opaque, rarely translucent. FRACT: Uneven;
brittle.
H: 3.5 – 4.5. SP. GR: 3.7 – 3.9.
VARIETIES: Clay Ironstone is an impure iron carbonate occurring as beds and nodules especially
in the Coal Measures of many countries; it is common in most of the British coalfields and in
 13

those of Pennsylvania, Ohio, etc., in the United States; occasionally it exhibits a curious radiately
disposed, rude, sub-columnar structure, causing it, when struck, to fall to pieces in conical masses
which envelop or cap one another, and to which the name of cone-in-cone structure has been
given. Formerly these clay ironstones constituted valuable ores of iron; besides occurring in the
Coal Measures, clay ironstones are also found in layers and nodules in other formations;
Blackband is a dark often carbonaceous type of clay ironstone; Oolitic Ironstone is an iron
carbonate which has replaced the calcium carbonate of an oolitic limestone, retaining the structure
of the original rock, as in the celebrated Cleveland iron ore; in many examples of oolitic
ironstone, however, it has been shown that the iron carbonate did not replace calcium carbonate,
but was formed at the same time as the oolitic structures, these resulting from colloidal processes.

OCCURRENCE: Some siderite deposits are formed by direct precipitation either in lakes, as in
some bog iron ore deposits, or in the sea. These sedimentary deposits of siderite may be altered
into limonite, hematite and magnetite, and siderite has contributed to the great Lake Superior
hematite deposits. The metasomatic siderites are extremely important deposits; in these the iron
carbonate has replaced calcium carbonate of limestones, retaining many of the original features of
the rock (oolitic structure, fossils, etc.);

(v) Bornite

COMP: Sulphide of copper and iron; the composition varies, the ratio of iron and copper being
expressed for the average by the formula, Cu5FeS4.
CRYST. SYST: Cubic. COM. FORM: Crystals showing cube and octahedron known, but most
commonly massive. COLOUR: Coppery red or pinchbeck brown; tarnishes speedily on exposure
and becomes iridescent (Peacock Ore). STREAK: Pale greyish-black, and slightly shining.
LUSTRE: Metallic. FRACT: Conchoidal, uneven; brittle. H. 3. SP. GR. 4.9 – 5.4.
OCCURRENCE: Bornite is a valuable ore of copper. It occurs as a primary deposit in many copper
lodes, and as a constituent of the zones of secondary enrichment of these. In many occurrences,
bornite is closely associated with igneous magmas, appearing either as magmatic segregation or
as rather later deposits connected with pegmatites or end-stage consolidation. Bornite forms veins
with quartz, or with quartz and chalcopyrite.

(vi) Argentite

COMP: Silver sulphide, Ag2S; silver 87.1 per cent.

CRYST. SYST: Cubic. COM. FORM: . Crystals show cube and octahedron, usually distorted; also
occurs reticulated, arborescent and, most commonly, massive. COLOUR: Blackish lead-grey.
STREAK: Same as colour, and shining. LUSTRE: Metallic; opaque. FRACT; Small,
subconchoidal, or uneven; sectile. H. 2.2 - 5. Sp.GR: 7.19 – 7.36.
 14

OCCURRENCE. Argentite is the most common primary ore of silver. It occurs in small quantity in
the sedimentary Kupfer-schiefer of Mansfeld, Germany. Its main occurrence is in various types of
veins; argentite-veins, in which it is accompanied by stephanite and polybasite.

6.*** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Anglesite (ii) Niccolite

(iii) Native mercury (iv) Orpiment

(v) Pyrite (vi) Malachite

Answers

(i) Anglesite

COMP: Lead sulphate, PbSO4. CRYST. SYST : Orthorhombic, Barytes Type. COM. FORM:
Prismatic crystals, or tabular parallel to the basal pinacoid, or occasionally in bipyramids
variously modified; the faces of the prism and macropinacoid are often vertically striated; also
occurs massive and occasionally stalactitic. CLEAV: Parallel to the three pinacoids, but varying
in value.
COLOUR: White, sometimes with a blue, grey, green, or yellow tint. LUSTRE: sually adamantine,
sometimes inclining to resinous or vitreous; transparent to opaque.
FRACT: Conchoidal; brittle. H: 2.5 - 3. SP. GR : 6.3 – 6.4.
OCCURRENCE: Anglesite, when found in sufficient quantity, is a valuable lead ore; it is usually
associated with galena and results from the decomposition of that mineral in the upper portion of
lead veins.

