Proceedings of the 1st International Conference

The Transformation of the Industry

– Open Building Manufacturing

Doelen Congress Centre,

Rotterdam
Netherlands
25th 26th April 2007

Edited by: Dr. M. Sharp, CIRIA, Classic House, 174- 180 Old Street London, EC1V 9BP

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Published by CIRIA, Classic House, 174- 180 Old Street London, EC1V 9BP

CIRIA CON127 ©CIRIA 2007 ISBN 086017-710-6 978-0-86017-710-4

First Edition 2007

Published in one volume

Dr. M. Sharp, CIRIA, Classic House, 174- 180 Old Street , London, EC1V 9BP

Mark D Sharp PhD, MSc, BSc(Hons)

Mark is a Project Manager at CIRIA the largest independent research organization in the UK. His research
interests are in Built Asset Management, Process Modeling. Mark coined the phrase ‘Bundled Complexity’ (theory)
which is now gathering a following as an international research paradigm in its own right. Mark joined CIRIA
from a London University where he had been researching complex models of asset management via advanced
disparate fuzzy mechanisms. Mark also is involved with various research organisations and sits on various sector
boards such as the CIC and CIB, and is also associated with various professional bodies

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Conference Committee

Dr Samir Boudjabeur, CORUS and Coordinator of Manubuild,

Adrian Malone, Taylor Woodrow
Charles Perkin, CIRIA,

with support from

Kalle Kahkonen, VTT

Prof Mustafa Alshawi, University of Salford
Dr. Jack Goulding, University of Salford
Prof Thomas Bock TU Munich
Prof Carlos Balageur,, CA3
Ronald van der Klauw, CPIBC

International Panel

The editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all those members of our international panel who took
the time to review the papers contained within these proceedings.
Mr. Steve Thompson

Mr. Santiago Martinez

Mr. Jochen Eichert
Dr. Russell Mathews
Prof. Dan Engstrom
Mr. Andy Stevens
Mr. Abidemi Owolabi
Dr. Matti Hannus
Dr. Samir Boudjabeur
Dr. Mark Sharp
Dr. Kalle Kahkonen

Emerald Prize Award Panel

Prof. Mustafa Alshawi

Dr. Jack Goulding
Dr. Mark Sharp

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The Transformation of the Industry

National success and well-being are created, not inherited. They do not arise from country’s property, its interest
rates or its currency’s value. A nation’s competitiveness depends upon the capacity of its industries to innovate
and implement new products and services, improve their performance and, particularly, manage the continuous
change.

Now traditional construction is transforming into integrated service business where new skills and solutions are
essential. It is likely that the most important innovations and their practical applications shall be results of joint
efforts by different experts. Optimum results and spin-offs can be achieved by carefully focused research and
development efforts, but these will gain only a highly isolated impact. The main opportunity and challenge for us
are the common and integrated research and development agendas and related major efforts.

National organisations that are funding research and development, and, more widely the Commission of the
European Communities have turned their attention towards integrated research and development projects. These
efforts are more challenging and more ambitious. They require new work methods and effective interaction and
communication between experts involved. Joining people and combining their forces with effective means are
getting increasingly important.

The background of the "The Transformation of the Industry" conference is that kind of huge effort having a highly
ambitious aim to create new business lines arising from the industrial transformation we are facing at the
moment. This effort is ManuBuild Integated Project. It is a four year project (2005-2008) and a part of European
Union 6th Framework for research and development (EU FP6 NMP 515825-2).
It is our vision that ...

This book brings together core contributions for the . It includes XX papers by experts representing X countries
around the world. "Next content summary (main titles representing content) and thoughts about the contributions
present in the book...."

Thank you for all authors around the world who have provided their excellent contributions to this book and
related full paper books. Also I would like to express my gratitude to the scientific committee whose advice and
help has considerably helped in forming this proceedings book. Special thanks belongs to editors whose hard work
has made this book possible.

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5
Contents

Session One – Concept for Manufacturing

Paper one - Catalonia, a particular experience in building prefabricated schools

Paper two - ‘Hybrid’ Modular and Panel Construction in Light Steel Framing
Paper three - Communicating building manufacturing architecture,
Paper four - Design methodology and Open Building

Session Two – Production Technologies

Paper one - Modeling of Pre-cast Concrete Production Operations and Innovations: A Simulation Approach,
Paper two - The GRP Shell Structures for the Rabin Center in Tel Aviv
Paper three - Production lines for custom-ordered house manufacturing,
Paper four - Enhanced manufacturing techniques for on-site tilt-up concrete wall production

Session Three – Business Processes

Paper one - Scenarios for future development of flexible housing,

Paper two - BICQ House, solution for rehabilitation of pre war residential housing neighborhoods
Paper three - International standardisation strategy for open building,
Paper four - Standardised information flow for connections in industrialised construction

Session Four – Business Processes

Paper one - Simulating the technical factors of Precast Concrete Production

Paper two - Open building, open standards and open communications – how open?,
Paper three - The Built Environment as a Positive Constraint
Paper four - Towards Adaptable Buildings: pre-configuration and reconfiguration – two case studies

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Session Five – Design for Manufacturing

Paper one - Improvement of the city strategy by using flexible living units
Paper two - Creating Places: Sustainable Communities Using An Open Building Manufacturing Approach
Paper three - Industrial, Flexible and Demountable (IFD) Construction and Virtual Networks.
A contribution to the public domain?
Paper four - Digitally Fabricating Non-Standardised Brick Walls
Paper five - A People-focussed, Sustainable Approach To Design Using Open Building Manufacturing

Session Session Six – Manufacturing the Design

Paper one - The transition of the concrete precast paving industry from a manual labour intensive industry, to
a fully automated operation
Paper two - Energetic evaluation in real conditions of use of housing
Paper three - The Management of Complex Design & Engineering Processes
Paper four - The application of dynamic materials in adaptable architecture

Sesssion Seven – Manubuild Open Session

Paper one - Interorganizational cooperation in innovation: the role of systems integrators

Paper two - InPro - integrated project within the 6th Framework Programme
Paper three - A framework for open building manufacturing systems in South Africa
Paper four - Upgradeable Masonry Architecture – Updating an established Open Building approach

Session Eight – Education

Paper one - Knowledge Transfer in Timber Frame Construction

Paper two - Attitudes towards pre-fabricated housing: The training conundrum
Paper three - Crossover Design – Multidisciplinary design and construction process
Paper four - Aligning product architecture design and sourcing decisions in the house-building industry

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Paper one -

Catalonia, a particular experience in

building prefabricated schools
Max Radt, iMat – Technology Centre for Construction, (mradt@imat.cat)

Abstract

Background
In Catalonia the particular political and social circumstances lead to the construction of many prefabricated
schools employing different building systems and designs within the last years. The Technological Centre for
Construction iMat (former R+D department of ITeC) realized several studies concerning this practice looking into
different aspects and comparing the industrialized solutions to traditional building methods.
Objectives
The objectives are to analyze different aspects of the industrialized building concepts versus the traditional
building methods.
 Economy: cost reduction through faster building procedures, comparison of traditional and industrialized

building solutions
 Ecology: improve the buildings behaviour in water, materials and energy consumption.

 Legal: new procedures for architectural competitions and contracting

 Design: variety of architectural solutions versus prefabricated image

Results

The results are objective indicators for measuring the success of the industrialized building programme for
schools. The conclusions of each analyzed field try to highlight the potential for improvement and to learn from
the experience of the past.

Impact

The detailed and objective analysis of a recent experience in building a series of industrialized buildings of one
single building typology permits the extrapolation of the results and the conclusions. Real experiences had been
analyzed in order to learn and improve in the future.

Keywords: industrialized building, prefabrication, school buildings, comparison with traditional building systems,
case studies

Background

In Catalonia the particular political and social circumstances lead to the construction of many prefabricated
schools within the last years. Approximately 150 educational buildings were realised in different industrialised
building techniques: light weight steel frame construction, heavy weight prefabricated concrete systems and other
mixed systems until the year 2006. The functional programme for preliminary, primary and high schools is clearly
defined by the responsible state department and is highly repetitive. The defined building standards in the

1
existing design guidelines are mostly not in accordance with industrialized building standards and changes to the
common procedures had to be introduced. The social need for educational infrastructure and the political will to
strengthen industrialized building techniques, in order to achieve their goals, led to this unique experience in
Spain.
It is important to remark that we are not talking about a repetitive design and a building prototype as you could
find in many countries, especially in Eastern Europe (see images 1-2). In this case we are talking about
industrialized building processes that admit the improvement of the traditional way of doing from different points
of view. Each project is unique and respects the functional programme defined by the state department for the
different educational degrees.

Images 1-2: Images from prefabricated schools in eastern Germany

Industrial Context

The building sector in Spain and in Catalonia is the most conservative industrial sector. Innovation and modern
building techniques are not usually applied and less in buildings with very low budgets, as for example public
buildings. The building industry is strongly atomized and in the whole building process many actors appear. The
traditional public tender process for building is slow and divides the different stages: Public tender for design,
design process, public tender for building, construction. This process, beginning from the public tender for design
until the finished building, takes up to 24month. 3 month for the design competition, another 6 month for the
design stage, 3 month for the building tender and another year (at least) for construction. This especially slow
process was one of the main incentives for the change of mind and the introduction of industrialized building
systems in the public sector.
The building industry was not prepared for this change and few companies were and are able to respond fully to
these new demands. In particular the prefabricated concrete companies, traditionally delivered systems and parts
for big infrastructures such as bridges and tunnels or buildings for the industry (see images 3-4). The quality skip
to educational buildings or even dwellings is still a difficulty for most of them. (see images 5-7)

Images 3-4: examples of classical prefabricated elements and constructions:

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Images 5-6: examples of recent industrialized buildings (school and dwellings)

The light weight steel frame systems are not very common in construction in Spain and are mostly used for
temporary buildings (see images 7-8). Very few companies are working in this sector. The adaptation of these
systems for permanent buildings and the existing difficulties of acceptance are big obstacles to overcome.

Images 7-8: examples of typical temporary buildings.

Images 9-11 examples of recent industrialized school buildings

Problem

The experiences of building prefabricated schools, with all kind of different building systems and varying designs,
should allow an evaluation and extrapolation of the results from different points of view, looking forward to the
next 350 schools to be built in the coming years.

Learning Objectives

 Learning by Doing
 Critical analysis of industrialized building processes and identifying potentials for improvement.
 Extrapolation to other building typologies.

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Approach

In this paper we are unifying the results of four different studies concerning the main topic of building
prefabricated schools realized in different years and circumstances.

Analysis

Economy
A comparative analysis of the available project documentation of 30 different schools is carried out, highlighting
the different aspects described above. The full access to the archives of GISA served as database for the other
works. A comparative calculation of three different structural systems was carried out analyzing building cost and
building time.

Descomposició del cost

300000.00
200000.00
Cost
100000.00
0.00
ER E1 E2a E2b E3a
Model estructural

Fonaments Estructura Altres

Durada d'execució de l'estructura

Model

E3a

E2a

ER

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Dies

Figures 1-2:

Ecology

This chapter is about the introduction of ecological parameters into school projects and their application in real
buildings. The aspects analyzed have been: water consumption, material consumption and energy consumption.
The application of the methodology is divided into Level 1 and Level 2 for immediate actions and future actions.

consum
estàndard consum consum viable consum eficiència
cost amort.
estàndard viable mediambiental (€/m3
3
(m /alumne 3
(m /alumne any) (€/m2) (anys)
(m3/m2) (m3/m2) estalviat m2)
any)

4,41 0,58 2,03 54% 0,27 4,66 22 14,9

Figure 3:

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Legal

The changes in the legal documents and procedure for the project tenders have been analyzed in comparison to
the traditional project tenders. Legal barriers for the application of industrialized buildings in the existing
legislation for public tenders were identified.
Design
Built examples using different industrialized systems are being compared in order to show their flexibility and
highlight the most flexible systems.

Images 12-14:

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

Within the four different documents each of the aspects is analyzed critically. Putting together the results of the
different studies and trying to draw a common line, is the most important finding.
Business Impacts
The building sector is the most conservative industrial sector in Spain. Changes in the traditional way of building
are very random and the immense inertia of all implicated actors is difficult to overcome. There is a need for
change from almost all points of view: economical, ecological, legal and design, besides other aspects as for
example the social impact which are not treated in this document.
Learning by Doing and improving the innovative systems used in these recent school buildings are important
incentives for the whole sector to accept the changes. Bad experiences, especially with innovative systems, have
a tremendously negative impact. Therefore we consider important to transmit these analysis to the building sector
in order to convince slowly of the advantages and possibilities of industrialized building techniques and avoid
mistakes.

Conclusions

The analyzed aspects in the realized work are only a beginning for a better understanding of the industrialized
building processes. It is clear that all aspects represent different barriers and opportunities. In the present not all
experiences have been satisfactory, although the overall outcome has to be defined as positive until now.

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Key Lessons Learned

 Economy: One of the most important arguments in favour of industrialised building is a lower cost. In the real
cases the building cost was not significantly different from a traditional building.
 Ecology: The potential for an improvement of the ecological footprint of an industrialized building compared to
a traditional one is not yet exploited.
 Legal: The legal barriers are actually the most important ones to overcome in order to achieve a fully
industrialized building process.
 Design: The variety of designs and the architectonical expressions from the different projects are satisfactory.
It seems that the existing systems permit certain flexibility although improvement is possible.

References

Rafael Bellmunt, Núria Vila, (September 2005), Els prefabricats a la construcció d’edificis destinats a
l’ensenyament, ITeC, Institut Tecnològic de la Construcció, Barcelona, 440.
Rafael Bellmunt, Ferran Bermejo, (June 2005), Anàlisi de les alternatives estructurals per a la construcció d’edificis
escolars des del punt de vista de la velocitat de construcció i del cost global, ITeC, Institut Tecnològic de la
Construcció, Barcelona, 944.
Fructuós Mañà, Albert Cuchí, Albert Sagrera, (May 2003), Introducció de paràmetres mediambientals als edificis
gestionats per GISA/REGSA, ITeC, Institut Tecnològic de la Construcció, Barcelona, 585.
Albert Cuchí, (November 2000), Esborrany del Plec de Condicions per a la redacció de projectes amb elements
industrialitzats al gros de l’obra, ITeC, Institut Tecnològic de la Construcció, Barcelona, M14N2000.
Authors’ Biographies

Max Radt is an architect formed in Berlin between 1992 and 2000 at the
Technical University. After a Leonardo stage in Barcelona he decided to
start his career in Spain working from 2000 to 2006 in the architectural
office Pich-Aguilera Architects as a project leader during the first years
and responsible for the R&D department for the last two years. In July
2006 he started to collaborate with the new founded Technology Centre
iMat where he is responsible for defining new projects and the external
relations of the Centre.

