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starts to form (σ loc = σ K). The yet higher load causes that the number of these
places and their extent escalates. Final state is the structure collapse (total
collapse or too big deformations). The state of stress in the structure just before
the collapse has name „ limit state (extreme state, stress limit)“.
For structures, equipments and parts appreciation from the point of view of
their operational reliability and safety following types of limit states are used:
1. Elastic limit state – when is the load higher plastic deformations start to form
somewhere in a structure
The theory of limit states is applicable for tough materials with marked yield
point σ K .
1. Ideally plastic σσ
K
σ
σ α
When yield point is exceeded the material
σ =σ + E´*(ε –
K K
is harder (it withstands higher stress).
ε K
)
Dependence of the hardening on extension
is done by a line that slope α ´ is defined by ε
ε
the modulus of hardening E´. K
Fig. 3
For pressure vessels steels with low carbon content are used. Such steels
have very low hardening. For such steels is the model valid. The simplification
goes on the side of higher safety (calculated maximal load is a bit lower than real
with the hardening).
Models 3. a 4. are used for more exacting calculations with using of
numerical methods.
For all examples in the chapter we suppose an ideally elastic-plastic model (it is
without hardenning).
ε
σ 4Plast
cross section S σK 1 2 4
S
σ Fmax
=
σ K
0
F 3 5 ε
F σ F
=F/S ε 5perm
FF compressive stress
MBmax = F * L/4
By gradual increasing of the beam loading in its profile rises tension. The
tension increases till it reaches in outer strings yield point σ K. Capacity of the
beam according the theory of limit states is not fully utilized. For higher loading
parts of the beam profile starts to plasticize gradually from outer parts towards
to the center. When is the all profile plasticized in the axis arise so-called plastic
joint. Originally triangular stress profile changes into a rectangular profile –see
fig.5b.
Fp
Fe
h
Fe 2/3h Fp h/2
b σ σ σ plastic
K K K joint
Note:
Force acts in a gravity center of the area. For triangle is the gravity center in 2/3 of leg, for
rectangular in 1/2. Force size is done by triangle or rectangular areas (with sides σ K and
h/2).
From it follows that for a rectangular beam profile is the maximal plastic
bending moment 1.5 times higher than maximal elastic bending moment.
Therefore it is possible to increase the bending loading of the beam 1.5 times or
decrease the safety factor (for example from value x = 1,5 to x = 1).
Mpe2 = (1 - Ce2) * Me
For profiles with Cp = 2 after unloading in outer strings arise stress with value
equals to yield point with opposite sign (e.g. instead tensile is compression). For
profiles with Cp > 2 opposite plastic deformation arise after unloading in outer
strings.
≤+σ +σ ≤+σ +σ
≤-σ K
σ K
=0
K K K K
≤-σ -σ ≤+σ -σ
K K ≤-σ K K
K
M ≤ Memax M = Mp M = -Mpe2 M = +Mpe2 M ≤ Memax +Mpe2 M = Mp+ Mpe2
Fig. 5c: Alternating stress of a beam (fatigue loading result is fatigue failure)
Tab.1: Values of elastic and plastic section modulus We and Wp, coefficient of
plasticity Cp and coefficient of residual deformation Ce2 for various profiles
b
Profile Me Mp Cp Ce2
________________________________________________________________
Circle π d3/32 d3/6 1,7 0,176
(diameter d)
di s
de de
MPO = Wp * σ K = Wo * Cp * σ K = 1/4 * b * h2 * σ K
-σ K
See above + table 1
The stress profile in a beam for the combine loading under limiting state is on
the following fig. 6. (superposition of both loadings has to be on the yield point =
limiting state – maximal total load is such that all profile is plasticized).
Fig.6
c Fp1
rFp1
h
M
plastic
F rFp2 joint
Fp2
σ -
b σ
K K
In a distance c from surface a plastic joint arises. We specify limiting forces and
their moments calculated to the profile axis and from them total limiting values:
FP1 = c * b * σ K FP2 = (h – c) * b * σ K
MP = c * (h – c) * b * σ K
Ratio of limiting values for separate and combined loading is after modification:
If we eliminate the ratio c/h from these equations we obtain this equation:
and after substitution these values into the upper equation and its modification
we obtain following equation:
2
σM σ
+ F =1
1,5 *σ K σ K
x = 1,0 x = 1,5
2,0
total limiting stress equal 1,5 x yield point. For combined loading
(tensioning + bending) with prevailing bending stress the total limiting
stress (acceptable) rises up and the maximum is for the ratio σ F /σ K
F2
0
30
2 h 3 F1´ F3´
1 F1 F3
F
Fig.8 F
Note:
These dimensions are selected for better illustration – you will see it thereinafter.
a) For loading with force F = 2*A*σ K in the central beam 2 will be stress
(providing that F2 = F1 – it is specified from requirement that all beams have to
have the same extension in the F direction and from the beams stiffness):
From it follows that till the force is reached the beam 2 has only elastic
deformations.
b) Now we suppose that the structure is loaded with higher force that will be in
the range FI = FpI < 2*A*σ K; 4*A*σ K> . Under these conditions the beam 2
starts to deform plastically, but beams 1 and 3 have still the elastic deformation.