(ii) Niccolite

COMP: Nickel arsenide, NiAs; antimony, and traces of cobalt, iron and sulphur are sometimes
present. CRYST. SYST: Hexagonal. COM. FORM: Usually found massive. COLOUR: Pale copper-
red, like that of a new penny; sometimes with a tarnish. STREAK: Pale brownish-black.
LUSTRE: Metallic; opaque. FRACT: Uneven; brittle. H: 5 – 5.5. SP. GR: 7.3 – 7.6.
OCCURRENCE: Kupfernickel is usually associated in hydro-thermal veins with cobalt, silver and
copper ores, and is a source of metallic nickel.
 15

(iii) Native mercury

COMP: Pure mercury, Hg; a little silver is sometimes present.

CRYST. SYST: Crystallizes
when frozen, the crystals showing a rhombohedral structure by X-rays;
freezes at —39°C. COM. FORM: Occurs as small fluid globules disseminated through the matrix
in which it occurs. COLOUR: Tin-white. LUSTRE: Metallic; opaque. SP. GR. 13.59.
OCCURRENCE. Native mercury occurs as fluid globules scattered through cinnabar, HgS, as at
Almaden (Spain), Idria (Italy), etc., and is sometimes found in some quantity filling cavities. It is
a rare mineral, and is of secondary origin. It is deposited with cinnabar from the waters of certain
hot springs.

(iv) Orpiment

COMP: Arsenic trisulphide; As2S3; arsenic 61.0 per cent.

CRYST. SYST: Monoclinic. COM. FORM: Crystals rare, usually occurs foliaceous or massive.
CLEAV: Perfect parallel to the clinopinacoid; the laminae are flexible but not elastic; sectile.
COLOUR: Fine lemon-yellow. STREAK: Yellow. LUSTRE: Pearly and brilliant on cleavage-faces,
elsewhere resinous or dull; subtransparent to subtranslucent. H: 1.5 - 2. SP. GR: 3.4 -3.5.
OCCURRENCE: Occurs in the oxidized portions of arsenic veins; in veins associated with
antimony ores; it also occurs as a deposit from some hot springs.

(v) Pyrite

COMP: Iron sulphide, FeS2; iron, 46.6 per cent.

CRYST. SYST: Cubic; Pyrite Type . COM. FORM: Cube, and pyritohedron ; the faces of the
cube are often striated, it also occurs massive, in nodules which have generally a radiating
structure, in finely disseminated crystals or particles, and it occasionally replaces the calcite in
fossil shells.
COLOUR: Bronze-yellow to pale brass-yellow. STREAK: Greenish or brownish black.
LUSTRE: Metallic, splendent; opaque. FRACT: Conchoidal, uneven; brittle; strikes fire with
steel, for which reason it was formerly used instead of flint in the old wheel-lock fire-arm, a steel
wheel being made to revolve rapidly by means of clockwork against a piece of pyrites, from
which sparks were thrown off into the pan of the weapon. H: 6 – 6.5;
OCCURRENCE: Pyrite is a mineral of very common occurrence in many parts of the world. It
occurs not commonly as an accessory mineral in igneous rocks; more often it is secondary. It is a
common constituent of many ore-veins, and large deposits of varying types are worked, chiefly
for sulphur or for the small percentage of copper or other metal contained in the pyrite. Many of
the large pyrite masses are difficult to interpret. Some are due to magmatic segregation, and in
 16

these the pyrite is accompanied by pyrrhotite. Others are of contact-metamorphic or pyrometaso-

matic origin, whilst some are considered to be injected bodies.