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Paper two

‘Hybrid’ Modular and Panel Construction

in Light Steel Framing

R Mark Lawson,SCI Professor University of Surrey, UK

m.lawson@surrey.ac.uk
Ray G Ogden,SCI Professor of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, UK
rgogden@brookes.ac.uk

Abstract

The use of light steel framing as a method of house construction has increased significantly throughout Europe in
recent years. This paper describes the general forms of construction that have been adopted, and the levels of
performance that are achieved. Recent developments associated with the use of light steel modules and steel
frames in medium-rise residential buildings are also presented.
A recent ECSC demonstration project has resulted in 5 housing and residential buildings that are designed for
rapid construction and excellent performance characteristics. In the UK project, a ‘hybrid’ panel and modular
building was constructed in which the toilet-bedrooms, kitchens and stairs were all constructed as modules. The
load bearing walls and floors were constructed as 2D-elements.
The floor system consists of a plyweb beam that comprises C section flanges and two plywood webs. These 320
mm deep beams span 5.25 m between load-bearing walls and internal walls can be positioned to suit user’s
requirements. These beams were subject to testing which showed a load capacity in excess of 4 kN/m2. They
also possess excellent acoustic and thermal insulation properties, as established from on-site tests.
This method of ‘hybrid’ construction has been taken forward by Advance Housing, a joint venture between a
major house builder and Terrapin in the UK for their 2 and 3 storey houses. It optimises the use of manufactured
components and may be extended up to 5 storeys height using the modules as the primary stabilising
components. The paper will explore the use of these hybrid technologies in modern residential buildings.

Keywords: Light steel, modular, hybrid, acoustics, connections

Background

Industrial Context

Light steel framing is widely used in low and medium rise residential buildings, and comprises C or Z sections in
1.2 to 2.4 mm steel thickness as its primary load bearing components. Light steel construction is generally based
on 2 dimensional panels and floor cassettes which are manufactured accurately using CAD CAM machinery.
Modular construction consists of 3 dimensional units, which use light steel frames and floors as the primary
components. Modular units are eventually fully furnished and serviced, and are manufactured with a high degree
of repetition in order to be economic. Therefore they are best used in highly cellular buildings such as hotels,
student residences etc.
There are many building types which require a more ‘flexible’ structural system involving open plan as well as
highly serviced spaces. For these building types, the use of ‘hybrid’ construction involving 2 D and 3 D
components is important economically and spatially. This paper explores the technology of light steel panel and

1
modular construction, and its construction methodology.
Problem

The use of ‘hybrid’ panel and modular construction systems is new and creates particular problems in terms of
the connectivity of the 2 D and 3 D components, and issues such as acoustic insulation and fire resistance.
Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the construction process and application of hybrid systems in which the
open plan space can be configured to suit the occupants requirements, and the cellular space is highly serviced in
order to increase its ‘value’ and repetition in manufacture.

Learning Objectives

 Design of ‘hybrid’ 2 D and 3 D structures

 Connectivity between planar and modular components
 Practical realisation through a demonstration building

Approach

The concept of a ‘hybrid’ panel and modular construction using light steel components was first explored in a
demonstration building constructed in a Corus factory and designed by architects HTA and The Steel Construction
Institute (SCI). The form of the building is shown in Figure 1. It consists of:

 modular units for the kitchens, bathrooms and stairs

 5.5 m span floor cassettes using lattice members and a prototype timber steel ‘box’ section
 load bearing wall panels using 100 ? 1.6 C sections
 large façade panels with pre attached cladding

In this approach, the load bearing elements are the modules and separating walls, which minimises the
foundations, and the modules are braced for stability up to 5 storeys high. The space can be partitioned to suit
the desired room sizes.
The demonstration building is illustrated in plan form in Figure 2. It is 14 m wide and 10 m long and is part of an
‘urban terrace’. Although the demonstration building is only 2 storeys high, it is extendable to taller buildings.
A range of acoustic, thermal insulation and floor vibration tests was performed on the demonstration building on
its completion.

Figure 1 ‘Hybrid’ construction system using modules and panels (courtesy Corus)

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Figure 2 Plan form of demonstration building

Analysis

The completed demonstration building is illustrated in Figure 3. Its cladding is in the form of an insulated render
or cement particle board, or a brick slip system on a metallic ribbed backing sheet. The building was constructed
in only 4 weeks. An interesting technology that was explored was the use of long span floor cassettes using
timber steel composites, as shown in Figure 4. These joists were subject to extensive testing, and this work has
been continued with further tests at the University of Surrey.

Figure 3 Demonstration building at Corus

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Figure 4 Timber steel composite joists
The acoustic results for the separating floor are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Test data and comparison with the UK Building Regulations for separating floor in demonstration building

All separating floors have 18 mm chipboard over 40 mm Rockfloor with 19 mm plasterboard or 18 mm chipboard attached to
the joists, with the layers on 12.5 mm fire resistant plasterboard with 100 mm mineral wool insulation placed between the
joists.
Thermal analyses were carried out for the two wall types in the demonstration building; an insulated render, and a brick tile
system (Corium). The computed thermal transmissions (U values) for various thicknesses of insulation are presented in Table
2. Mineral (Rockwool) wool placed between the wall studs reduces the U values considerably

4
Table 2 U values for different wall constructions

The thermal performance of the rendered cladding system with mineral wool between the wall studs is shown in Figure 5. The
isothermal lines show the local ‘hot spots’ on the steel studs. The maximum temperature difference is 2oC across the wall (for
a 20oC overall temperature between inside and outside).
The use of brick tiling shows a similar performance, increasing the amount of external insulation reduces the local ‘hot spots’
to less than 1oC.

Figure 5 Thermal profile – Render, 60 mm EPS, 100 mm Rockwool between C sections

The concept of a ‘hybrid’ module and panel construction technology may be adapted to the use modules by Corus Living
Solutions (CLS) which use floor and ceiling cassettes with a modified C section as the perimeter member acting as an edge
beam. The depth of the floor and ceiling cassette is 200 mm (check), and both the floor and ceiling joists use 150 ? 1.6 C.
The perimeter modified C section to the cassette is 1.8 mm thick (and potentially up to 2.4 mm thick) and can span up to 3 m
to create a partially open-sided module, as illustrated in Figure 6. Intermediate posts and stiffeners within the perimeter C
section are required in this case in order to transfer the forces at the open side. Compression forces are transferred between
modules by direct bearing of the edge beams.

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 Figure 6 Details of CLS module with partial open side

The ‘hybrid’ modular-panel concept uses highly serviced modules for the kitchen, bathrooms, stairs and lift as a ‘core’ of the
building and long spanning floor cassettes supported by the modules and separating walls. In this way, flexible space is
created which can be fitted out to suit the user’s requirements. This concept is illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Plan form of ‘hybrid’ building for adjacent apartments

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The combined depth of the floor and ceiling of the module is approximately 400 mm, and so the floor cassette can be of the
same depth. Allowing for acoustic build-up and the plasterboard ceiling, the long span floor joists can be approximately 320
mm deep and have span capabilities up to 5.5 m.
The modular floor with its perimeter C section supports the long span floor , but the bending resistance of the floor cassette is
provided by a 320 mm deep x 3 mm thick C section included its manufacture. The floor cassette may be up to 3 m wide
depending on transportation and installation requirements.
The long span floor cassette is supported by a continuous steel angle or Z section attached to the lower module or separating
wall, as illustrated in Figure 8. In this way, the walls provide a direct load path.

Figure 8 Attachment of floor cassette to

modules in ‘hybrid’ construction

This concept may be adapted to other building

forms, such as that illustrated in Figure 9, where
the kitchen/bathroom modules are arranged
transversely within the plan form and the open
space is provided next to the façades for
improved daylight. Service risers may be
combined in the adjacent modules. The stair and
lift modules are also combined side by side, as
opposed to in-line.

Figure 9 Alternative narrower plan form with

transverse modules in ‘hybrid’ construction

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Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

The pre and post completion tests showed that:

 Acoustic attenuation of over 60 dB can be achieved through the separating floors and walls
 The natural frequency of the long span floors was over 10 Hz
 The façade cladding consisting of 80 mm of external insulation and 100 mm of inter stud insulation achieved a U value of
less than 0.2 W/m2°C
 The construction period was only 4 weeks, and only 24 individual structural components were required for the 2 storey
building
 This technology is extendable up to 5 storeys high in terraced form

Business Impacts

The technology is ‘hybrid’ construction has been taken up by the light steel industry, notably in a joint venture by
homebuilders Barratt and Terrapin in Advance Housing. Another form of ‘hybrid’ construction was used by architect Feilden
Clegg Bradley in a 5 storey residential building in Fulham, shown in Figures 10 and 11.
This technology creates a more ‘open’ building technology as it maximises on the benefits of off site manufacture but achieves
more flexibility in planning.

Figure 10 Lillie Road, Fulham, showing use of ‘hybrid’ construction

8
Figure 11 Completed building at Lillie Road, Fulham

Conclusions
A demonstration building was constructed by Corus and SCI as part of a European (ECSC) project, which showed how d D and
20D components may be combined to create more flexible building forms.
A series of pre and post completion tests showed good performance in service Further work is required on the inter connection
of the components and on key issues such as robustness and fire resistance.
Key Lessons Learned:
 Modules and panel systems may be combined to achieve both long spans and repetitive use of components
 Speed of construction is dramatically improved
 Good acoustic insulation can be achieved
 The technology is ‘open’ and can be developed further

References

Lawson, R.M. et al, Final Report on Steel in Residential; building for Sustainable and Adaptable Construction, ECSC Project
7215 PP 058

9
Mark Lawson is SCI Professor of Construction Systems of the School of
Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK and was formerly research
manager for building construction for the Steel Construction Institute. He has
authored over 30 publications for SCI and many technical papers in light steel
modular and composite construction.

Prof. Ray Ogden is Deputy Head of the Department of Architecture at Oxford

Brookes University and Co-Director of the Oxford Institute for Sustainable Design.
He has particular interest in steel construction and works closely with the Steel
Construction Institute and Corus in the area of Modern Methods of Construction
and building envelope developments.

10
Paper three

Communicating building manufacturing

architecture

Dan Engström, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden (danen@chalmers.se)

and NCC Engineering (dan.engstrom@ncc.se)

Abstract

In the eyes of the public, industrialisation as a concept brings with it images of the 1960s and the 70s, when we
let construction methods and the disintegrating modern movement rule supreme the development of architectural
expression. Currently, there is a new, fast-paced development towards building manufacturing systems. There is
the definite risk that the image of this development is that it is highly product-orientated at the expense of the
sustainability of the buildings.
Whatever you thought, think again. The architectural aim of building manufacturing must be to facilitate the
industrial creation of contemporary state-of-the-art architecture. This paper gives samples of work needed to
achieve this. One important task will be to pinpoint qualities that quality architecture needs to exhibit and to
connect these with the technical-economical production issues. This will help us understand the mechanisms of
building manufacturing architecture so that we do not have to rely on off-the-shelf products.
The method suggested to communicate the results of this work is a spearhead of five architectural points
describing the likely features of good building manufacturing systems:

1. The system focuses on the user/customer

2. The system utilizes the properties inherent
in building manufacturing
3. The system is open
4. The system has a well-planned meeting with the market
5. The system has a well-planned life-cycle perspective

Finally, the paper touches on the effort to establish a multidisciplinary centre for architecture and industry where
working networks can be developed and important issues worked on.

Keywords: Architecture, Performance, Production, Value-bearers, Communication

1
Industrial Context

In the 60s and the 70s, we let construction methods and the disintegrating modern movement rule supreme the
development of architectural expression. It is logical that in the eyes of the public, industrialisation as a concept
brings with it images of this period in time. Even for architects, there is a contradiction between the image of
building manufacturing (which builds on what different projects have in common) and the image of quality
architecture (which builds on the location of the building and thus requires solutions unique to each project). On
the other hand building manufacturing connects nicely to the personal, recurrent themes of many architects.
Currently, there is a new, fast-paced development towards building manufacturing systems. Today, Knowledge
platforms are becoming increasingly important; being sets of given technical solutions connected to purchasing
and production methods, continuous monitoring, and improvement of solutions and processes together with
suppliers. There is the definite risk that the image of this development is that it is highly product-orientated at the
expense of the sustainability of the buildings, both functionally, technically and aesthetically.

Whatever you thought, think again. The goals for building manufacturing must be set at achieving and developing
contemporary state-of-the-art architecture. The line of reasoning is this. Today, we have the tools (ICT, CAD-CAM
and flexible production techniques) to industrialise and yet create diversity. Through so-called mass customization,
using platform thinking and modularisation, we can increase quality and rationalise dramatically – and still let
classic architectural values in residential housing meet individual client requests.
It is clear that building manufacturing can achieve better precision and better details than on-site construction
such as the example to the right.

Knowledge platforms allow us to offer freedom of choice to

the client, while we limit the number of components we
use to create it. A choice of platform thinking and/or
modularisation allows architects to focus on design instead
of starting each project with finding their way through the
jungle of building technologies. It thus makes it possible to
end up in new and challenging places in the sphere of
possible solutions. Arguably, building manufacturing can
become an important tool for progressive architects who
are seeking to develop contemporary architecture.

Learning Objectives

The reader of this chapter can expect to learn:

 Some principles of building manufacturing

opportunities and challenges
 An approach to relating architecture to production A fairly typical view for people who live in
 An approach to communicating building homes built on site. Photo: Ola Nylander.
manufacturing architecture

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What is building manufacturing?

What properties in a system make it a building manufacturing system? The construction sector still has not
agreed on a definition. However, one definition that is defending its ground against other definitions is given by
Lessing et al. (2005): building manufacturing means ”an integrated manufacturing and construction process with
well-planned organisation for efficient management, preparations and control over resources used, activities and
results, supported by the use of highly developed components.”
Lessing et al. define industrial construction, a concept which I translate into building manufacturing in accordance
with ManuBuild nomenclature. The single most important feature of the Lessing et al. definition is that it very
clearly deals with control over the processes. The consequences of working with such a definition of
standardisation of processes instead of products is that it opens up opportunities for a creative response to needs
of individual users, varying regional traditions, local regulations and contexts. The ambition of reducing costs is
achieved through control over how we produce things, not over what we produce. There is a very clear distinction
between this line of reasoning and the industrialisation of the 1960s and 70s, where modularisation, large
volumes and standardised components were the ends to reach rationality and low costs. Today, we play a
completely different ballgame. This is why there is a clash with the image of industrialisation and the new
possibilities.
The concepts of building manufacturing are knowledge platforms and advanced production methods. With
knowledge platforms, we bring the knowledge and experience from the whole value-chain to bear on the design
and preparation phase. Knowledge platforms are working methodologies which typically exhibit the following
features:

 technical solutions, chosen and prepared in advance

 purchasing of materials and components though purchasing agreements, connected to the technical solutions
 clear guidelines, directions and requirements on the production method, including logistics
 monitoring and documentation of costs, quality, environmental features and function
 constant improvements through focussed development efforts and close collaboration throughout the
value-chain

The most spectacular part of industrialisation of construction is of course the advanced production methods,
typically automated in a factory, and the control over the logistics. But the real revolution is how we make
business. In general, companies working with knowledge platforms are turning their production from offering
what the clients ask for to making the client an offer of a product that s/he will likely not refuse. The automated
production simply facilitates a broad definition of the product offer. With knowledge platforms and advanced
production technologies, there is no need to define the product as apartment type A, B or C.

One of the important points of origin for

industrialisation: Weissenhof, Stuttgart, 1927.
Arch.: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
Photo: Dan Engström.

3
Quite the opposite, the product offer (described by Björnfot 2006) can for example be defined as apartments.
Mass production developed to cater for the needs of the individual user is called mass customisation. It is
achieved through product offers and through production which keeps series short (even to the point of one-off),
which monitors value-flows and which uses customer-pull, employee participation and automated processes.
Examples of companies that build their success on mass customization are: Toyota, Adidas and Dell computers.
In addition, knowledge platforms per se constitute a new paradigm for production in our sector where each
project manager traditionally has the freedom to choose methods and suppliers, but as a consequence needs to
be somewhat of a super-hero if he is to keep everything under control.