After unloading beams want to go to their original position but the beam 2 is
elongated. Therefore in the beam 2 arise after the unloading compression pre-
stress and in beams 1 and 3 tension pre-stress. For a new loading with force
increasing from 0 to FpI the structure will behave like elastic system in all this
range (see fig. 9 and 10). For the new loading in the central beam 2 will be
following stresses: - compression stress (pre-stress) → no stress → tension stress
c) For loading of the structure with even higher force F that will be in range
(FII < 4*A*σ K; 5*A*σ K> ) plastic deformations in beams 1 and 3 rise too.
After unloading of the structure in the beam 2 arises pressure plastic
d) For loading of the structure with the force higher than FIII > 5*A*σ K are
plastic deformations in all beams and the structure comes to a region of
uncontrollable creeping. For hardening materials it is possible to load such
structure but in praxis (as I told before) is not the hardening calculated (higher
safety).
F III. Uncontrolable
5Aσ
creep
Κ II. Plasticizing of Start of plasticizing
4Aσ beams 1, 2 and 3 of beams 1 and 3
Κ
3Aσ I. Plasticizing of beam 2,
Κ
elastic deformation of 1 and 3
2Aσ
Κ
1Aσ Elastic deformation
Κ of beams 1, 2 and 3
0 σ / 3σ
0 Ε
Κ
/Ε
Κ
4σ / ε Start of plasticizing of beam 2
2σ Κ Κ
/Ε Ε
Beam 2 elastic deformation for loading a)
Fig. 9: Loading of 3 beams structure according fig.8. State of the middle beam 2.
= const.). The course of this alternating loading and unloading is shown in so-
called Planck diagram (fig.10).
2 ε k
ε 2
σ fict
ε k ε p12 Max. adaptation of the structure to
the overloading with force F
58852921.doc 14 / 43 Print date: 22.5.2011
P. Hoffman
1 2 5 7
σ Kt
7´
Alternating plasticizing of
beam 2
σ fictmax
0 3
σ res12 ε
4
− σ Kt Fig. 10: Loading diagram of the
6 8 8´ middle beam of the 3 beams
ε p8 ε p8´
For a new reach of the yield point in the beam 2 (point 2) a following stress is
necessary (line 4 – 2):
When is the structure loading so high that plastic deformation reaches the
reaches the value of the residual stress after unloading σ res12 =-σ Kt (point 6).
Next alternating overloading and unloading (on lines 6–5-7–8-7) faces to the
alternating plasticizing of the beam profile with result of fatigue failure (with
always increasing permanent deformation).
The structure is not able to adapt itself to such overloading.
. σ fict.limit =2*σ K
F 56
k = 2
= ≤2
F 01
p
Note:
These relations are valid only for uniaxial stress. E.g. for the triaxial stress are
these relations much more complicated, but the principle and results are similar.
That is why a static loading peak tensions are not taken into account!
For steel shells loaded mainly with membrane stress following reach of
these transitional stresses L is specified:
4
R2 * s2
L= ≈ 0,78* R * s ≈ 0,55* D* s
3* (1− µ 2 )
L K =1,65* D* s
+σ K
ε
-σ K
Place A tends to the lower radius Place B tends to the bigger radius
→ outer strings tensile, inner press → outer strings press, inner tensile
+ = + =
58852921.doc 18 / 43 Print date: 22.5.2011
primary
P. Hoffman secondary total primary secondary total
stress stress stress stress stress stress
For a proper design we can expect in places with the highest stress partial
plasticization and residual stresses after unloading (= adaptation on the
local overloading). But if these residual stresses (pre-stresses) reach the
yield point there is a danger of an alternating plasticization that causes to
the fatigue failure (with big contractions) → low-cycle fatigue.
The adaptation of a structure or pressure vessel to an overloading is used
for pressure test (elimination of possible stress peaks). A distance on what
these secondary stresses act depends on a vessel diameter and its thick-
ness.