(vi) Malachite

COMP : Basic carbonate of copper; Cu2CO3(OH)2; copper 57.3 percent. CRYST. SYST:
Monoclinic COM. FORM: Commonly occurs massive, encrusting, stalactitic or stalagmitic, and
with a smooth mammillated or botryoidal surface; internal structure often divergently fibrous and
compact; also occurs granular and earthy. COLOUR: Bright green; different shades of the colour
often follow a concentrically banded arrangement. STREAK: Of the uncrystallized variety, paler
than the colour. LUSTRE: Slightly silky on surfaces broken parallel with the fibrous structure;
sometimes earthy or dull; the crystals have an adamantine lustre inclining to vitreous, and they are
translucent to subtranslucent; in the massive, mammillated, stalactitic or stalagmitic conditions,
the mineral is opaque. H. 3.5 - 4. SP. GR. 3.9 - 4.
OCCURRENCE: Malachite is found in the zone of weathering or oxidation of copper deposits, lodes
or other types.

7.* Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals.

(i) Coal (any kind of coal) (ii) Limonite

(iii) Malachite (iv) Gold tellurides

(v) Galena (vi) Cassiterite

Answers

(i) Coal (any kind of coal)

Lignite. Lignite is also called "brown coal" as its colour is often dark brown.. It represents
the second stage in coal formation. The lignite is composed of finely divided plant tissues. It
contains about 25-45% moisture. Because of high water content, it shrinks, cracks and often
disintegrates when dried in air. The lignite bums freely with a long smoky flame and has a low
calorific value (11000—12500 B.T.U.)
OR
Anthracite. It is a hard coal with an iron-black colour and submetallic lustre. It does not
soil the fingers and commonly breaks with a conchoidal fracture. The anthracite contains about
92—94% carbon and 3—8% volatile matter. It is difficult to ignite but bums with a short blue
flame and gives little smoke. Its calorific value ranges between 15000 to 15600 B.T.U.
OR
 17

Cannel Coal. Cannel coal is a special variety of bituminous coal which is very fine
grained and is of uniform texture. It has no banded structure like ordinary bituminous coal.
Cannel coal is black in colour and has dull lustre. It does not soil fingers. It bums easily with a
long candle like flame. It is made up of wind blown spores and pollen. It is commonly found
associated with seams of bituminous coal as lenticles or bands upto about half meter thick..
Cannel coal is essentially a drift deposit laid down in shallow lakes.

(ii) Limonite

COMP: Variable, hydrous ferric oxides, mainly goethite (Fe2O3. H2O, see above) with absorbed
water, clay minerals and other impurities. Limonite is a rock rather than a definite mineral.
COM. FORM: Occurs in mammillated or stalactitic forms, having a radiating fibrous structure,
resembling that of hematite; also in dull earthy condition, and in concretions. COLOUR: Various
shades of brown on fracture-surfaces; when earthy, yellow or brownish-yellow; the exteriors of
mammillated and stalactitic forms frequently exhibit a blackish glazed coating.
STREAK: Yellowish-brown. LUSTRE: Submetallic in some varieties; sometimes silky, sometimes
dull or earthy. H: 5 – 5.5. SP. GR: 3.6 - 4.

VARIETIES: Bog Iron Ore is a loose, porous earthy form of limonite, found in swampy and low-
lying ground, often impregnating and enveloping fragments of wood, leaves, mosses, etc.;
Pea Iron Ore is a variety of limonite having a pisolitic structure;
Ochres are brown or yellow earthy forms of limonite used for paint.
OCCURRENCE: Limonite and goethite result from the alteration of other iron minerals; from a
highly ferruginous rock there may be formed by its degradation weathered residual deposits, con-
sisting largely of ferric hydroxide, mixed with clay and other impurities; these iron caps are
common over the outcrops of pyrites and iron oxide deposits, and the lateritic iron ores are formed
in an analogous manner. The bog iron ores are formed on the floors of some lakes. Some limonite
beds are true chemical precipitates, whilst others result from the alteration of chalybite.

(iii) Malachite

COMP : Basic carbonate of copper; Cu2CO3(OH)2; copper 57.3 percent. CRYST. SYST:
Monoclinic COM. FORM: Commonly occurs massive, encrusting, stalactitic or stalagmitic, and
with a smooth mammillated or botryoidal surface; internal structure often divergently fibrous and
compact; also occurs granular and earthy. COLOUR: Bright green; different shades of the colour
often follow a concentrically banded arrangement. STREAK: Of the uncrystallized variety, paler
than the colour. LUSTRE: Slightly silky on surfaces broken parallel with the fibrous structure;
sometimes earthy or dull; the crystals have an adamantine lustre inclining to vitreous, and they are
 18

translucent to subtranslucent; in the massive, mammillated, stalactitic or stalagmitic conditions,

the mineral is opaque. H. 3.5 - 4. SP. GR. 3.9 - 4.
OCCURRENCE: Malachite is found in the zone of weathering or oxidation of copper deposits, lodes
or other types.