The problem, the opportunity

With the possibilities of automation at hand today, we can produce more or less anything, even in construction.
Many of the machined building parts will not be possible to separate from crafted items. For all practical purposes,
the “Industry vs. Arts and Crafts” issue of applying true materials is a moot point. Instead the problem arises of
industrially defining what a quality feature is – in order to be able to produce that as opposed to inferior products.
Building manufacturing processes requires us to define what architectural quality is.
In addition, a complex process like building manufacturing needs to be developed by many different types of
expertise in collaboration. In ManuBuild, these are found all over Europe. The main problem is that guidelines for
building manufacturing architecture cannot prescribe a certain architectural style. Any principles that are given
must be on a procedural or quality feature level, not on the level of design solutions. How does one describe
architectural standards without pointing to solutions or limiting the customer choice of quality level? The climate
and the preferences in Scandinavia are also very different from the ones in Spain – regional preferences must be
catered to. The suggested solution in ManuBuild is to provide description of key value-bearers for housing, but let
the stakeholders in each make their own priorities.

Building manufacturing must facilitate quality architecture without pinpointing solutions.. Left: one-off single
family housing by Leonie Geisendorf (Strandvägen, Djursholm, Sweden, 1970, photo by Dan Engström). Right:
contemporary multiple single-family housing development project (Uppsala, Sweden, photo by NCC).

4
The spearhead – the five points

There are opportunities and problems in the communication of these issues to readers interested in learning the
concepts. Arguably, building manufacturing involves several opportunities for architects. The difficult task is to
make these opportunities available – there is the lack of a discrete meeting gateway for the learning reader into
the mass of knowledge. In order to make their own mark on architecture, the learning readers must have an
opportunity to work out for themselves what is known knowledge, what issues are open, what is fact and what
are opinions.
In the early twentieth century (1926), Le Corbusier published his five points for a new architecture. These are
well-known: supports; roof gardens, free design of the ground plan, horizontal windows, and the free design of
the façade. The points were the logical results of his approach to architecture. Architecture based on these five
points was radically new.
In the early twenty first century, we are in a situation were we have a radically new working methodology to
introduce, and need a suitable tool to do it. Le Corbusier’s idea of spearheading the new architecture by five
bullet-points is a splendid inspiration. I suggest five architectural points for good building manufacturing systems
as the way for the reader into this new realm. However, according my reasoning above, these new five points
cannot define architecture like Le Corbusier did. Their task must be to define what constitutes a good way of
facilitating it. Toyota, the leading company in lean production, have a set of fourteen points that do just that –
define the principles behind how Toyota builds cars, not what a Toyota car looks like.
These five architectural points for good building manufacturing systems illustrate the likely features of building
manufacturing systems that are able to create quality architecture. The points will typically be used as a
benchmark for systems being developed.

1. The system focuses on the user/customer

- Activity focus rather than product focus
- Strategic priorities well-planned from a holistic rather than a purely technical-economical point of view
- Mass customization rather than mass production
- Customer pull rather than technology push
2. The system utilizes the properties inherent in building manufacturing
- Care in production, increased precision, flexibility and quality
- Creates cost efficiency through a close link between industrial properties and important architectural value-
bearers
3. The system is open
- A transparent and well documented working methodology
- Good opportunities for varying expression, choices, optional extras, future changes and a close relation to the
context.
- Parametric components to create individuality rather than component designs defining what is possible
4. The system has a well-planned meeting with the market
- A well-planned, easily accessible meeting between system, architect, client and user.
- Transparent working methodology, predicable, with a given decision schedule for the user/customer.
- Tools appropriate for user / customer involvement.
5. The system has a well-planned life-cycle perspective
- Good opportunities for changed habits, new family constellations,
- The investment level is balanced by technical, economical, energy-related and social sustainability

The task is now to refine these points and explain their reasons and consequences. This work has only just begun
some months ago (in a research project called 4B) and will be a stimulating journey for whoever is willing to join
it. The set of points given above are based on this research, on ManuBuild findings and on the traditional image
of architectural quality. The five points have been refined once, and could conceivably be labeled version 1.1.

5
Architecture and the factory

An important task at hand is to connect features of production and architectural value-bearers, and highlighting
the factors that need to be considered when designing a dwelling. By the concept of architectural value-bearers I
mean the most important features of the spaces that make up the home. In order to be rational without
compromising user value, systems need to connect value-bearers to the specific features of building parts that
drive costs in production. For example, the choice of the profile of a window frame is important for the quality
perceived of the window and of the indoor daylight. Of a number of possible profiles preferred by the architect,
one or two might be very easy to machine, while others are not. It might be valuable to be able to choose where
in the wall a window should be situated (from flush with the outer wall to flush with the inner wall) but it might
not be technically-economically feasible. A apartment lay-out might be equally feasible as another when it comes
to technical feasibility, but one might be widely preferable in terms of function or other qualities.

We have a puzzle to lie: Developing quality contemporary apartment layouts with general functionality and
flexibility, providing quality experience of homWe have a puzzle to lie: Developing quality contemporary
apartment layouts with general functionality and flexibility, providing quality experience of home and a sense of
context. The same apartment must also be designed for manufacture, assembly and future changes. (Working
study-samples by Marie-Louise Greger, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Architecture, 2006.)e
and a sense of context. The same apartment must also be designed for manufacture, assembly and future
changes. (Working study-samples by Marie-Louise Greger, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of
Architecture, 2006.)

6
Defining architectural quality

Sketching the definition of quality architecture? Might I not just as well ask us to define the meaning of life? Yes
and no. The essence of architecture is impossible to communicate in measurable terms, especially since it means
different things to different people. For example, we often disagree with our spouses over which house we should
buy, had we the opportunity to buy one. The quantitative architectural requirements are typically addressed in
regulations and standards. Your national codes very likely give strong indications on sizes of a kitchen. It is
equally likely that the code of another country gives different indications. However, and this is the key, we do
have traits in common. Most people are a little below two metres tall, need to eat every day and sleep at night,
and want to feel welcome and at home where we live. Consequently, it is possible to generically discuss
architectural qualities. In order to set standards for building manufacturing architecture it is interesting to try to
describe these qualities in a way that can be used to interact with production issues.

A check-list is a crude but useful tool for testing design

suggestions, and one which gives indications of whether a
residential house or a housing development can be said to
exhibit architectural quality. There are several lists
available, each with its own merits, for example in Building
for Life – Delivering great places to live (Anon 2005), the
Urban Design Compendium (Anon 2002) and Better Places
To Live By Design - A Companion Guide To PPG3 (Anon
2001). As an example of definitions of architectural value-
bearers, I will use a small part of the summary of the
architectural evaluation method for housing, developed by
Ola Nylander (Nylander 2002).

The all-important window (photo by Ola Nylander).

Nylander defines a number of key architectural value-bearers, including: axiality, the proportion and size of the
spaces, multiple movement choices, movement, rhythm and openings, transitional rooms, and finally the
interaction of the building and the context. Here is a sample of Nylander’s descriptions of three other features.

 Materials and details are emotionally and physically close to the inhabitants and are very important as signs of
authenticity and care in production. Their function is to help the inhabitants identify themselves through the
territory they create in their home. The experience of care in production, well-made materials and details can
raise the self-esteem of the inhabitants. This is especially true if care has been taken where eyes look and
hands touch: window sills and sashes, door handles, mouldings, skirting-boards, doorsteps and so on.
 The experience of enclosed and open spaces is very important for the architecture of the home. Being able to
feel both the safety of the nook and the freedom of the open and the light is an asset to the home. The
balanced play between them gives rich experiences. We are fascinated by the enclosed character of the home,
as made explicit by the proverb “My home is my castle”. Window bars (transoms and mullions) in a brick wall
gives a sense of safety in relation to the open spaces outside. We are also enthusiastic about openness in a
home. It opens up views and connections between rooms and increases daylight. Just like the warmth inside a
house is underpinned by the cold of the winter outside, the experience of a home is deepened by juxtaposition
of open and enclosed spaces.
 Daylight is of fundamental importance for a rich experience of a room. It highlights and strengthens the
different characters in different parts of the home. Plenty of light strengthens the public character of a sitting

7
 room, while soft, condensed light underpins the intimate and private character of the bedroom. Daylight is
important also for the experience of the axiality, movement and openness of a home. The key to good light is
careful design of the windows.

In order to avoid catalogue design (picking components in a catalogue) and to be able to develop contemporary
architecture, the key is to understand the mechanisms of the relation between production and architectural
quality. With standardised processes being developed, there is the possibility to start a serious examination of this
relation, for components as well as complete buildings. This work should start by sketching a definition of what
constitutes architectural value-bearers in the home, what drives costs in the factory for different components and
apartment layouts that are feasible from a technical viewpoint. Connecting these features will create the
understanding of the mechanisms that will support the development of architecture through building
manufacturing.

Where do we interact?

It is clear that the issue of defining the merits and drawbacks of building manufacturing for architecture requires
both researchers and practitioners of architecture, users and clients, engineers and contractors. Often, there is no
place for these categories of professionals to meet. At Chalmers University of Technology, Department of
Architecture, we are working to remedy this lack of a meeting place by establishing a network.
As is often the case today when it comes to design and architecture, Sweden should look to Denmark. The School
of Architecture, Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, is the home of the Centre of Industrialised
Architecture – CINARK (www.cinark.dk). Their task is to strengthen the school, the education of architects and
the professional knowledge of building manufacturing. In collaboration with CINARK, during 2007, Chalmers
Architecture are introducing a centre for architecture and industry, with the working name CARIN. Instead of a
research group, we are aiming to provide a platform for dialogue, hence the difference in names. At CARIN,
architects and the rest of the construction sector, including the users and clients will be able to collaborate in the
development of contemporary architecture, based on building manufacturing principles. CARIN will help us to
learn to utilize the merits of the new methods and to avoid the pitfalls.
It is vital that such initiatives do not aim to unilaterally educate one category of professionals, for example
contractors or architects. In order to be credible, CARIN must work with the interrelation between the
industrialisation and architecture. The architectural features of building manufacturing would then be highlighted
in questions such as:

 What does the sector expect from architects and architecture? Is this reasonable? If so, how can we reach it?
If not, what is a more reasonable expectation, and how do we reach that?
 What do architects and users expect from industrialisation? Is this reasonable? If so, how can we reach it? If

not, how do we facilitate a mutual understanding?

The tasks are to generate research and networks based on the needs and wishes of many, and to assist partners
from interest to knowledge and networks. The following are examples of possible working themes.

 The connection between user involvement, quality and value-adding activities

 The concepts of user, end-user, client, customer, market
 The consequences of customer-pull of the process on the design of houses, development of the development
of variants and user context
 The roles of the architect in the new collaboration forms and processes
 The architectural development of houses and building parts
 Architectural language, quality and designs
 The interaction of manufacturing system development and project development
 The development of qualitative and quantitative merits, the management of risks when it comes to
sustainability (social, economical and ecological)

8
The way forward

At Chalmers University of Technology Department of Architecture, our ongoing research deals with four building-
blocks (the apartment, components, details and materials) used in architectural design in industrially produced
homes, and how they relate to modern production processes. This research is mainly performed in the project 4B,
in collaboration between Chalmers, NCC Construction Sverige AB, White architects and IVF. In the spring of 2007,
we expect to be able to present the first results. They will be communicated through the five architectural points
for good building manufacturing systems. We will use the network being developed in the centre for architecture
and industry to identify other issues relevant to research, and channels for implementation.

Key Lessons Learned

 An approach to relating architecture to production

 An approach to communicating building manufacturing architecture
 Some principles of building manufacturing opportunities and challenges

Literature

Peter Adler (2005): Bygga industrialiserat, Svensk Byggtjänst, Stockholm.

Anon. (2005). Building for Life – Delivering great places to live, CABE and the Home Builders Federation.
Anon. (2002). Urban Design Compendium, the English Partnerships and the Housing Corporation.
Anon (2001) Better Places To Live By Design - A Companion Guide To PPG3. DTLR and CABE.
Anne Beim och Kasper Vibæk Jensen (2006): Kvalitetsmål i den arkitektoniske designproces - med fokus på
industrialiseret byggeri. CINARK, Köpenhamn.
Anders Björnfot (2006): An exploration of lean thinking for multi-storey timber housing construction.
Contemporary Swedish practices and future opportunities. Doctoral thesis. Luleå UT, Dissertation no. 2006:51.
Anders Ekholm, Nils Ahrbom, Peter Broberg, Poul-Erik Skriver: Utvecklingen mot strukturalism i arkitekturen,
Byggforskningsrådet, Stockholm 1980.
Dan Engström: Den nya bygglådan Tabula Rasa, unpublished seminar notes, Chalmers University of Technology,
Department of Architecture, December 2006.
Dan Engström, Steve Thompson and Mieke Oostra: Building manufacturing architecture – Whatever you thought,
think again, in Open Building Manufacturing: Core Concepts and Industrial Requirements, ManuBuild 2007.
Lessing, J., Robertson, A. and Ekholm, A. (2005): Industriellt byggande är mer än bara prefabricering! Byggteknik
vol 1:2005, s12-18.
Nylander, Ola (2002). Architecture of the Home, Wiley-Academy, Chichester. ISBN 0-470-84787-5.

Dan Engström works for NCC Engineering as senior project manager for Research
and Development, where his main tasks are to initiate and lead projects related
to architecture. In ManuBuild, he works mainly with the building system and
heads the task on architectural typologies. He is adjunct professor in building
design specializing in industrialized architecture at the Department of Architecture
at Chalmers University of Technology in Göteborg, Sweden. He holds a Ph.D. in
design of steel and timber structures. He has worked for a number of years as
structural designer in his own practice.

9
Paper four

Design methodology and Open Building

Dr.ir. Wim A. Poelman, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, w.a.poelman@tudelft.nl

Abstract

The customized industrialized Concept House research group within the faculty of Architecture at the University of
Delft is working on new concepts for housing in which the opportunities of modern technology are linked to a
dynamic society, in which environmental, economic, cultural and social sustainability is a hot issue. Open building
is one of the opportunities to anticipate on these developments.
This paper focuses on methodological aspects of open building. In order to achieve open building objectives, it
will be necessary to start a design process with the analysis of a diachronic structure of the building, which will
result in scenario’s for usage. These scenario’s can be regarded as a “design of goals”, which functions as a point
of departure for “a design of means”.
The paper elaborates on tools and methods for the “design of goals” in relation to open building, as part of the
Concept House research group. The results till now can be described as a break-down of topics within the domain
of customized industrialized housing and several conceptual designs in that context. This all as an output of the
described methodological approach.
A direct impact for industry is expected because of the fact that about ten companies are directly involved in the
project. An industrial yield is stimulated by a close cooperation with the faculty of Industrial Design Engineering.

Keywords: methodology, synchronic structure, diachronic structure, design of goals, functionalities

1
Background
Industrial Context

The development of design methodology is of importance, especially in an industrial context. Industry can be
regarded as an intermediary between technology development and technology employment. Products and services
can be regarded as vehicles for the employment of technology. The discipline of design provides tools and
methods for the development of those vehicles.
Attention for design methodology from scientific research is only sensible if there would be a lack of knowledge in
this field. This question can only be answered indirectly. Industry indicates in several reports that the
development of new products and services is an increasing problem, as a result of growing complexity. This
complexity does not only concern technology, but also marketing and regulations. The conclusion that more
knowledge in the field of design methodology would be a solution, cannot be drawn from a scientific point of
view. Other factors play a role such as technological knowledge, management capabilities and marketing.
Nevertheless the proposition that design methodology could help industry in developing successful products and
services seems defendable.
What counts for industry in general counts for building industry specifically, although building industry seems
quite different from other industries. Whereas industry is generally demand driven, building industry is still
frequently supply driven, especially in the field of housing. However, this is changing rapidly.