3. Stress peaks (tertiary stresses) = stresses with local character that are only in
some profile strings (local external forces, sharp deviations of form, welds,
notches, material changes etc. Local plastic deformations practically have not
effect on a structure (shell ...). They are taken into account only for low-cycle
fatigue (e.g. number of cycles of a structure loading and unloading).
determined according these theories is compared with the yield point (σ e <
σ K).
A reason of this way is that tensile tests for yield point and tensile strength
specification are made on steel rods with uniaxial stress but in praxis in
structures etc. is bi- or triaxial stress. That is why we have to found an
equivalent value that can be compared with the yield point.
σ max − σ min
Guest 2 axial stress τ max = ≤τ K
2
(remember Mohr´s circles = stress circles – see p. 35); where σ max = σ 1; σ min =
0
Now I show you some examples of various loadings and them equivalent stresses
in the Tresc´s hexagon.
Similarly it is for outer overpressure (but for the case we have to take into account not
only the stress but conditions of stability too – see later)
e) Thin-walled cylindrical shell with inner
overpressure pi
σ σ
Tangential stress = 2 * axial stress (see p. 34)
spherical shell (pi)
σ
σ o =σ 2 = pi * r / 2s; σ t = σ 1 = pi * r / s = 2*σ 2
cylindrical
shell (pi)
σ σ
σ
c σ
spherical shell (pe) 21 / 43
58852921.doc
P. Hoffman
Print date: 22.5.2011
σ
Obr.11. Conditions of plasticity for bi-axial stress
σ 2
=σ 2
+σ 2
-σ *σ σ = σ + σ − σ *σ
2 2
e 1 2 1 2 or e 1 2 1 2
If we divide both sides of the equation by σ K and bring results in the fig. 11
we obtain an ellipse that goes through apexes of the Tresc´s hexagon.
Comparing these two hypothesis we can see that the Guest hypothesis lies on the
side of higher safety. The HMH hypothesis is more economical (it better utilize a
material strength – for simple shear and cylindrical shells; not for simple tension
/ press and spherical shell).
Example:
σ t = p * r / s ≤ σ K/x →
pD = σ K * s / (x * r) = 230*20/(1,5*500) = 6,13 MPa
1
σ = * (σ − σ ) + (σ − σ ) + (σ − σ )
2 2 2
2
e t o o r r t
σ
σ = t
* (1 − a ) + (a − b) + (−b − 1) = ... = 0,901* σ
2 2 2
2
e t
Than the maximal inner overpressure calculated from the hypothesis (for
plasticity conditions) is
σ *s 230 * 20
p = K
= = 10,21 .MPa
0,901 * r 0,901 * 500
p
B) Internal stress
• Octohedral shear stress reaches its maximal value that is expressed in form
D) Allowed stresses
In some cases is not a part dimensioned from a point of view stress but
according technological needs (e.g. casts wall or a weldment thickness, tubeplate
thickness etc.).
Given:
ri – internal radius; re – external radius; pi - overpressure
k = re / ri – dimensionless wall thickness
σ t = pi * ri / s ≤ σ K s = re - ri k = re / r i re = k * ri
(pi / σ K) = k – 1
Results calculated from these dependences are in the following table and
on fig.13. Boundary between thin-walled and thick-walled cylinders is
at value of k = 1,17. In practice more safety value k = 1,1 is used.
Dependence pi/σk on k
1,200
1,000
Guest
0,600
St.Venant
H -B
0,400
H-M-H
0,200
0,000
1,00 1,10 1,20 1,30 1,40 1,50 1,60 1,70 1,80 1,90 2,00
k = De /Di
0,120 Lamée
pi/σ k
Guest
0,100
St.Venant
0,080 H -B
0,060 H-M-H
0,040
0,020
0,000
1,000 1,025 1,050 1,075 1,100 1,125 1,150 1,175
1,200
k = De /Di
58852921.doc 32 / 43 Print date: 22.5.2011
P. Hoffman
In the region for k > 1,17 (thick-walled cylinders) results according hypothesis
H-B and H-M-H are in the best conformity with actual measured values.
Membrane formula allows much higher pressure and such cylinder would be
very undersized!! Results according Lamée and St. Venant undersized a
cylinder too, but not so much like the membrane theory. On the contrary results
according Guest are somewhat oversized. (see fig. 13).
9. Example:
Given:
Cylindrical vessel loaded with internal overpressure pi = 0,6 MPa, external
diameter De = 1800 mm, material is steel with yield point σ K = 230 MPa.
Task:
What is a needed wall thickness of the vessel s = ?.
Because of simplification we will study a long cylinder without effects of
transient stress near covers and footings.