(iv) Gold tellurides

OCCURRENCE: The gold tellurides occur mainly in veins and replacement-deposits in which they
are associated with pyrite and other sulphides and often free gold.

GOLD TELLURIDES. The chief gold tellurides are:

Sylvanite, (Au.AgVTe^.
Calaverite, (Au,Ag)Te2.
Petzite, (Ag,Au)2Te.
Nagyagite, sulpho-telluride of Pb and Au.

OXIDATION OF TELLURIDE VEINS.

In the upper parts of gold telluride veins the tellurides are decomposed, most of the tellurium is
removed in solution and the gold set free as a fine powder, mustard gold.

(v) Galena

COMP: Lead sulphide, PbS; silver sulphide is almost always present, and galena is one of the most
important sources of silver; when sufficient silver is present to be worth extracting, the ore is
called 'argentiferous galena'; zinc, cadmium, iron, copper, antimony and gold have also been
detected in analyses of this mineral; there are apparently no external characters which serve to
distinguish even the highly argentiferous ores from ordinary galena—the question can only be
solved by analysis.
CRYST. STRUCT: Atomic arrangement that of rocksalt . CRYST. SYST: Cubic, Galena Type.
COM. FORM: Cube, often modified by octahedral and other forms, as shown in Fig. 20, p. 79;
also occurs massive, and coarsely or finely granular. CLEAV: Perfect cubic, many specimens
crumbling readily into small cubes when rubbed or struck. COLOUR: Lead-grey. STREAK: Lead-
grey.
LUSTRE: Metallic, but often dull, due to tarnish; opaque. FRACT: Flat, even, or subconchoidal.
H: 2.5. SP. GR: 7.4 – 7.6.
 19

Occurrence : Galena often occurs associated with blend, and reference should be made to the
description of blende occurrences; metasomatic disseminations are exemplified by the lead zince
deposits.
Uses : Galena is the most important ore of lead , nearly all the metal of commerce being
derived from this source.

(vi) Cassiterite

COMP: Tin oxide, SnCL: tin, 78.6 per cent.

CRYST. SYST: Tetragonal, Zircon Type. COM. FORM: Crystals consist of tetragonal prisms
terminated by tetragonal bipyramids; knee-shaped twins often seen; also occurs massive, or
fibrous, or disseminated in small grains; in alluvial deposits as rolled water-worn grains.
COLOUR: Usually black or brown, rarely yellow or colourless. STREAK: White or pale grey to
brownish. LUSTRE: Adamantine and, on crystals, usually very brilliant; crystals, when of pale
colour, nearly transparent, when dark, opaque. FRACT: Subconchoidal or uneven; brittle.
H: 6 - 7. Sp.GR: 6.8 – 7.1.

8.** Add notes on any four of the following metallic minerals.

(i) Hematite (ii) Azurite

(iii) Galena (iv) Chromite

(v) Wolframite (vi) Bauxite

Answers

(i) Hematite

COMP: Iron oxide, Fe2O3; iron, 70 per cent; clay and sandy impurities are sometimes present.
CRYST. SYST: Hexagonal-trigonal, Calcite Type. COM. FORM: Rhombohedron, often modified,
and frequently in thin tabular forms; also in micaceous or foliaceous aggregates, reniform,
granular, or amorphous; commonly fibrous internally. CLEAV: Poor, parallel to the rhombohedron
and to the basal pinacoid. COLOUR: Steel-grey to iron-black; in particles sufficiently thin to
transmit light, it appears blood-red; earthy forms are red. STREAK: Cherry-red. LUSTRE: When
crystallized metallic and highly splendent—specular iron', in fibrous varieties, silky; in
amorphous varieties, dull and earthy; opaque except in very thin plates. FRACT: Subconchoidal or
uneven. H: 5.5 – 6.5.
SP. GR: 4.9 – 5.3.
 20