Problem

The Concept House Research Group within the faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology is based
upon a fixed mission statement:
“The objective of the research group “Concept House” is the design, the development and the investigation of
new concepts for customized industrial houses. This should lead to a profitable contribution to, first of all, the
desires of the user/inhabitant, secondly the quality of the built environment and, thirdly the interests of the
industry. Because of the fact that new concepts will presumably be based on new materials and technologies,
cooperation with other industrial sectors than the traditional building industry will have special attention. Together
with industry new concept houses will be realized as prototypes for consumer-oriented, industrially manufactured
houses”.
The term “customized industrial houses” needs some clarification. From a historical point of view industry is
interrelated with mass-production, and mass-production is related to inflexibility with respect to the final product.
During the last decennia this has changed. Flexible manufacturing systems in automotive industry made it
possible to build several types of cars on one assembly-line, based on customer-specifications. Also in housing the
choice of the customer is growing, mainly as a result of information technology, necessary to manage the growing
amount of product data.
It can be concluded that computing technology helps to overcome the management problems of customized
housing. The time has broken that computing technology is no only applied to overcome flexible manufacturing
problems, but mainly to offer new opportunities for customized industrial housing. As a result of computing
technology industrialization and customization will not exclude each other anymore. (Verweij, 2006)
With respect to design methodology open building has offered us new challenges.
Till now a distinction was made between “architectural design” methodology and “industrial design engineering”
methodology. Cross and Roozenburg (1992) claim that, although there was not so much difference in the past,
starting in the seventies several authors (e.g. Hiller et all) suggested differences between the disciplines. It
seemed that architects tended to not putting so much effort in analysis of a design problem at the start, but that
they structured their work according “conjectures”, being design proposals as a subject of analysis (Popper).
The reason why industrial design engineers tend to work on the basis of the analysis-synthesis model is probably
the fact that they usually base their design upon a well defined user and thus a well defined problem, while the

2
work of architects usually cannot be based upon certain users, because of the lifetime of an object and the
amount of stakeholders for an architectural object. Architects work on basis of ill-defined problems, and therefore
they are more dependent on their own vision and expectations, while industrial design architects have the
opportunity to study specific user aspects. This is the reason that “user centred design” (UCD) is a popular issue
within circles of industrial design engineers.
Open building requires a new vision on design methodology. The reason is that in open building architecture is
divided in different layers for which it is easier to define specific design problems.
E.g. Tedd Benson (1997) distinguishes the building site, the structural envelope, the division of space inside the
building, the plumbing, the wiring, the heating/cooling and the cabinets, furniture and other stuff that put inside
the building. It is improbable that it is possible to design all those elements using one set of design methods and
tools, and there is a simple reason for this assumption. The individual design problems differ in many aspects, as
shown in table 1.

Table 1, analysis of open building elements

Habraken (1972) already claimed that an “unambiguous communication structure” between architect, builder and
owner is of great importance. “Decision makers should use a common methodology. This methodology should be
based upon strong values that are shared by the current owner. The owner/occupant must be certain that his
requirements and values will be presented throughout the building process”.
What stands out in the work of Habraken is that he does not discuss the role of industry nor the role of industrial
design engineers, although he recommends strong cooperation between all players. One of the challenges of the
Concept House group is to develop a methodology in which industrial designers as well as architects are involved
in the development process. A first step of the Concept House Group is therefore to recruit researchers from both
disciplines and make them work together intensively.

Learning Objectives

The objective of this paper is to provide a better understanding of the consequences of industrialized building for
design methodology, in the context of open building.
To realize this it is necessary to compare methodological views from both involved disciplines: Industrial Design
Engineering and Architecture.
Also it is necessary to stretch the distinction between the so-called “Design of Goals” and “Design of Means”.
Also it is necessary to direct design methodology towards an integration of psycho-social and technological
complexity.

3
Approach

The approach of the Concept House research group can bets be described as “Design Inclusive Research” or
“DIR” (Horvath 2006). In DIR, design processes play an essential role in the development of knowledge in a
certain field. Design can be applied as a multifunctional research tool. The field of scientific design research
requires a close adherence to the cycle of empirical scientific inquiry.
In research, design activities can play a role in four different stages (see figure 1):

 For the definition of a research problem, in which a design can function as a conjecture.
 As a hypothesis, a starting point for deduction, prediction, testing and evaluation.
 As a tool for testing a prediction (experiment)
 As a tool for evaluating research results (comparing results with predictions)

Figure 1. The basic cycles of engineering design (left) and empirical scientific inquiry (right) (J.Eekels & N.F.M.
Roozenburg1995)

In the traditional approach, science produces new knowledge as an input for the design process. In practice,
science and design have more than a linear relation. Design is used in scientific research to realize, e.g. test
facilities. On the other hand, scientific research can be carried out as part of the design process, e.g. user-
investigation or product testing.
Especially the analysis phase in the design cycle can be regarded as research. The analysis phase should lead to
new knowledge and to criteria for a new industrial product design. The simulation and evaluation phase can also
be regarded as application research - the assumption that a simulation is representative for practice could be
regarded as a hypothesis.
In many cases scientific research implies the design of experiments, and even the production of graphs and two-
dimensional models can be regarded as graphical design. On the other hand, high-quality scientific design could
be regarded as design in which the research-oriented parts of the design process are carried out according to the
rules of scientific research. Design science often requires a meticulous use of design methods and tools.
Another important link between research and design, which plays an important role in the Concept House group is
shown in figure 2. Following the scheme from left to right, architectural design seems like an “end of pipe”
discipline, applying products of industrial designers coming out of the “practical application design”. However,

4
Figure 2. Break down of research and design activities by Eekhout (2006)

Eekhout does not intend any direction in the scheme. Application design can provide input in fundamental
research as well in technology development. Technology development as well as application design are legitimate
sources for the definition of new research questions.
The scheme of Eekhout is limited to technical knowledge. In an exploration of the possibilities for cooperation
between the faculties “Industrial Design Engineering” and “Architecture” within the Technical University of Delft
(Poelman et all 2006), it was concluded that the two faculties had one aspect in common: the integration of
psycho-social and technical complexity. Both types of complexity are expanding rapidly. Architects as well as
industrial design engineers have to deal with a growing complexity in society because of globalization,
multicultural societies, more regulations, etcetera. On the other hand the possibilities of technology are increasing
expeditious, which creates major challenges for designers. Design methodology should anticipate on this reality.
As a result of the above, the Concept House research group works along several subjects which are directly
related to housing.

1. Retrospective research ( ir. Sannie Verweij)

2. New concepts for Housing (Ir. Marlous Vriethoff )
3. Housing on water (ir. Ties Rijcken)
4. Airborne Housing (ir. Erik Vreedenburg)
5. Open Building principles for Housing (ir. Ype Cuperus)
6. Luytgens’ Graveyards of World War I (ir. Jeroen Geurts)
7. Industrial Principles for Concept Houses (dr.ir. Wim Poelman)
8. Cyclic Iterative Development processes (ir. Martin Smit)
9. Autonomous Housing (dipl.ing. Andreas Vogler)
10. Infrastructural aspects of Housing (ing. Stef Jansen)
11. The building of the Van Nelle Factory (ir. Joris Molenaar)

Besides that, several researchers within the department of Building Technology indirectly contribute to the
research by providing technological knowledge, such as:

12. Domotics, ergonomic issues (dr.ir. Liek Voorbij)

13. Domitics for elderly people (ir. Masi Mohammadi)
14. Materials application (dr.ir. Wim Poelman)
15. Climate design (dr.ir. Kees v.d. Linden)
16. Support systems (ir. Peter van de Rotten)
17. etcetera.

The projects are carried out in close cooperation with more than ten companies with complementary activities, all
interesting for industrial building. Besides PhD students several postdocs and master students are involved in the
projects.

5
Analysis

In this chapter an analysis is presented from three points of view:

A distinction between functionalities and potentialities

 A distinction between design of goals and design of means

 A distinction between psycho-social and technological complexity

Functionalities and potentialities

Design methodology is generally based upon necessary actions to achieve design goals. However, design
processes can be described from another starting point being information processing. In fact, design is nothing
else than information processing. Information enters in the shape of a design briefing, marketing data, user data,
technical data, standards, etcetera. Information comes out of the design process in the form of models, drawings,
prototypes, photographs and reports. A model or a prototype is nothing more than a means for research, testing
or communication.
The design process can be regarded as a black box (see figure 3). The input is a “strategic product plan”, defined
by company management, and “know-how”. The output is an “operational plan for introduction of a new product”.

Figure 3 : black box of product development (Poelman 2005)

When we ‘open’ the black box, we can divide the system into three sub-systems:

 Definition of desired functionalities

 Inventory of qualified technology
 Association of desired functionalities with qualified technology

This conclusion leads to the diagram in figure 4

6
Figure 4 : Two-dimensional black boxes of TD for industrial product design

Design science deals with the vertical dimension in this diagram, whereas a horizontal dimension, called
“technology diffusion” (TD) deals with the horizontal dimension. In the science of industrial product design, much
more attention is paid to the vertical dimension then to the horizontal one. The process of setting up a strategic
product plan and processing this into an operational product plan is the subject of much scientific research. The
growing complexity of product functions and the growing amount of available technology both make it necessary
to pay explicit attention to the horizontal dimension, i.e. to the definition of product functions, to the inventory of
qualified technology and to the process of associating the outcomes with each other before processing the result
into a new product application
In industrial product design, functions should be regarded as a derivation of product value. Functions are just
means to realize product value. A perfect creative process notwithstanding, the value of the product can be poor,
because the objective of the process has been poorly formulated. Successfully applied technology leads to product
value. The analysis phase of a development project is the proper time for the specification of product values. The
original assignment should then be redefined bearing in mind the several kinds of value. Generally spoken, when
we discuss the value of products, we have the customer in mind. However, for the designer product value should
be related to more interested parties, such as the company involved and society. For each party the product
performs different functions, for different needs, serving different values (Poelman/Eekels 2001. p 266).
After defining the desired values the functions, which could lead to these defined values, can be identified.
Obviously, however, these functions cannot be realized without knowledge about qualified technology.

7
The technology diffusion process (TD) could be regarded as an association process between desired functions and
qualified technology. A general bottleneck in the diffusion of technological knowledge in the design process is the
availability of knowledge about qualified technology.

Figure 5. Technology diffusion model for design activities, Poelman 2005

Conclusions with respect to methodology in open building design:

1. The definition of functionalities should be defined meticulously. These functionalities should be derived
from “function analysis” based on fundamental investigation of dwelling processes and user types
(Poelman 2005).
2. Technologies available for open building realization should be inventoried meticulously.
3. Interdisciplinary contacts are indispensable.

8
Design of goals and design of means

In this post-industrial society it becomes more and more necessary to distinguish a “design of goals” and “a
design of means” (Eekels/Poelman 2001). During the industrial revolution this necessity did hardly exist. Nearly all
goods were scarce and so much problems had to be solved that a sound design of goals was no condition for
success. Still most authors within the field of design methodology restrict themselves mainly to the design of
means. This can be illustrated with the fact that most models start with “the problem”, followed by the “analysis
of the problem”. For many companies the right of existence is not a result of the ability to solve a problem, but
the ability to define a problem with an economical value attached to it. Methodological knowledge with respect to
this “design of goals” just started to develop, for example in “scenario based design”, or “script based design”.
To understand the relation between the design of goals and the design of means, it is necessary to study in more
detail figure 6: Design as a human act.

Figure 6. Design as a human act (Eekels , 1982)

In this model, a distinction is made between the “domain of the material reality and the domain of the mind.
Within the mind, two kinds of judgements are made: judgements of truth and judgements of value.
A designer/architect observes reality and constructs for him-/herself an image of this reality (which might be
different for different persons). Human beings always tend to attach a judgement of value to this image, and it is
this judgement which is determinative for the so-called “design of goals”, which can be defined as a proposal for
change in the domain of reality.
Not the product itself is the design goal, but the aimed change in the domain of reality. The product to design is
just a means for this change, which is understood by few designers. This interpretation of the design goal leads
to a much more complex design process.
A distinction between the synchronic and the diachronic structure of the product application is necessary for
defining a proper design of goals. The synchronic structure is related to the context in which the product is
applied. The diachronic structure is related to process in which the product functions play a role. Cosmonomy is a
combination of synchronic and diachronic structures.

Conclusions with respect to methodology in open building design:

1. Much more intention should be paid to the definition of the design of goals
2. The product, a house, should only be regarded as a means to achieve goals

9
Psycho-social and technological complexity

Of the many projects, which were studied by Verweij in the field of industrialized housing, only few projects can
be regarded as successful. One of the reasons could be a misbalance between the attention for psycho-social and
technical complexity. When we regard a house just as a means to achieve certain goals of a combination of
stakeholders, a house has become an extreme complex product. The complexity increases even when a house is
divided in materials, components, constructions and systems.

Table 2: Product stakeholders versus product-aspects

Table 2 represents only one, limited way for splitting up the product and the stakeholders, but already the
complexity is clear. What is not integrated in the table is the fact that materials, components, constructions and
systems are generally designed by different individuals and that they are produced and distributed by different
firms with different cultures.

Conclusions with respect to methodology in open building design

1. Priority in design methodology for open building should be creating alliances between designers in diverse
branches of industry
2. Standardization should be part of the development process, ensuring tuning of stakeholders

With respect to the success rate of open building for business it is useful to make a distinction between subjective
and objective properties of a design. Before doing so, the terms objective and subjective need to be defined.

 The term “objective” is mostly interpreted as “based on reason”.

 The term “subjective” is mostly interpreted as “based on sense”.

The terms objective and subjective are directly related to the terms object and subject. In case of an object, the
initiative belongs to the observer (observer’s objective). In case of a subject, the initiative belongs to the product
(experience by the observer). An artefact can be seen both as an object, and a subject. We can covet an object
for a certain purpose. We talk about and think about a subject. An opinion about an artefact, means, in fact that

10
we regard it as a subject, while if it is something we want; we regard it as an object. The distinction between the
product as an object and the product as a subject leads to the definition of two function groups: objective
functions, which comply with the (conscious or unconscious) objective of the user and subjective functions, which
comply with the (conscious or unconscious) realized experience by the designer. In this context, objective
functions are defined as the extent to which an artefact is able to assist the user in a physical, perceptual or
informational way. Subjective functions are defined as the extent to which an artefact is able to influence the
mental experience of the user.

Table 3. Success matrix of industrialized open building

Table 3 shows a matrix with on the vertical axis new either existing objective properties and on the other new
either existing subjective properties. The Polynorm house resembled traditional Dutch row-houses, built in the
sixties, although the applied materials and construction methods are completely different. The houses have
functioned for 50 years and can be regarded as reasonable successful. The production stopped because the
construction was too labour-intensive with growing wages.
The Farnsworth house of Mies v.d. Rohe was based on a ‘proven technology’ way of building, and the dimensions
were according to existing demands. From a subjective point of view the house was quite different, e.g. with
respect to experienced privacy.
The Compact home of Richard is different with respect to objective as well as subjective properties. The
construction is different as well as the visio-spatial appearance. It is not expected that masses of them will be
built in the near future.

Conclusions with respect to methodology in open building design

1. With respect to psych-social complexity, it is necessary the complexity of the design & manufacturing process
as well as the complexity of the perception of the house as a product.
2. From a business point of view it is not advisable to innovate simultaneously with respect to objective values
and subjective values.

