WCP FS Common Tasks Resolution – FS-1/FS-2

TT-RE-02-L01 Basic Geology

Basic Geology

Objectives:

1. Understand the rock structural and stratigraphic properties and tectonics.

Theories:

1. Briefly explain the structure of the earth and plate tectonics. Discuss the
classification of continental margins.

The unifying geologic theory developed to explain observations that interactions of the
brittle plates of the lithosphere with each other and with the softer underlying
asthenosphere result in large-scale changes in the Earth. The theory of plate tectonics
initially stemmed from observations of the shapes of the continents, particularly South
America and Africa, which fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle and have similar
rocks and fossils despite being separated by a modern ocean. As lithospheric plates heat
up or cool down depending on their position, or their tectonic environment, relative to
each other and to warmer areas deeper within the Earth, they become relatively more or
less dense than the asthenosphere and thus tend to rise as molten magma or sink in cold,
brittle slabs or slide past each other. Mountain belts can form during plate collisions or an
orogeny; diverging plates or rifts can create new midoceanic ridges; plates that slide past
one another create transform fault zones (such as the San Andreas fault); and zones of
subduction occur where one lithospheric plate moves beneath another. Plate tectonic
theory can explain such phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic or other igneous activity,
midoceanic ridges and the relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the formation of
sedimentary basins on the basis of their relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries.
Convection of the mantle is postulated to be the driving mechanism for the movement of
lithospheric plates. Measurements of the continents using the Global Positioning System
confirm the relative motions of plates. Age determinations of the oceanic crust confirm
that such crust is much younger than that of the continents and has been recycled by the
process of subduction and regenerated at midoceanic ridges.

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2. List and explain the different types of depositional basins.

A depression in the crust of the Earth formed by plate tectonic activity in which
sediments accumulate. Continued deposition can cause further depression or subsidence.
Sedimentary basins, or simply basins, vary from bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. If
rich hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with appropriate depth and duration
of burial, hydrocarbon generation can occur within the basin.

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Basin. Most of the world sedimentary basins have been identified. Onshore basins are
shown in green; offshore basins are lavender. The brown contour represents 1000-m
[3300-ft] water depth.

Depositional Environments

The area in which and physical conditions under which sediments are deposited,
including sediment source; depositional processes such as deposition by wind, water or
ice; and location and climate, such as desert, swamp or river.

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3. Describe the major sedimentary environments, eg. Deltaic, reef continental,

etc.

Delta

An area of deposition or the deposit formed by a flowing sediment-laden current as it

enters an open or standing body of water, such as a river spilling into a gulf. As a river
enters a body of water, its velocity drops and its ability to carry sediment diminishes,
leading to deposition. The term has origins in Greek because the shape of deltas in map
view can be similar to the Greek letter delta. The shapes of deltas are subsequently
modified by rivers, tides and waves. There is a characteristic coarsening upward of
sediments in a delta. The three main classes of deltas are river-dominated (Mississippi
River), wave-dominated (Nile River), and tide-dominated (Ganges River). Ancient deltas
contain some of the largest and most productive petroleum systems.

Reef

A mound, ridge, or buildup of sediment or sedimentary rock, most commonly produced

by organisms that secrete shells such as corals. Reefs are typically taller than the
sediment that surrounds them, resistant to weathering and wave action, and preserved
within sediment of a different composition. Carbonate reefs form in a limited range of
temperatures, water depths, salinities and wave activities, so their occurrence can be used
to interpret past environmental conditions. Because the rocks that surround reefs can
differ in composition and permeability, porous reefs can form stratigraphic traps for
hydrocarbons. Porosity of reefal limestones depends on post-depositional diagenetic changes.

4. Discuss the concept of Superposition.

The stratigraphic principle that, in the case of undeformed, flat-lying strata, younger
layers are deposited atop older ones, such that the top layer is youngest and underlying
layers increase in age with depth. Nicolaus Steno articulated the law of superposition of
strata in the 17th century.

Bed

A layer of sediment or sedimentary rock, or stratum. A bed is the smallest stratigraphic

unit, generally a centimeter or more in thickness. To be labeled a bed, the stratum must
be distinguishable from adjacent beds.

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5. Describe briefly the different types of geological structures with reference to:
Stress and Strain, Faults, Folds, Strike and Dip, and Salt Domes.

Domes and Anticlines: Domes and anticlines are formed by uplifting and folding of the
strata. When viewed from above the dome is circular in shape, whereas the anticline is an
elongated fold.

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Salt Domes and Plug Structures: This commonly occurring geological structure is
caused by the intrusion from below of a salt mass, volcanic material or serpentine. In
pushing or piercing through the overlying strata, the intrusion may cause the formation of
numerous traps in which petroleum may accumulate.

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Faults: Reservoirs may be formed along the fault plane where the shearing action has
caused an impermeable bed to block the migration of oil and gas through a permeable
bed.

Unconformity: This type of structure can be formed where more recent beds cover older,
inclined formations that have been planed off by erosion. A reservoir may be formed
where oil and gas is trapped by an impermeable overlying layer.

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Lenticular Reservoirs: Oil and gas may accumulate in pockets of porous permeable
beds or traps formed by pinch-outs of the porous beds within an impermeable bed. Lens
type reservoirs are formed where sand was deposited along an irregular coastline or by
filling in an ancient riverbed or delta. Similar productive zones occur in various porous
sections in thick impermeable limestone beds. Pinch-outs may occur near the edge of a
basin where the sand progressively “shales out” as the edge of the basin is approached. In
river deposited sand bars, shale-out frequently occurs within a few hundred feet.

6. Describe how surface geology can be used as a tool to aid oil exploration

By determining the type of rock present at the surface can be used as one of several
factors to determine or restrict the area for exploration.

Reference: http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/MainSearch.cfm

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