VARIETIES: Specular Iron is a variety occurring in rhombo-hedral crystals, black in colour, and
with a metallic splendent lustre; Micaceous Hematite includes the foliaceous and micaceous
forms; Kidney Ore (see Fig. 6.1) is a reniform variety with a metallic lustre, especially on the
mammillated surfaces; beneath this surface, kidney ore usually displays a radiating or divergently
columnar structure; Reddle is the most earthy variety of hematite, red in colour, and used in the
manufacture of crayons, for polishing glass, and as a red paint; Martiteis probably a pseudomorph
of hematite after magnetite; it mostly occurs in small black octa-hedra, which give a reddish-
brown streak.

OCCURRENCE: Hematite occurs in pockets and hollows, replacing

limestone;
here the hematite occurs in irregular masses in and on the surface of the Carboniferous
Limestone, and probably results from the replacement of
that limestone by hematite brought from the ferruginous
Triassic sandstones which overlie the limestones ;
metasomatic deposits of a similar nature are found in the
Forest of Dean, and Cumberland, and much more important
FIG.Hematite, Kidney Ore. deposits of the same origin occur at Bilbao, Spain, Utah,
and elsewhere. The greatest hematite deposits in the
world—those of the Lake Superior district—result from the alteration and concentration of iron
silicates and carbonate of sedimentary origin.

(ii) Azurite

COMP: Basic carbonate of copper, Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2.; copper 55.1 per cent; compare the
composition of malachite.
CRYST. SYST: Monoclinic. COM. FORM: Modified prisms; usually massive or earthy.
COLOUR: Deep azure blue, whence the name. STREAK: Blue, but lighter than the colour.
LUSTRE: Of crystals, vitreous verging on adamantine; crystals are transparent to nearly opaque,
massive and earthy varieties are opaque. FRACT: Conchoidal; brittle. H: 3.5 - 4. SP. GR: 3.7 –
3.8.

OCCURRENCE: Azurite is found associated with other oxidized copper minerals—malachite,

etc.—in the zone of weathering of copper lodes and deposits; when occurring in sufficient
quantity, it is a valuable ore of copper.

(iii) Galena
 21

COMP: Lead sulphide, PbS; silver sulphide is almost always present, and galena is one of the most
important sources of silver; when sufficient silver is present to be worth extracting, the ore is
called 'argentiferous galena'; zinc, cadmium, iron, copper, antimony and gold have also been
detected in analyses of this mineral; there are apparently no external characters which serve to
distinguish even the highly argentiferous ores from ordinary galena—the question can only be
solved by analysis.
CRYST. STRUCT: Atomic arrangement that of rocksalt . CRYST. SYST: Cubic, Galena Type.
COM. FORM: Cube, often modified by octahedral and other forms, as shown in Fig. 20, p. 79;
also occurs massive, and coarsely or finely granular. CLEAV: Perfect cubic, many specimens
crumbling readily into small cubes when rubbed or struck. COLOUR: Lead-grey. STREAK: Lead-
grey.
LUSTRE: Metallic, but often dull, due to tarnish; opaque. FRACT: Flat, even, or subconchoidal.
H: 2.5. SP. GR: 7.4 – 7.6.
Occurrence : Galena often occurs associated with blend, and reference should be made to the
description of blende occurrences; metasomatic disseminations are exemplified by the lead zince
deposits.
Uses : Galena is the most important ore of lead , nearly all the metal of commerce being
derived from this source.

(iv) Chromite

COMP: Oxide of iron and chromium, FeCr2O4; Cr2O3 = 68%

CRYST. SYST: Cubic. COM. FORM: Occurs in octahedra, but is commonly found massive, having
a granular or compact structure. COLOUR: Iron-black and brownish-black. STREAK: Brown.
LUSTRE: Submetallic, often faint. FRACT: Uneven, sometimes rather flat; brittle.
H: 5.5. SP. GR:
4.5 – 4.8.
OCCURRENCE. Chromite occurs as a primary mineral of ultra-basic igneous rocks, peridotites, and
their modifications, serpentines ; it also occurs in basic gabbros. Usually the chromite occurs as
small grains, but by the segregation of these grains, ore-bodies may be formed as those of
Norway, Rhodesia, Smyrna, and New Caledonia—the ore-bodies consisting of a peridotite
extremely rich in chromite. There has been considerable discussion as to the time of
crystallization of the chromite, whether early, late or even during a hydrothermal stage. Being
very obdurate, chromite occurs in detrital deposits.
 22