σ
φ
a external force Fea ≈ π *D2/4 * pi
D (for Di = D - s ≈ D)
pi
internal force Fia = π *D*s*σ a
s σ a
σ σ
t t Cylinder length is L
φ
D
external force Fet ≈ pi*D*L
pi s (for Di = D - s ≈ D)
τ Lamée σ e=σ t≤ σ K
max
τ
3
ma . and according Guest
x2
σ σ τ max2 = (σ t – 0) / 2 ≤ τ K =
0 σ
σ K / 2-p p a t
Condition of dimensioning is σ e≤ σ D
For tri-axial stress (we take into account compression stress in cylinder wall too)
following formulas are valid for definition of equivalent stress:
+p≤ σ D
For the bi-axial stress are in the wall only tensile stresses (in the case of tri-
axial stress is the compression stress negligible – see next page) and there are no
bending moments. Therefore we must choose the safety factor x = 1,5 (fig.7).
Allowed stress is thus
- Biaxial stress according Lamée and Guest and tri-axial stress according Lamée
(D = De –s ≈ De)
σ e = σ t = pi * r / s = pi * D / 2s ≤ σ D
Note:
Calculation with an average diameter D or external diameter De has not effect
on the resulting value of calculated wall thickness.
σ e = σ t + pi = pi * r / s + pi = pi * D / 2s + pi ≤ σ D
sv ≥ pi * De / (2 * σ D*v - pi) + c
These individual results are from the point of view of technical praxis practically
the same → for such thin-walled cylinder results do not depend on used theory.
Specification of single stresses in the cylindrical vessel wall
(with the calculated thickness s = 3,53 mm)
Tangential stress
σ t = pi * D / (2*s) = 0,6*(1800-3,53)/(2*3,53) = 152,7 MPa
Axial stress
σ o = σ t / 2 = 152,7 / 2 = 76,3 MPa
Radial stress
σ r = - pi = -0,6 MPa
From this comparison follows that Mohr´s circles (fig.14) for τ max are for the
case of biaxial stress as well as for triaxial stress practically the same (pi <<< σ o
and σ t). The circle between points 0 and –pi is practically reduced to a point.
If we utilize relations derived before for these theories for equivalent stress
specification (the diagram on fig.13 is based on them) we can specify the
Calculations are performed for 3 pressures so that we can see an effect of thin.
or thick-walled cylinders.
k = re / ri = De / Di = De / (De – 2s) → s = De * (k – 1) / 2s
Membrane
(pi / σ K) = k – 1 → k = pi / σ D +1
De σ D pi k s
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (-) (mm)
1800 153,3 0,6 1,00391 3,51
1800 153,3 20,0 1,13046 103,9
1800 153,3 50,0 1,33 221,4 too undersized !!!
Lamée - σ max
Guest - τ max
St.Venant – ε max
H-M-H - Emax
(pi / σ K) = (k2 – 1) / (√3*k2) → k = (σ D / (σ D – 30,5 * pi))0,5
De σ D pi k s
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (-) (mm)
1800 153,3 0,6 1,00394 3,06 undersized
1800 153,3 20,0 1,1632 108,2
1800 153,3 50,0 1,70 306 OK
Shells: They carry bending moments, torsion, shear local forces etc.
too.
In wall profile section are not only tensile or compression
stresses but bending stress too (and the bending stress can
vary (see above – the elliptical tube).
measuring
N N
R
+
α
β
R
+ p =0 β
α
z Nα = σ α *
s
Nα [N/m] ...
N = σ β * between axis of
normal force in section for α =β const. (angle
rotation
and section plane that cross the axis of rotation); the force is related
to 1 m of membrane length (in the section) – it does not depend on
membrane thickness
Nβ [N/m] ... normal force in section for β = const. (angle between chosen
base
plane and section plane that passes through axis of rotation)
Rα [m] .... radius of curvature of membrane in section for α = const.
Rβ [m] .... radius of curvature of membrane in section for β = const.
Nα Nβ 2* N
+ = =p
R R R
58852921.doc 41 / 43 Print date: 22.5.2011
P. Hoffman
Rα = Rβ = R; pz = - p
Nα = Nβ = N ..... for sphere (axis can be chosen at will, forces must be the
same)
p*R
N= (N/m)
2
or for membrane with wall thickness s it is
N p*R
σ =σ =
α β
= (Pa = N/m2)
s 2*s
Rα = ∞ ; Rβ = R; pz = - p
N N N
+ =p=
α β α
R R β
R α
Nα p* R p* D
N = p*R
α or σα = σt = = =
s s 2* s
Nβ is not possible to specify from the Laplace formula → we can specify it for
example from the forces balance in a cross section upright to the cylinder axis
(see above in chapter 9. Example ad C)