11
General conclusions

In this paragraph some conclusions are drawn for the policy of the Concept House group with respect to open
building design:

- the support construction should be designed in a way that a traditional lay-out of a home stays possible;
- it should be possible to add façade constructions with universally known semantics;
- Although independent and flexible, walls, doors, stairs and other infill elements should be designed in a way
that they comply with traditional elements, e.g. the opportunity to apply wallpaper;

The consequence for the Concept House group is that work is done simultaneously on three levels:

- concept house
- concept building elements
- concept home systems

This work is done in close cooperation with companies specialized in the different fields. Integration of those fields
is realized via frequent workshops.

References

Badke-Schaub, P. & Roozenburg, N. & Lauche, K. (2006) Design Theory and Methodology, Course reader, Delft
University of Technology, Delft.
Benson, Tedd, “Toward the realization of the DSustainable Wood Architecture”. Research Forum of Wood
Architecture, International Conference, 1997.
Cross, N. and N.F.M. Roozenburg (1992) Modelling the Design Process in Engineering and Architecture, Journal of
Engineering Design, volume 4, pp 325-337.
Cross, N. (2004) Expertise in Design: an Overview. Design Studies, volume 25, pp 427-441.
Eekels, J. (1982) Industriële Doelontwikkeling, first edition, 1973, Van Gorkum Assen.
Eekels, J. & Poelman, W.A. (2001) Trilogie Industriële Productontwikkeling, deel 1 t/m 3. Lemma, Utrecht.
Habraken. N.J. Supports: an Alternative to Mass Housing. England: Architectural Press, 1972
Kendall, Stephen. “The Entangled American Home. ”http://www.nbm.org/blueprints/90s/
winter94/page2/page2.htm (june 2001)
Poelman, W.A. (2005) Technology Diffusion in Product Design (thesis)

Wim Poelman was born in The Hague, the Netherlands, on 6 june

1948. In 2005 he successfully defended his thesis on Technology
Diffusion in Design. Since then, he has been associate professor
Product Development at the TU-Delft.
Poelman has published various books, reports, papers on product
development and technology management. He was co-founder of a
council for industrial design and a society for Material Design in the
Netherlands and of several magazines within these disciplines.

12
Simulating the technical factors of
Precast Concrete Production
G Long, University of Nottingham (gavin.long@nottingham.ac.uk)
Dr K Elliott, University of Nottingham (kim.elliott@nottingham.ac.uk)
Dr M Mawdesley, University of Nottingham (michael.mawdesley@nottingham.ac.uk)
Prof N Dawood, CCIR, University of Teesside (n.n.dawood@tees.ac.uk)
J Dean, CCIR, University of Teesside (j.dean@tees.ac.uk)
Dr R Ahmed, CCIR, University of Teesside (r.ahmed@tees.ac.uk)

Abstract

The use of precast concrete in construction provides an example of successfully employing off-site manufacturing
in the industry. The UK construction industry aspires to increase its use of off-site manufacture in line with the
findings of industrial reviews (Egan and Latham reports). Innovation in the precast concrete industry is limited by
the risks associated with change. There is scope for simulation to provide a tool for reducing these risks and
enabling greater innovation and use of precast concrete.

The Enterprise Simulation for Precast Concrete Operations (ESPCO) project intends to address this limitation by
developing a virtual precast concrete manufacturing facility. ESPCO will adopt a flight simulator or sandbox
approach to simulation allowing the user free rein in modelling a specific facility in detail or examining the effect
of changing a single element of production such as plant equipment or materials.

This paper describes work on development of a simulation of precast concrete production from a technical
perspective. The simulation focuses on concrete as a material, modelling its constituents and the production
processes that affect its properties. In addition to modelling current practice, the simulation aims to enable the
input of novel materials or processes and examine their impact on the concrete produced

Findings from the research undertaken in the production of a prototype technical simulation are described. The
integration between the technical and operational simulations being developed is also detailed. Preliminary work
moving from a prototype to a full simulation of precast concrete production is discussed.

Keywords: Virtual simulated construction sites, Integration of products, processes, life cycle support and
information, Off-site manufacturing and preassembly

Background

Industrial Context

This paper reports on the results of a prototype simulation model development for Enterprise Simulation for
Precast Operations (ESPCO). The ESPCO project has been funded for the UK precast industry by the British
Department of Trade and Industry under technology their initiative program. The University of Nottingham (UoN)
and the University of Teesside (UoT) are acting as academic partners; industrial collaborators include AMEC,
Tarmac, and Aggregate Industries; the project is being led by the British Precast Concrete Federation.
The ESPCO project aims to provide a flight-simulator-like tool to precast concrete companies. It should
encapsulate technical and operational aspects of precast concrete production to help them study cost and

2
schedule tradeoffs and identify effects of different concrete mix designs on the production process. The project
has been divided into two areas: technical simulation and operational simulation of precast production operations.
The University of Nottingham (UoN) is responsible for the technical simulation of precast concrete production
operations and University of Teesside (UoT) is responsible for operational simulation. A prototype of operational
aspects of precast concrete production has been developed by UoT and is described in a separate report by UoT.
The two models will be integrated to form the flight simulator for the precast concrete industry.
This report presents a review of the activities undertaken in ESPCO at UoN. A review of the work carried out at
the UoT can be found in Dawood et al (2007).
The precast concrete industry in the UK is far from homogeneous. It consists of a variety of companies ranging
from small to large. The products can be classified in several ways such as Manufacture for Stock or Manufacture
to order; or Structural components or non-structural components.
The methods of manufacture employed also vary and include wet casting, dry casting and spinning. Despite all
these variations, the process used is significantly the same at the macro level and consists of the following steps:
Production of concrete, Preparation of moulds, placing of concrete, Curing of concrete, Removal of moulds, and
Transfer to storage. In addition the process for the manufacture of some units has reinforcement and
prestressing steps.

Problem

Much of the precast production process is affected by the design of the concrete mix irrespective of the
precasting method used or the product being made. Examples of the effects are shown in table 1.
This paper describes the development of a prototype model of the design of mixes and production of batches of
the mixes. It provides the data for the process model and data to allow the combined model to evaluate the mix.
This data is in terms of important measures and includes, the rate of strength gain, the workability, the curing
methods allowed and their effects on the strength gain, the mixing time the actual quantities produced. Future
work will investigate the provision of safety and sustainability related information for a more holistic evaluation of
a mix and the process.
The prototype will act as proof of concept for the final technical model and the overall simulation model. It will
allow users to investigate new constituent materials and mixes and their effects on both the batches produced
and, through the process model, on the process. It also include the effects of uncertainties inherent in the
individual material properties the behaviour of the materials when they are combined into a mix and the amounts
of each material in any given batch of the concrete

3
Table 1: Illustrations of effects of mix design on process steps

The method chosen for designing the mix for the prototype model is that developed by the Building Research
Establishment (BRE, 1988) and often referred to outside the UK as the British Method. This was selected as it is
the most commonly used by the industrial partners at present. As more detail and accuracy becomes necessary,
this choice may be re-examined. Other potential methods for concrete mixture examined range from the complex
theoretical models based on particle interactions and requiring detailed material information (De Larrard, 1999;
Dewar, 1999; Wong, 2005) to less complex methods based on experimental results such as the one chosen or
Shacklock (Shacklock, 1974).

Learning Objectives:

 How a simulation model of the behaviour of a concrete mix can be developed

 How such a simulation model can be used to predict the values of parameters which will affect the precasting
process
 How such a simulation model can be used to provide input to a process simulation model
 How such a model can be used to improve a concrete mix in terms of cost, strength, environmental impact
and safety.
 How such a model can be used as a method of knowledge elicitation
 How uncertainty in the material properties can be incorporated into such a simulation model

4
Approach

A five-step approach as shown in figure 2 was adopted for this work. This paper covers the first two ste

Initial Knowledge Capture

The main source of the information required for this phase was the
industrial partners. Their practical knowledge was used to extend
the information available from the literature and from academic
sources. Several important points arose during the phase. Firstly,
it became obvious that industry treated much of the required
information as commercially sensitive. For example, the detailed
effects of admixtures and additives were often not divulged. This is
surprising because the manufacturers often want the properties of
their products to be known and treat them as selling points. It is
understandable however, that they would want to maintain strict
control of their product information.
Secondly, and related to the first point, the products range provided
by the material manufacturers changes rapidly. This is particularly
true of admixtures. This sensitivity and rapid changes meant that
Figure 2: The outline development process the design of the simulation had to incorporate general materials
but allow users to add their own specific materials and define
exactly their effects when added to mixes.
A third point which affected the design of the simulation model was how much of the information existed only in
the form of graphs and not in terms of equations. An example of this is the strength gains over time. Curve
fitting could be used to produce equations but there would be no real scientific reason behind the resultant
equations and it was decided, therefore, to use the graphs as these were what is used in practice.
The graphs of strength gain that are available are usually related to in-situ placed concrete and not to concrete
used for precasting. In precasting, the behaviour of the concrete during the first few hours after mixing is
important since it must gain sufficient strength rapidly to enable the precast unit to be moved and the mould
reused. In general concrete, the first few hours are relatively unimportant since the moulds will normally not be
stripped for over a day. This sparsity of data could affect the accuracy of the model and some experimentation
might be required if further data cannot be found.

A final point which arose from this phase of the work is that many of the interactions of the parameters are very
non-linear. A specific example of this is the effects of combining Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and cement
replacement products (CRPs) (such as blast furnace slag, fuel ash or silica fume) in various proportions. There is
not a linear relationship between the strength and the proportion of OPC. Indeed, there is no easily apparent
relationship. This has meant that the prototype model has been designed so that the user has to specify any
combination of a two materials as a third, new material representing a blend of the OPC and CRP.

Prototype Model Development

The model was developed around the concept that all concrete was made up of a maximum of four types of
material: Binders, Bulkers, Water and Admixtures. More detailed descriptions of these types of materials and their
effects on a concrete are given in a number of the sources given in this paper’s references such as Neville,
Powers or Dewar (Neville, 1995; Powers, 1968; Dewar, 1992). For a more detailed examination of the science and
chemistry of concrete admixtures Rizom (Rizom & Mailvaganam, 1999), amongst others, provides a good

5
background. Due to the variety of type, action and evolution of admixtures, these materials were particularly
difficult to model in terms of a prototype

A ‘Binder’ is the material, such as OPC, Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC) or a blend of these with CRPs
which binds all the materials together. It is the main active ingredient of the concrete.

A ’Bulker’ is a material which gives the final product its volume. Typical bulkers are the coarse and fine
aggregates.

‘Water’ is the material required by the binder to enable it to gain strength. In all situations encountered so far in
the project this is ordinary water although the model would allow any other to be used.

An ‘Admixture’ is anything added to the mix to alter the behaviour of the mix in respect of the major measures
considered. Typically, an admixture would change the workability or final strength of a mix.

Several different development tools were examined before the final choice was made. Simulation packages such
as ARENA were eventually rejected because of the nature of the problem and it was decided to use a high-level
language development environment. Visual Studio and Delphi were investigated and Delphi selected for personal
preference. An Access database is used to pass information between the process and technical models and to
store the information about the materials.

Analysis

The technical simulation model is called from the main menu/hub of the overall system. This hub enables access
to the various modules that make up ESPCO and is intended to represent an overview of a precasting facility. Key
information is displayed here detailing current production options and recent production history.

Figure 3: Materials Database

Figure 3 shows details for typical materials stored in the system database. The screen can be used to browse
through materials and select materials for editing, deletion or inclusion in the mix design module. Selecting a
material is done by setting the “InUse” field to true. Materials are classified by type (i.e. binders, coarse bulkers,
fine bulkers, admixtures, etc).

6
Figure 4 shows the screen used to input data for a material such as a binder (example shown above), bulker
(coarse and fine) or other concrete constituent. Data consists of a variety of types and includes the ability for the
user to input tabular information via a graphical interface. The example shown illustrates how the package has
been designed to allow a user to input graph-based data which is commonly the only type available. In this case
hydration profile(s) for a binder are input by positioning the y-values on the graph to indicate strength values at
fixed time intervals (x-values)

Figure 4: Add new material screen.

Figure 5 shows a screen which displays details of mix designs and concrete batches created from those mixes.
The user can see extra data specific to the selected mix or batch if necessary and can use this module to open
the mix designer module (see figure 8) for creating or editing concrete mixes.

Figure 5: Mix and Batch Book

Figure 6 shows a screen-dump from the ‘Product Catalogue’. This contains information for finished products which
the precasting company makes. It is useful to have this information for the technical model as some mixes might
not be suitable for some products. For example, a mix with a low workability might not be suitable for a wall panel
if it is cast vertically but would be suitable if it were cast horizontally. The database works in a similar fashion to the
materials database but displays product data relevant to the ESPCO system. A user can view, edit, browse or add
products used in the simulation. Additional data for a selected product is shown in the lower area of the form.

7
Figure 6: Product Catalogue.

Figure 7 shows a screen dump from the mix designer. This is the main element of the technical simulation.
Previous screens exist for the administration, data entry or navigation in the system. The mix designer consists of
a number of sub-windows that perform specific functions:

Figure 7: Mix Designer.

8
 Object Inspector – displays data for the item (material) currently selected (if any) in the mix designer.
 Mixer Window – Used to combine the selected elements and set the relative proportions of each element in
the mix design.
 Estimate Window – gives an estimate of the likely concrete specification once a viable mix has been produced
in the mixer window. This window only provides a limited subset of concrete properties such as strength,
workability, etc.
 Binder/Bulker/Hydrator/Admixture windows – These windows contain the relevant concrete constituents
identified for use in the mixer in the materials database. Each constituent is represented by an icon which can
be dragged into the mixer image in the mixer window for addition to a mix. When an icon is selected the data
for that item is displayed in the object inspector window

Results and Business Impacts

The prototype simulation has been completed. It can produce mixes and batches from any materials that the
user wishes to specify. The specification is not a simple matter of naming a material. It is necessary to give its
properties and the effects it has on all the major parameters when combined with other materials.
Figure 8 shows a screen-dump of the results of the main mix design interface. This is displayed when the users
have selected the materials and proportions to use. It shows the main results of the technical simulation. It can
be seen that it includes, for example, the curing profile is performed and the mix data window will be displayed
with the results of this processing.

Figure 8: Mix Data window

It contains the properties of a concrete that are determined through the mix design method chosen and produces
an estimated curing profile for the mixture. Some relative measures of key performance indicators such as
sustainability and finish are given along with calculated figures such as strength, cost and workability. The user
can also produce test batches using a specified batching plant and mixer to examine the potential variability of
concrete produced using the specified mixture under those conditions. Figure shows the simulated output
including hydration profiles for two different test mixtures.

9
Key Findings

A summary of the major findings of the work described are listed below.

Business Impacts

The simulation models (technical and operational) will be able to provide the precast industry with tools to
forecast production schedules using different concrete mix and manufacturing methods. The models will be able
to predict the effect of new materials, mix designs and production technologies before major investment by a
precast company. The ability to model Heath and Safety factors (such as Noise, vibration and Dust) in a
precasting factory is of a great interest for the industry and will be included in the models.

Conclusions

This paper reports on the results of a prototype simulation model development for Enterprise Simulation for
Precast Operations (ESPCO). The ESPCO project aims to provide a flight simulator like tool for the precaster
industry. It will encapsulate technical and operational aspects of precast concrete production to help them study
cost and schedule tradeoffs and identify effects of different concrete mix designs on production process. The
paper introduced the concept of the modelling of the technical aspects of precasting. It has illustrated some of
the problems encountered and solutions proposed.