(v) Wolframite

COMP: Tungstate of iron and manganese, (Fe,Mn)W04, the ratio of iron to manganese varying—
one end-member being Ferberite, FeW04 and the other Hubnerite. MnW04.
CRYST. SYST: Monoclinic. COM. FORM: Prismatic crystals, commonly tabular; also massive and
bladed, the latter being very characteristic. CLEAV: Perfect parallel to the clinopinacoid.
COLOUR: Chocolate-brown, dark greyish-black, reddish-brown. STREAK: Chocolate-brown.
LUSTRE: Submetallic, brilliant shining on cleavage surfaces, dull on other surfaces and on
fractures. Fracture: Uneven; Hardness: 5 – 5.5 ; Sp. Gr.: 7.1 – 7.9.
OCCURRENCE: Wolfram occurs in pneumatolytic veins surrounding granite masses, associated
with tinstone and quartz; also in veins formed at lowers, and in certain gold bearing quartz-veins;
the disintegration of these tin wolfram veins result in the formation of alluvial or placer tin and
wolfram deposits, which are worked at many localities in Myanmar.

(vi) Bauxite

COMP: A mixture of the aluminium hydroxides, diaspore boehmite and gibbsite, in different
amounts, together with impurities of iron oxide, phosphorus compounds and titania, the latter
sometimes amounting to 4 per cent.
COM. FORM: Amorphous in earthy granular or pisolitic masses. COLOUR: Dirty white, greyish,
brown, yellow, or reddish-brown.
OCCURRENCE: Bauxite results from the decay and weathering of aluminium-bearing rocks, often
igneous but not necessarily so, under tropical conditions; it may form residual deposits replacing
the original rock, or it may be transported from its place of origin and form deposits elsewhere. It
occurs in France, in pockets in Cretaceous limestone and is there the result of pre-Tertiary tropical
weathering.
USES: While the principal use of bauxite is for the manufacture of aluminium, considerable
quantities are used as abrasives and in the manufacture of aluminium compounds. Lower grades
of bauxite are used as refractories, as refractory bricks and for furnace and converter linings.
There are, commercially speaking, two kinds of bauxite, red and white. For chemical purposes the
white bauxite containing only a trace of iron is used, but for the manufacture of metallic
aluminium, iron is not harmful, although the presence of more than 3 per cent of silica or of
titania is objectionable.
 23

Chapter 7: Theories of ore formation

1.* Write a short account on systematic and epigenetic mineral deposits.

Answers

Two groups of mineral deposits may be established, syngenetic and epigenetic, depending on
their time-relations to the rocks enclosing or associated with them. Syngenetic deposits are
formed at the same time as the associated rocks. One example is the type of ore-deposit called
magmatic segregation which arises by the collection together of useful minerals during the
orthomagmatic stage of consolidation of a magma, and is exemplified by the segregation of
chromite in ultrabasic igneous rocks. Another example is provided by the sedimentary or bedded
mineral deposits, such as the saline residues already noted, which are interbedded with other
sedimentary rocks of closely similar age.
Epigenetic Deposits are formed later than the enclosing or associated rocks. Some of these
deposits have filled or opened fissures in the country-rocks and such bodies of ore are called veins
or lodes. Veins have great depth and length but no great thickness compared with these
dimensions. In other cases the ore is deposited in the interstices of the country-rock and then
forms impregnations. Again, certain ore-deposits replace the country-rock and have then an
irregular form and shade off into the adjacent rocks. In ore-deposits associated with contact-
metamorphism, the shape of the ore-body is irregular and related to the margin of the igneous
rock. Mineral deposits may be subjected to the process of metamorphism and so partake of the
characteristics of the associated country-rocks.
The complete or partial replacement of a pre-existing rock by an ore-body is an example of
the geological process of metasomatism (Greek, change of body), which is the process in rock-
transformation involving changes in bulk chemical composition. The term is applied not only to
deposits formed through the action of circulating waters derived from higher levels in the crust
but also to those brought about by solutions from igneous or deep-seated sources. Important ore-
deposits result from this pyrometasoma-tism at igneous contacts; heated water from igneous
sources may cause propylitization in the affected rocks, particularly in andesite lavas, marked by
the production of such low-temperature minerals as chlorite and serpentine. In some deposits the
valuable constituent has been leached from other rocks, transported in solution and precipitated
with replacement in a new position- as examples of this latter type of metasomatic deposit may be
given the iron-ore deposits of Cleveland where iron carbonate replaces limestone with the
preservation, in many cases, of the original limestone structure and the pseudomorphism of fossils
by siderite.
 24

4.*** Add notes on any three of the following.

(i) supergene enrichment of ore deposits

(ii) syngenetic mineral deposits

(iii) epigenetic mineral deposits

(iv) types of mineral deposits

Answers

(i) supergene enrichment of ore deposits

Like other rocks, ore deposits undergo weathering and decomposition at their outcrops, this
weathered upper part of the deposit being known as the gossan. In this region of the ore-body the
minerals of depth have been altered into oxy-salts. For example, a lode carrying galena and blende
at depth might consist in the gossan of cerussite, anglesite, smithsonite, hemimorphite and other
oxy-salts of lead and zinc. Native metals frequently occur in the gossan, and often concentration
takes place by the removal of lighter or less stable material, thereby producing rich residual posits
capping a lower-grade ore.

(ii) syngenetic mineral deposits

 25

Syngenetic deposits are formed at the same time as the associated rocks. One example is the
type of ore-deposit called magmatic segregation which arises by the collection together of useful
minerals during the orthomagmatic stage of consolidation of a magma, and is exemplified by the
segregation of chromite in ultrabasic igneous rocks. Another example is provided by the
sedimentary or bedded mineral deposits, such as the saline residues already noted, which are
interbedded with other sedimentary rocks of closely similar age.

(iii) epigenetic mineral deposits

Epigenetic Deposits are formed later than the enclosing or associated rocks. Some of these
deposits have filled or opened fissures in the country-rocks and such bodies of ore are called veins
or lodes. Veins have great depth and length but no great thickness compared with these
dimensions. In other cases the ore is deposited in the interstices of the country-rock and then
forms impregnations. Again, certain ore-deposits replace the country-rock and have then an
irregular form and shade off into the adjacent rocks. In ore-deposits associated with contact-
metamorphism, the shape of the ore-body is irregular and related to the margin of the igneous
rock. Mineral deposits may be subjected to the process of metamorphism and so partake of the
characteristics of the associated country-rocks.

(iv) types of mineral deposits

We have seen that most of the elements essential for modern industry are exceedingly
scarce in the common rocks of the crust so that some kind of concentration is necessary before a
workable mineral deposit can be formed. This concentration may occur in two environments to
give endogenetic and exogenetic deposits.
Endogenetic deposits result fronT processes taking place or originating within the crust, such as the

solidification of a magma or the operations of metamorphism. Exogenetic deposits are due to

surface-processes such as deposition in a salt-lake or sorting by river-action.

 26

Chapter 8: An outline of ore microscopy

1.* (a) Write down the physical properties of ore minerals in polished sections.

(b) Discuss thoroughly about crystal forms and habit. (in polished section)

Answers
(a) The most useful physical properties are crystal form and habit, cleavage and parting,
twinning, zonal structures, intergrowths, hardness, resistance to abrasion, tenacity, and color of
powder.
(b) Ore minerals exhibit nearly the full range of crystal/forms and habits of growth, and these
features are. often of much assistance in identification of the minerals in polished surfaces. Some
minerals, especially the harder minerals, have marked powers of crystallization and tend to develop
well formed crystals.

Fig. 1

Pyrite, hematite (Fig.1), wolframite(2), arsenopyrite(3), cobaltite(4) , and magnetite and other
members of the spinel group are notable examples. .The softer minerals in general are low in power
of crystallization, -and there are many that develop crystal form only where they are free to grow in
open space. Chalcopyrite, galena, tetrahedrite, and pyrargyrite will serve as examples, but some soft
minerals, such as nagyagite, covellite, molybdenite, and enargite, commonly show at least an
approach to crystal form.
 27

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Fig. 4 Fig.5