Key Lessons Learned

 An holistic approach to precasting process is needed to optimise production plans and thus factory operation
 The approach should include materials, mix design and process aspects
 Modelling material behaviour is a complex issue.

References

Building Research Establishment (BRE) (1988). Design of normal concrete mixes. HMSO, UK

De Larrard, F. (1999) Concrete mixture proportioning: a scientific approach. E & FN Spon, London.

Dewar, J. D. (1999) Computer modelling of concrete mixtures. E & FN Spon, London.

Dewar, J. D. & Anderson, R. (1992) Manual of Ready-Mixed Concrete (2nd Edition). Blackie Academic &
Professional.

Neville, A. (1995), Properties of Concrete, Longman, 4th Ed.

Powers, T. C. (1968). The properties of fresh concrete. Wiley & Sons, New York.

Rizom, R. & Mailvaganam, N. (1999). Chemical admixtures for concrete (3rd Edition). E & FN Spon, London.

Shacklock, B. W. (1974). Concrete constituents and mixture proportions. Cement and Concrete Association,
London.

Wong, H. C. & Kwan, A. K. H. (2005). Packing Density: A Key Concept for Mix Design of High Performance
Concrete. Materials Science and Technology in Engineering Conference, 2005. Hong Kong.

10
Gavin Long has been a research associate at Nottingham University for the last 6
years. He has worked on a number of projects during this time including the
development of games and simulations for teaching construction management, a
method for visual inspection of flood defence infrastructure and a tool for assessing
the potential for use of modular building service units in large buildings. His main
area of research is in the use of simulations and games for teaching and training.

Dr Mawdesley has an extensive background in the development and use of

simulations in the construction industry. He has developed a number of simulations
during his academic career both for use in the teaching of undergraduates and for
practical use in industry. His research interests cover many aspects of construction
management including project management, planning and control and the use of AI
techniques to improve the management of construction projects.

Dr. Kim S Elliott (BTech, PhD, MICE, CEng) is Senior Lecturer in the School of Civil
Engineering, University of Nottingham. He has published 110 journal and conference
papers on the structural and material behaviour of precast and prestressed concrete
structures, twice winning the Henry Adams Award from the IStructE. He has authored
4 books, Precast Frame Buildings Design Guide (1992), Multi-Storey Precast Concrete
Frame Structures (1996), Precast Concrete Structures (2002) and Precast Concrete in
Mixed Construction (2002). He has lectured on this subject is 15 countries worldwide
and at 25 universities in UK. Dr Elliott is a member of the FIB Commission on
Prefabrication, and was Chairman of the European research project COST C1 on
Semi-Rigid Connection in Precast Concrete Structures

Nashwan Dawood is a Professor of construction management and IT. Currently

director of CCIR at Teesside and have spent many years as an academic and
researcher within the field of project and construction management and the
application of IT in the construction and precast processes. This has ranged across a
number of research topics including Information Technologies and Systems
(4D,VR,Integrated databases), risk management, intelligent decision support systems,
cost forecasting and control and business processes. This has resulted in over 140
published papers in refereed international journal and conferences, and research
grants totalling about £1,800,000 in cash and £600,000 in kind.

Rizwan Ahmed is a Research Fellow in process modelling and simulation at CCIR,

University of Teesside. He is currently working on the ESPCO project funded by the
DTI and teaching project management to engineering students. He obtained his PhD
in process modelling and simulation from University of Hertfordshire, UK in 2006.
Where he proposed and evaluated an empirically formulated framework for process
modelling and simulation. He has presented at various high profile conference in
simulation. He holds a first degree in computer science and MSc. in Software
Engineering.

J.T. Dean an electrical engineer with experience at board level in process industries
and an MSc on Operational Management, Member-Institute of operations
Management, Member-chartered Management Institute. Specialising in Automation
change management in the Precast Industry over eight years prior to 2006. Currently
engaged in developing IT projects and supervising PhD student at the University of
Teesside.

11
The GRP Shell Structures for the Rabin
Center in Tel Aviv
Mick Eekhout, Professor of Product Development, Faculty of Architecture, TU Delft
Director of Octatube Space Structures, m.eekhout@octatube.nl

Abstract

After stretched membrane structures, systemized metal space structures, sophisticated tensegrity structures, glass
envelope constructions and load bearing glass structures it is now ‘Liquid Design’, ‘Free Form’ or Blob architecture
that sets the trend. This type of architecture is computer-based rather than culture-based. In a sense it is caused
by technology driven interest of architects, having learned the newest generation of 3D design computer
programs, capable to design complicated virtual 3D buildings that seem like they are realistic. Yet the route to
reality is paved with technical experiments to produce the technical 3D components of these ‘Blob’ buildings. The
aid of other design professions like aeronautics, ship design and industrial design is necessary in order to develop
a new ‘Blob’ technology with the 3D forms, yet fitting within the modest average m2 budgets of the building
industry. Enlarging the traditional integration is necessary in order to develop CAD/CAE, CAM/CAB procedures and
special production and geodetic surveying technologies. In this case producing one-off GRP stressed skin
sandwich components made it possible to make larger spans and in a arbitrary form in order to become true 3D-
roofs. Each initial experiment in the first years of a new type of architecture is an extremely complicated process,
but one where design dominates. This article describes the design process of the liquid design roofs for the Rabin
Center in Tel Aviv, that owes much to the interdisciplinary design vocabulary from the different designing faculties
at the Delft University of Technology.

Keywords: Liquid Architecture, Blob technology, one-off industrialization, 3D composite components, Design &
Build

Background

Industrial Context

In November 2002 the tender was announced for the Yitzhak Rabin Center, Tel Aviv, designed by Moshe Safdie
Architects. The tender drawings for the 3D roofs, resembling peace doves, were made by ARUP (New York) and
analyzed as an arbitrary steel structure with a layer of concrete. The roof cladding was left open to the contractor,
yet the architect had given the preference to a seamless solution. The preference for a seamless solution made
any prefabricated system rather difficult and the proposed structure did not seem challenging enough for us. The
client and the building manager however kept reminding us of the tender date, even extending the final deadline.
After a brainstorm session of the engineering department of Octatube the following idea was conceived: the roofs
would be made as giant surfboards of foam with GRP skin, creating 5 different GRP sandwich roof wings with a
maximum length of 30m and a maximum width of 15 to 20m. For the tender we decided to work out two
concepts, one with a tubular steel structure as described in the tender with a GRP covering and our entire GRP
stressed skin sandwich roofs, the latter being one million euro more expensive. Two days after the closing date of
the tender we were called by Avi Halberstadt, the local representative architect of Moshe Safdie, stating he saw
our proposals and referred to it as ‘an amazing solution’. The big wings would have to be constructed in one of
the empty ship building halls in the Netherlands, as the wings would have to be turned upside down after
construction of the top stressed skin layer in order to apply the lower layer. This meant a hall with minimal

1
working width of 25m and a free height under the crane of 20m at least. After completion of the GRP top skin,
the object had to be rolled over, turned and the bottom skin had to be applied. After completion they would be
loaded on an open inland vessel and towed to the port of Rotterdam, where a specially chartered ship in which
the 5 wings could be stacked vertically. After going for anchor on the coast of Tel Aviv a giant freight helicopter
would lift the roof wings one for one from the vessel on a route to the shore, 5 km inland during the night, to
position the roof wings on the flat open building site. A mobile crane would then swing the roofs on top of the
columns. After a fiery discussion of the building commission the outcome was that the steel structure option was
about on the average tender price while the GRP was still considered quite expensive, but undoubtedly the most
appealing concept. Moshe Safdie stated the idea was unbelievable and never done before according to his
knowledge.

Figure 1-2 Tender drawings made by Arup. Left, ‘The Library’ and right, the Great Hall.

Figure 3. Architectural model of the Rabin Center, Tel Aviv (Moshe Safdie & Associates

2
Process Approach

Engineering & Production

At Octatube prototypes were made of both alternatives: steel structure with local foam covering and the integral
sandwich. Both prototypes were shown to architect Moshe Safdie, together with the first results of the computer
work in July 2003. The pre-engineering had indeed resulted into a dramatic reduction of the cost price as we
were more familiar with the experimental sides and its solutions. The original quotation was reduced to around
the original average price level, thanks to the pre-engineering contract. The route from redesign and pre-
engineering to final design took one year involving 5 to 6 engineers. The final engineering started on the basis of
AutoCAD and Mechanical Desktop and the final analysis incorporating the final production methods of the GRP
wings, testing of the connections of the sandwich panels on de-lamination, assembly connections loading
deformations, fire resistance and logistics in the Netherlands, the transport in special open containers, assembly
on special moulds on the building site, jointing and finishing and hoisting into position. After the design phase of
one year the engineering inclusive testing also took one full year.

Figure 4-5. Two construction types: a steel structure of CHS circular sections (left) and the structural sandwich
structure (right).

Fig. 6-8. First prototype with a stressed membrane (left). Third prototype to be locally produced (center). Fourth
prototype, a prefab sandwich construction (right).

3
From January 2005 onwards the production went into operation and the third year of experimental production
and assembly started with experimental production of the components on the negative moulds. We started with
the smaller roof of the Library. The production technique used in this case had been taken from standard
production techniques of producing sailing ship hulls. Holland Composites had produced ships with hull lengths up
to 30m. Experimental vacuum injected productions meant a clever step. However, the production proved to be
very engineering intensive. The foam blocks of polystyrene had been milled accurately by NedCam to negative
moulds from CAD/CAM files. When the milled moulds arrived at Holland Composites, the surface was covered with
a foil. Using vacuum-injection, glass fibre that was laid in the mould was impregnated with polyester resin. Since
the resulting layer of GRP described the desired shape in the best possible way, this side became the upper layer
of the roof. After this layer hardened, fire-resistant polyurethane blocks were sawn and applied to the GRP roof
layer. The foam blocks were subsequently covered with more glass fibre mats and a foil for the next vacuum-
injection. The polyester is also injected between the blocks, making glass fibre strips between the foam blocks
GRP stringers and thus creating a structural connection between the upper- & lower layer. Local buckling of the
GRP sandwich is prevented with this measure.

Fig. 9-10. Close-up of ‘The Great Hall’ wings with insert points for connectors to connect the wings to the columns
and structure of the ‘central body’. And 5 sections of the ‘The Great Hall.

4
Figure 11-19. Milling machine at Marin (11), scale model of upper wing of ‘The Library’ (12) and production of the
roof segments at Holland Composites (13-18). Vacuum injection of the top layer on foam block milled by Marin
(14). Insert to be placed in the GRP sandwich roofs in order to make a connection between the roofs and the
columns (14 & 16). Placement of foam blocks and glass fibre mats, which will become stringers (15). Vacuum
injection of the bottom layer (17). Final result, in this case an early prototype (18). Discarded foam moulds (19).

In the mean time, in the production hall of Octatube, the steel columns that should support the roof were
produced. Next to that, these columns also bear the load of the frameless glass façade. During the production at
Holland composites steel inserts were placed within the sandwich. Specially developed ball-and socket-connections
on top of the columns were bolted to the inserts. The largest challenge for Octatube proved to be the central
body: the central part of the “Great Hall”. Due to the large forces from the upper and the lower roof wings
amongst others, unfortunately steel was the only solution to make this span possible. This resulted in a complex
structure of tubular steel, later to be fitted with thin GRP panels. The 3D tubes, mainly situated in the length of
the central body, at best approaching the desired shape, had to be connected to the more accurately shaped 2D
tubes. At Holland Composites the entire central body was assembled in order to fit the panels. After every panel is
fitted, the structure is disassembled en transported to Tel Aviv. All aspects were approached in an engineering
manner: measuring, analysing problems and deducting solutions. Analytical engineering in the best traditions of
the TU Delft made the initial amazing, improbable design solution finale a reality.

5
Fig. 20-21 The central body of the Great Hall

Fig. 22-23. 3D drawings of the roof segements in 4 special transport container and open container at Holland
Composites with the roof segements ready for shipment in April 2005.

Assemblage

Naturally assembly & montage was the third phase (after design & engineering and production & logistics), but its
influence already played a big role during the concept, design, engineering and production. Contract negotiations
forced us to find a different solution that the earlier described logistic concept. Now the idea was to fabricate
composite segments or components in the Netherlands that had to be structurally connected to each other in
order to hoist them in place. Each wing should be subdivided in long curved segments of 2.5 meters width. Since
the curves of the roof proved to be quite large at certain points, some segments had to subdivided in the length
direction as well, because otherwise an economic and feasible transport would prove impossible. Eventually the
width of the segments was increased to 3.5 meters in order to decrease the number of seams that had to be
finished on the building site. The location of the seams were chosen at the earlier described stringers.
Subsequently, the subdivision of the shell in segments was chosen in such a manner that it ran parallel to the
stringers. The stringers are positioned more or less perpendicular to the main span of the shells. They should
eventually increase the stiffness of the shells, since bending and fatigue tests showed that relying only on foam
as a core material, the connection between foam and the polyester skin could delaminate rather quickly. The
stringers are usually 4-8mm thick reinforced glass fibre with polyester resin, integrated with the upper and lower
skin during the vacuum process. The foam, initially conceived as a structural element, had therefore been
rendered to a lost internal mould material.
Because of the experimental character of the production process and the unfamiliarity with the consequences of
vacuum shaping, it was decided to make a test preassembly of the two shells of the Library at the grounds of
Holland Composites in Lelystad. The fitting took place with the curved side turned upwards (just like they would
be installed on the concrete substructure in Tel Aviv) so we saw and got to know the height of the shells and the
safety measures that had to be taken for assembly on the building site. One of the conclusions was that the shells
were going to be assembled with the hollow side turned upwards, so a worker could only fall inside, instead of
falling off the shell

6
Figure 24-25. Roof segment (left) and fitting of all the roof segments of the lower wing of ‘The Library’ at Holland
Composites in March 2005.

The shell would be carefully turned over with the help of two mobile cranes and 3 temporary hoisting fixtures in
the shell. The test assembly also showed us how the segments fitted to each other. The segments were produced
on separate milled foam moulds and each had their own shrinkage and shrinkage direction and together they had
to form the impeccable smooth surface. It was exiting to see if the total fitting of the individually shaped
segments still resulted in a fluent trajectory in the total of the shell. For a fluent trajectory a steel frame fitting
mould and clamps were necessary to force the individual segments in the desired shape. The segments produced
proved to be somewhat smaller than intended. They shrunk under influence of the vacuum infusion in such a
manner that the seams were more likely to be around 20-25mm instead of 12-15mm. A wider seam meant
(because of the required ratio between glass fibre and polyester resin) more glass fibre and thus an increase of
the weight of the shell. The connection between the separate segments can be divided in the longitudinal and
cross axis. Both have a different structural function. In general a rebate has been made on each side of the
segment, leaving a space of 220mm width and 15mm depth. In this space a prefabricated reinforcement is
applied of 200mm width and 10mm thick. This reinforcement is then glued with high-quality glue and clamped
with screws for a good hardening of the glue.
After the segments of two wings in Lelystad were built up for a test assembly in order to determine the fluent
trajectory and correct measurements, they were dismantled again and transported in specially fabricated
containers. The build-up in Tel Aviv had to take place at the south side of a large wall. Average day temperature
often rose to 35-40ºC, so only nets providing shadow, or even better the evening hours could provide an
acceptable climate for working. The segments were assembled inverted, measured and finished with structural
glass fibre and filler. Subsequently the shell was turned over and finished identically on this side as well. Each
shell was fitted with 3 hoisting fixtures, their position calculated on balance during hoisting with one mobile crane.

7
Fig. 26-29. Assembly of the roof segments by gluing and bolting
glass fibre polyester plates on the seams before applying the
finishing layer. Preparation and hoisting of the upper and lower
wing of the Library in August 2005

The installation of the last shell, which was postponed several times because of the rain, had to take place on the
3rd of November the latest. The 4th of November 2005 it was 10 years ago that Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated
and that day nobody was allowed on the building site. In the morning of the 3rd of November the operation
started. One crane held the shell in the correct position while a second crane gently slid it inwards. In the
meantime everything was meticulously measured in order to position it according to the theoretical position as
good as possible. The job was finished and early next morning the cranes pulled out.

Central Body

The central body denotes the central shell of the dove-shaped roof of the Great Hall. This 30 meters long steel
structure has been composed out of two parts and is covered with thin polyester cladding. This was necessary
because of the large weight and distance to the mobile cranes. Initially the idea was to hoist the central body at
once, completely with its cladding. Because of the shape of the central body (wide in the middle narrow and
point-shaped at the bearing supports) it would be too unstable. Due to the lateral absence of the upper and lower
shells the whole central body could pivot or turn over. During a test assembly of the central body in Lelystad the
montage problems of the 8 meters high steel structure quickly arose. Therefore the idea arose to hoist the central
body in two parts, complete with polyester cladding. The two parts were temporarily supported with a large
scaffold. This way it was possible to align and fine-tune the two parts. After this the upper wing was easily
hoisted into place. In the mean time the lower wing, with its hollow shape was assembled. Unfortunately, in late
October it started to rain and the finishing had to take place under tarpaulins, otherwise the polyester could drip
out. Working with polyester and grinding in open air proved to be rather uncomfortable work. After the final layer
of finishing an UV resistant polyurethane top coating was applied. This layer more or less sacrifices itself by
degrading under influence of UV light.

8
Project Analysis

A global analysis was made of the structural behaviour of the GRP wings and the steelwork. Holland Composites
employed the firm Solico Engineering (based in Oosterhout, NL) who performed the structural analysis of the GRP
roofs.

Fig. 34. Structural analysis of deformation of the GRP sandwich roofs made by Solico. Left, the upper and lower
wing of ‘The Library’. Right, the upper wing, the central body (made of steel with a GRP covering) and the lower
wing of ‘The Great Hall’.

Tolerances

Each wing is positioned on a steel substructure, which in its turn rests on a concrete wall with a much rougher
degree of dimensional tolerance. Positioning the shells by crane on the steel column heads could only occur while
trying to maintain the direction of the theoretical drawings as accurate as possible. 3D surveying was executed by
specialized surveyors. These people are indispensable, not just during execution, but also during production. They
are the new discipline for one-off production in the building industry. In every stage of engineering, production,
assemblage and hoisting, theoretical drawings are the decisive guideline. Substituting the responsibility from the
architect to the contractor has become an anachronism of old days and not suited for the modern prefabricated
building industry. Components of (large) buildings are produced globally nowadays. For this project the production
of the steelwork took place in Delft (NL), the glass in Luxembourg and Belgium, the polyester segments in
Lelystad (NL) and the concrete in Tel Aviv (IS). Eventually everything needed to fit perfectly. In August 2005 the
two shells of the Library were successfully assembled and hoisting in place. In September 2005 the assemblage of
the shells for the Great Hall started. After the shrinkage of the Library segments, it was decided to disregard the
seams for the production of the segments for the Great Hall. The process of natural shrinkage provided the
necessary space (seam) in order to apply the reinforcements.

Results and Business Impacts

During the finale we got filled with nostalgia to the days of rectangular building that can be built with a level and
a plumb line. What have we done? We make unique shells which have to exactly follow theoretical drawings and
will never be built again. Experimental and costly prototypes are indispensable in order to develop the shells in
their details, connection and shape to perfection. They remind us of the roof designs of Louis Kahn with its subtle

9
use light. This statement comes as no surprise when one realizes that Moshe Safdie worked with the famous
Louis Kahn (1901-1973). In contemporary architecture with its abstract details and simple roof edges a lot of the
refinement of the old masters has been lost.

Fig. 30-31. Finishing of the top layer of the roof by “airborne builders” and overview of the building site just after
completion of the roofs by Octatube.

Conclusions

The resulting design of this contribution shows that building technical design can lead to an integrated and
innovative process. In such processes many disciplines are collaborating and have to be coordinated throughout
the entire process inclusive all of its unforeseen and experimental stages. The results of this process have to be
integrated into one technical artefact that satisfies all requirements and gives efficient answers or compromises in
all of its life phases, be it conceptual design, material design, detail design, engineering, productions, assembly,
installation, loading behaviour, functional use as a building, meaning of the artefact as a building, (even as
Architecture) and in its (global) context/surroundings, in its meaning as part of the Monument for the Yitzhak
Rabin Museum.
Society expects perfect solutions from scientific designers. These solutions are not only the functional and
technical solutions. It may be true that the well-known restrictions in the volume prices of the building industry,
as posed by the clients in the building industry, lead to traditional and well known technologies. Yet the thresholds
to enter the building industry are low and competition is fierce. Sometimes experiments are persistent, initiated
by designers who are willing to wander though the entire experimental development process an are able to solve
all foreseen and unforeseen problems. In this case the interdisciplinary collaboration with Industrial Design
Engineering, the Marine Industry, Aeronautics proved to be essential and an enrichment in the field of
Architecture. What is the result of this complex project from a technological point of view, that took us 3 years to
complete. In general smaller projects are more suited for experiments than larger ones. If things go wrong the
fiasco is of smaller magnitude as well. Big mistakes can lead to bankruptcy. This project was completed by a
consortium consisting of Octatube, Holland Composites, Solico Engineering and Nedcam. This consortium is able
to take on projects worldwide from design, engineering, prototyping, production to montage. This Blob technology
for GRP shell roofs has been developed in the Netherlands as the architectonic counterpart of the Dutch yacht
industry and is ready to conquer the world.

10
Key Lessons Learned

This project can be characterized by 8 statements:

1. The use of glass fibre reinforced polyester as a structural material
2. From a handmade model to design and engineering of a 3D Blob roof structure
3. Prototyping, production, assembly and montage of a 3D Blob roof structure
4. The use of a sandwich structure as a structural principle
5. The large scale of a seamless and continuously curved free form shell
6. Prefabrication, local assembly and finishing of an experimental structure in the Netherlands
7. Close cooperation in a consortium with a subcontractor (Holland Composites) for crucial parts
8. A crucial role for final dimensions in all stages of design, engineering, production, assemblage & montage

From 1968 to 1973 Mick Eekhout studied Architectural Engineering in Delft. After his
graduation (with honours) - supervised by professor Oosterhof and professor Weeber -
he worked in an architectural office for two years, before founding his own architectural
office where he realised several buildings over eight years. In 1982 he founded the
company Octatube Space Structures, specialized in three dimensional constructions and
structures for the building industry. For over 20 years Octatube has realised many
design & build projects, both in the Netherlands and overseas. In 1989 he got his PhD
degree (with honours) - supervised by professor Oosterhof and professor Zwarts - with
his thesis 'Architecture in Space Structures'. Since 1992 Eekhout is professor of Product
Development at the Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture. In 2003 he
was the first designer since 1856 that was accepted to the Koninklijke Nederlandse
Akademie van Wetenschappen (Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences).

11
Production lines for custom-ordered
house manufacturing
Lars-Erik Andersson, Randek BauTech (lea@randek-bautech.se)
Dan Engström, NCC Construction Sverige (dan.engstrom@ncc.se)
Magnus Widfeldt, IVF (magnus.widfeldt@ivf.se)

Abstract

This paper presents a state-of-the-art on industrial manufacturing of houses, focusing on production of wall
components, and scenarios on coming needs for development. Similar descriptions and analyses can be made for
other major parts of the house, such as roofs and floor modules.
The state-of-the-art is related to long time experiences in custom made production lines, from companies with
roots from the 1940s, to recent development of automatic CADCAM integrated production machines.
It also presents a structure how to define coming needs and specifications for manufacturing automation,
specifically related to housing. References are given to industrial related research and implementation, especially
the experience from the production line supplier Randek BauTech AB. Scenarios for the future development are
given: Lean production principles and methods, Improved efficiency, and Integration of product design and
manufacturing respectively.
In general, custom-ordered products are of increasing interest. A lesson from the automobile industry is that
many different products on the market increase sales figures. In order to cut costs, lean production,
modularization and flexible production systems are necessary. Arguably, the same process will be adopted in
construction.

Figure 1: Manufacturing cell upgraded for increased productivity

Keywords: Detached houses, Production, Automation, CADCAM, Custom order

1
1. Industrial Context

The construction sector is industrializing. Efforts are being made across Europe to create more efficient and
flexible manufacturing, and in frontline enterprises, industrial manufacturing of houses is a reality. Randek
BauTech represents a line of businesses which are designing different types of production systems and lines,
providing the machines and installing them. In this sector, upcoming challenges are to combine increased
productivity and flexibility, and implementing new methods and technology. Specific areas are:

 Integration from custom-ordered computer-aided design (CAD) to manufactured houses

 New value-creating manufacturing cells and manufacturing technology
 Efficient material flow and logistics
 Lean production principles and methods

The customers buying production lines are housing or component factories. They are part of a supply chain,
handling information flow and material flow. The specifications of their production lines are made from expected
demands from the market. It is becoming increasingly important to be prepared for new demands from both
house-customers and from society Such demands, focus society, are related to:

 Sustainable products, focus energy savings, life cycle costs, materials, reduced waste etc.
 High quality in the whole building process, off site and on site, stricter building codes etc.
 Better working conditions, combined with higher productivity

Demands today and in future from customers are typically related to:
 Reduced cost, shorter lead times

 Increased individuality and complexity, new materials and combinations of materials

 Sustainable and environmental friendly design

 Concerns about the working conditions in the factory

In order to fulfil today’s expectations, and forecast what is coming, one needs a very broad and deep
competence, knowledge and skills in how to combine product realisation and details as:
 Material behaviour, specifically timber and steel for frame structures

 Variance reduction according to manufacturing and the final assembly on site

 How to plan production lines and subassemblies and integrate them in a custom-order system

2. This paper

This paper addresses a state-of-the-art and the needs for future development of production lines, from the
viewpoint set on the products by new codes and new market demands, as described in the industrial context. It
focuses on wall manufacturing. Similar descriptions and analyses can be made for other major parts of the house,
such as roofs and floor modules. The paper presents:

 A State-of-the-art on production lines, focusing on production of walls

 Scenarios describing main future challenges for development of production

State of the art: Flexible production lines This part is based on the skills and competence in the company
Randek BauTech, having long term experiences from the development and implementation of housing production
lines in many countries. References to other industries and research are added.

2
Scenarios: Some topics are chosen of specific interest for future housing production lines. These topics are all
described with three points of interest: Background information, possible application areas for housing production
lines, and finally a proposed scenario.

Learning Objective

The reader of this chapter can expect to learn:

 The possibilities today to realize efficient production lines for house manufacturing

 Scenarios on the needs for development of house manufacturing

3. State of the art: Flexible production lines

This chapter has a focus on the manufacturing systems of today: How they are planned and realized for
customers, and how You can plan and choose from different manufacturing cells and from different levels of
automation, suitable for Your manufacturing situation. This means a combination of state-of-the-practice and
state-of-the-art.

Wall production flow

A typical production flow from timber input to finished wall can be described as follows.
 Framework station

 Board application

 Fixing board material

 Turning station

 Insulation and board application

 Cladding

 Finished walls, ready for transport

Figure 2: Principle layout of a production line for walls.

This flow can be handled in a production system, see fig 2, which gives a principle layout of a typical production
line for walls. The so-called manufacturing cells in this line are:

1. Top and bottom plate production

2. Sub elements, insulation handling
3. Sub element storage, stud feeder
4. Framing station
5,6,7,9. Working stations
5. Board application station
5,7,9. Working bridges: Nailing and cutting operations
8. Tilting station
10. Stacking station

3
Customer in focus

The design and manufacturing of the production line itself, is a team work where the customers involvement is
essential. Only the client has full knowledge of the aims to be reached for the capacity of the line, what operators
are available and so on. Let us use the manufacturing cells as an example. These cells are performing specific
value-adding operations (cutting, nailing and so on) or moving/tilting operations. (See value adding time, fig 6).
They can be completely automated, semi-automated or manual, depending on what is the optimum efficiency in
the line. There is no use in fully automating a specific manufacturing cell if another cell is the value-flow
bottleneck. Control over the value-flow in the processes (keeping track of where production is the slowest) is a
vital part of efficient manufacturing. This means output form each manufacturing cell needs to be measured
continuously, and the results put in context so a choice of (or increase in) capacity somewhere in the
manufacturing line leads to overall efficiency.

Figure 3: Parts of a highly automated wall panel production: Left: Framework station. Right: Board
application station. CAD-controlled picking of individual boards, positioning and nailing.

Employee consideration

A successful installation also must involve operators in the production line; the training they have had, their
preferences and the number of different professions available. An important aspect in the planning of new
production lines is to use automation to reduce or eliminate hazardous or heavy working conditions.

Stepwise automation

The main focus in automation is to design modular systems, based on components possible to update in the
future. Some headlines in this work are:
 Specific manufacturing machines, possible to upgrade for increased productivity. Fig 4

 Modular manufacturing machines possible to join into a future production line

 Possibilities to upgrade manual manufacturing to CADCAM (Computer aided design and manufacturing)

controlled manufacturing
 Possibilities to optimise production flow by tailor made software

A specific task is to carefully address the logistics; to the production line itself, in the line and from the line. This
connects to the scenario (section 4.1 below) on Lean production, which arguably is of highly relevance for
manufacturing in general.

4
The use of automation for the reduction or elimination of hazardous or heavy working conditions is an important
aspect in the planning of new production cells and lines.

Figure 4: Stepwise upgrading of a working table for making the frame work and mount sheats.
Left: Basic design.
Middle: Nailing wagons added for faster nailing of studs
Right: Nailing bridge added, for increased productivity and precision

Productivity according to product complexity

The output required (metres per hour, square metres per hour) from the production line is highly relevant for the
level of automation. The complexity of the product produced is in turn essential for the output from the
production lines. Some typical examples of output of production are given below. A line designed for:

 simple wall structures can produce 150 metres of wall per hour
 complex wall structures can produce 20-25 metres of wall per hour
 complex wall structures without façade cladding can produce 40 metres per hour.

The complexity of the wall is central for the manufacturing speed and output. The highest productivity is reached
in manufacturing of “open panels”, i.e. a frame structure and a board on one side of the wall. These, typical
American components are transported to the site and completed in situ. More complex structures are equipped
with breather membrane or gypsum boards, electric installations, insulation, windows and/or doors and wooden
panel on the outside of the wall. For complex walls, without changing production line, the manufacturing speed
can be almost doubled by a change of the panel to façade cladding on site. The advantages of modularisation,
platforms and standard interfaces can not be overestimated.

Flexibility possibilities

The increased demands from customers to have special designed products, is a great challenge to realize. Today
production lines can be designed for flexibility, examples:

 Different materials: Steel frames or wooden frames.

 Different heights of the walls: Automatic changes can be made in the production lines for different heights of t
the walls.
 Custom designed openings for windows and doors.
 Automatic cutting of insulation to fit different openings.

The integration of CADCAM to production lines is a reality. A custom-ordered wall-design, made in a CAD system,
can be transferred to the manufacturing site machines and produced. Specific critical aspects are the handling of
materials and the precision of the material itself.

5
In modern architecture, windows are very important in the design of a house. Efficient manufacturing, combined
with flexibility to choose windows of different size, can be handled by different technology solutions.
A sub-panel station can be made, using a specific table for panels with installed windows. Fig 5 left. This
equipment can handle panel width between 650–1700 mm, panel height between 2200–3000 mm, and working
height between 750–850 mm. Adjustments can be done manually or by motor. Ready-made panels with windows,
can then be moved as a modular element to the wall production.

Figure 5: Flexible production technology for windows in walls: Left: Flexible table for sub-assembly station.
Right: CAD controlled cutting out bridge for windows and doors.

To make custom designed openings in walls for later assembly of windows and doors, CAD con-trolled cutting out
openings bridge is a solution. Fig 5 right. The CAD controlled bridge travels to the first position of a door or
window opening. The saw heads are lowered into the board material and cut out the opening. Positioning of the
saws is controlled via CAD instructions. The timber frame must have been designed for this.

Manufacturing processes

Efficient and trouble free manufacturing processes are essential, when designing efficient production lines,
reducing or eliminating heavy and/or labour-intense tasks. Such processes used in flexible production lines for
housing are:
Cutting: Sawing of timber, board, insulation
Joining: Nailing, stapling, screwing, use of adhesives
Assembly: Manual, semi-automatic, automatic

The demands on precision are very high. Nailing in plaster boards must have a precision of parts of a millimeter.
The choice of material in screws, nails etc must be made according to design demands but also according to the
surface treatment of the façade. Automatic cutting of insulation and joining by adhesives need a very controlled
process. Timber is also a “living” material, and the production process must be robust and minimize the negative
effects of this.

Service as a key to 24 hours accessibility in manufacturing plants

A key Lean production approach is to produce when a customer has ordered – not in advance! This means that
the productivity in machines sometimes can be low. But the accessibility must be very high, to be ready to start
production. Therefore, fast service is more and more important to manufacturer, and a key for future
manufacturing.

6
Early cooperation within the value-chain

Architecture is the one discipline in construction that deals with senses and human interaction. Arguably, there
is often a conflict between these soft values and the hard facts of manufacturing, lead times and economy. In
order to mitigate these differences it is important that architects have knowledge of how wall elements are
produced rationally. In order for the stakeholders to achieve low costs and high quality, collaboration in the
value-chain is vital.
As supplier of production lines, Randek BauTech would typically not discuss merits of different production
technologies with architects. Architectural preferences of precision expression in joints and corners, multiple
choice of materials, flexibility in spans and widths and so on will reach Randek BauTech either through the
structural designer of their client or not at all. The consequence is that when one is investing in a production
line, it is desirable that both product designers participate – architects and structural engineers. Since
manufacturers often hire architects on project basis but emply structural engineers, this is often only partly
achieved.

4. Scenarios

The following scenarios are samples of challenges and possibilities, indicating a likely – or necessary –
development of production lines for housing. Those scenarios are shortly expressed in a neutral form, as a
realized future state, containing previous experiences from different research and industrial development. The
aim is to discuss how to continue the development of production lines for housing. The scenarios are described
by giving a Heading, Background information, Possible applications and a description of the Scenario per se.
The Focus areas are selected from topics as Lean production, design for assembly, automation and so on. The
background information is given related to each focus area. Proposed applications are selected from today’s
production lines.

4.1 Lean production principles and methods

Background: In addition to custom ordered production discussed above, two fundamental features of Lean
production are value creation and waste reduction. Fig 6. An example from a successful supplier to automotive:
One week lead time for the product through the factory and 15_min value creating time. Lundin and Widfeldt
2006. Those aspects are even more relevant incorporating logistics and assembly at customers site. Lean and
working conditions have been studied by e.g. Berggren, Berglund. Studies indicates, that Lean enterprises get
advantages due to long term focus and creates better working conditions.

Percentage of total lead time

Not value adding activities

V=
N = Necessary
Value adding activities
S = Waste

Figure 6: Value-creating time is often a very small part of total lead time through a factory

7
Applications: In addition to industrial processes, Lean production principles and methods are of increasing
interest in construction. This will affect the production line customers’ view on material flow, value-adding
activities, how to handle utilisation and productivity and so on.

Scenario proposed: The implementation of Lean production has resulted in a custom-ordered flow of
information and material. Factories produces subassemblies and complete parts (flat packages or volumes) of
houses, modular designed for manufacturing, easy to move and quick to assemble on site.

4.2 Improved efficiency: Manufacturing cells and manufacturing technology

Background: Completely “new” and innovative technology is historically found in manufacturing. The
introduction of NC technology is such a step, as well as the use of industrial robots and lasers for e.g. cutting and
welding operations. Huge improvements have been made in efficiency. Fig 7. On the other hand the introduction
of lasers means high investments in equipment, education, safety, precision, maintenance and so on. Increased
investments need to be balanced by a need for efficiency at the specific manufacturing cell in question.
Time to weld 1 m steel 2 mm thick: From 600 s to 7 s

600
It is possible to reach
500 dramatic changes!

Time to weld 1 m steel 2 mm thick

400
from 600 s manual made
to 7 seconds by laser
300

200

100

0 7s

A IG TM r
G

M rc se
TI

M
M dA La
pi
Ra

Figure 7: Manufacturing efficiency have been improved dramatically, here welding operations
from hand held manual metal arc (MMA) taking ca 10 minutes to Laser taking 7 seconds.

Some examples from today’s view on modern manufacturing processes and automation:

 It is more difficult today than in the 1980´s to implement efficient manufacturing processes for joining.
Hedegård 2006.
 Manual assembly is better than robots in a new Scania factory. NyTeknik 2006.
 A used welding robot needed 7% utilization and is profitable for a particular small Swedish enterprise.
 By using 800 robots instead of normally 150, Chrysler has made a very flexible factory for car manufacturing.
Brogren 2006.
 Visualisation and simulation is a help for planning of new automation.

8
 Price reduction on industrial robots
between 1990 and 2000

The price of
one robot 1990
and the number
of robots 2000
for the same
price in
- USA
- UK
- France
- Germany Figure 8: Price reduction of industrial robots during a 10
- Sweden
- Italy years period. This development changes the economical
preferences to make investments in automation.
Source: Automation, no 9 2000.

As discussed above, the choice of level of automation is not trivial. New preferences and holistic view on the
factory make changes in manufacturing solutions.

Applications: More efficient manufacturing processes and automation in housing factories are of interest in e.g.
subassemblies, material handling, areas of higher risk for operators.

Scenario proposed: Housing producers use value-stream analyses to have a clear understanding of the actual
lead times, bottlenecks and so on in existing production. A development and investment plan is made due to
coming market needs, productivity improvements possible to reach etc. Investments are made to improve
material flow in a “kanban” way, improve safety and working conditions and – of course – productivity and
needed flexibility.

4.3 Integration of product design and manufacturing

Background: The use of modules and standard interfaces between modules, is a success factor for industrial
manufacturing. A reduction of the number of components in a product, has a direct connection to savings in the
company. The costs to introduce a new article/detail in a manufacturing company, are estimated to about 5 – 10
k€ only for the administration work.

Applications: The integration covers the design and manufacturing of houses in the value chain.

Scenario proposed: A developed method “Design for manufacturing construction and building” are used in the
value-chain, see chapter 3 above. Houses of high customer value can be designed from modules, platforms and
special designed parts, manufactured and combined in a very efficient way.

9
5. The way forward

In general, custom-ordered products are of increasing interest. A lesson from the automobile industry is that
many different products on the market increase sales figures. In order to cut costs, lean production,
modularization and flexible production systems are necessary. Arguably, the same process will be adopted in
construction. The ManuBuild project is an example of this, the increased order books for suppliers of advanced
house production lines is another. The way forward is to focus on creating value and reducing waste in all steps
from design to delivery of custom-ordered products. An exciting connection to integrate efficient manufacturing
and high architectural quality is an ongoing project on manufacturing of housing, involving Chalmers University of
Technology Dept of Architecture, NCC Construction Sverige AB, White arkitekter and IVF Industrial Research and
Development. Specific efforts on production lines will also be made by Randek BauTech AB.

Key Lessons Learned

From this paper, the main takeaways and learnings are:

 Knowledge of existing production lines and principles for housing

 An idea of the future development needs for house manufacturing

References

Brogren, C. (2006) Presentation of ABB and ABB Robotics at VINNOVA research seminar on Efficient Product
Realisation, Linköping, Sweden, 29-30 nov 2006.
Hedegård, J. (2006) Joining research seminar, arranged by The Swedish Welding Commission, Stockholm,
Sweden, 22 nov, 2006.
Dahlquist, H (2006) Montering på första parkett;http://www.nyteknik.se/art/48226 (date accessed: 6 Dec, 2006).
Lundin, R, Widfeldt, M (2006) Prestudy: Lead times in an automotive supplier´s manufacturing
Widfeldt, M (2000) Rationell produktion. Conference Svets 2000, 6 June, 2000, Stockholm, Sweden

10
Authors’ Biographies

Lars-Erik Andersson, CEO Randek BauTech AB

Dan Engström is an engineer and researcher working for NCC Engineering as

senior project manager for Research and Development, where his main tasks are
to initiate and lead projects related to architecture. In ManuBuild, he works mainly
with the building system. He is adjunct professor in building design specializing in
industrialized architecture at the Department of Architecture at Chalmers
University of Technology in Göteborg, Sweden.

Magnus Widfeldt is an engineer and researcher working for IVF Industrial

Research Corporation as project manager. His main tasks are to initiate and lead
projects related to industrialization, manufacturing and implementation of applied
research. In ManuBuild he works mainly with manufacturing technologies and
processes. He is engaged in the Swedish initiative for Lean Construction.

11
Enhanced manufacturing techniques for
on-site tilt-up concrete wall production
Mark Vines School of Property, Construction and Project Management
RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
Email: mark.vines@rmit.edu.au

Abstract

Utilising concrete as a wall system in Australian housing was first introduced for volume public housing during the
1960s. Its subsequent use until recent times has been minimal due to its poor performance, high initial costs
compared to other walling systems, and generally unattractive designs and finishes. Whilst concrete pre-cast has
re-emerged for public housing in remote areas of Australia, there also appears to be an emergence within the
private housing sector associated with more expensive housing due mainly to technological advances such as
finishes.
Many of the perceptual ‘barriers’ that have existed using concrete in the Australian house market appear to be
dissipating following an increasing awareness albeit slow of the potential advantages of using concrete as a wall
system. Technological advances are largely able to address the problems of performance and design. However,
perceived high costs and lack of specific concrete construction knowledge still remains.
The concept of the mobile casting bed (MCB) has been suggested by a ‘tilt-up’ concrete contractor as one answer
to producing better quality on-site concrete walls whilst maintaining a cost advantage over other comparative
systems for the Australian house market. This concept brings with it some of the inherent advantages experienced
in a true factory environment. The traditional form of ‘tilt-up’ construction, whilst still a cost effective method of
concrete wall production, still requires much onsite work to finishes after erection of the panels.
This paper reviews projected costs and benefits of implementing the MCB concept, using as a model one case
study of a recently constructed house outlined in Vines (2006). A MCB prototype has been constructed and it is
hoped that by the time this paper is presented a house will have been constructed using this method. It is
anticipated that by utilizing MCB similar cost reductions to that of tilt-up will be maintained, with the added
advantage of completed surface finishes at the time of manufacture resulting in a further reduction to overall
onsite cost and time. The result has the potential to revolutionize on-site concrete wall manufacturing processes.

Key words: Pre-cast concrete, house building, off-site manufacturing, mobile casting beds.

1
Introduction

Construction in the Australian housing market traditionally uses materials that are onsite labor intensive. Light
weight materials such as timber claddings, fibre cement sheeting and to a lesser extent polystyrene panels make
up 62% of the market (ABS), the balance with masonry. Concrete panel systems including the use of tilt-up
methods in low rise residential construction usage is less than 1%.

Early Australian public housing saw construction from pre-cast concrete wall panels in an attempt to reduce costs
and to reduce construction time by providing some form of mass production through the manufacturing sector,
reducing on site labour. This method of construction in future developments however did not take off mainly to
the stigma associated with low cost housing. The knowledge of pre-cast concrete at that time was also limited
with many technical problems unresolved including limited surface finishes. Latest advances in pre-cast concrete
has alleviated many if not all concerns and with it much of the negative stigma surrounding its use. The many
different finishes and shapes achievable in pre-cast also makes it attractive for designers and builders to
reconsider its use. It is the price as well as the lack of construction knowledge that still appear to be inhibitors for
its use Annon (2004).

An Australian concrete pre-cast contractor has proposed an idea to tackle the price and speed differential between
off-site and on-site concrete panel production by providing a casting bed that can be transported from one site to
the next – a mobile casting bed (MCB). This contractor predominantly produces concrete pre-cast panel walls for
local domestic housing construction using the traditional tilt-up method of manufacture.
At the time of writing this paper however, there had been unanticipated delays to the project due mainly to an
unprecedented work load. Consequently, this paper will report upon the projected costs and benefits that alluded
the contractor to the idea in the first instance. The cost model of one case study1 for a two storey dwelling from
Vines (2006) using two methods, one with the traditional tilt-up and the other pre-cast concrete wall panels has
been used to illustrate the concept. The actual against projected costs and benefits will be reported upon at a
later stage.

This paper forms part of the research currently undertaken by the School of Property, Construction and Project
Management for a State Association entitled ‘Identification of Pre-cast Concrete Product for use in the Domestic
Construction Sector’. This report considers the potential use of off-site pre-cast concrete in the industry and is the
first step in identifying innovations and changes that may be necessary for adoption of pre-cast concrete systems
in the Australian residential construction industry. This paper reviews the potential of on-site production
competing against off-site production.

Section 2 in this paper covers a brief overview of the on-site manufacturing process for concrete panel walls.
Section 3 reviews the cost model utlising MCB against the more traditional tilt-up method of manufacture and the
factory delivered panel with a comparison analysis, followed by conclusions in section 4.

1Double storey; floor area 250m2; gross perimeter surface area 470m2; openings 110m2. The case study adopted for this
comparison utilises 150mm thick off site pre-cast concrete wall panels with some panels designed and manufactured with an
external broom finish. A single external paint coating was applied by roller after the erection of the panels. The internal finish
exhibited painted plasterboard over battens. This design also utilised some internal pre-cast concrete walls with a class 1 finish
providing overall increased thermal mass but has not been used in these calculations. Traditional method – 28 panels

2
Overview of on-site manufacture

The traditional ‘tilt-up’ concrete construction method calls for an in-situ concrete casting bed, or utilizing a new
floor slab as the casting bed. The initial wall panels are formed on top of this casting bed with subsequent pours
one on top of each other separated using a release agent. Due to the stacking of panels using the preceding
panel as the form, surface finishes are generally inferior to that of factory produced panels. The result is a wall
panel that requires additional cosmetic work after the erection of the panels to both the inner and outer faces.
This traditional form of ‘tilt-up’ concrete construction whilst still a cost effective method of concrete wall
production Vines (2006), still requires much onsite work to finishes after erection of the panels. The inner face
generally is battened out with seasoned timber, insulated and plasterboard sheet attached to the battens. This
additional internal layer provides a separate skin that prevents the passage of moisture, and at the same time
provides thermal properties necessary to comply with the Building Regulations BCA (1996). Consequently, the
inner surface does not have to have a finish that will have visual grading.

The outer skin however is a different matter. Currently, this is treated generally with an additional applied textured
finish, or a solid smooth render, then painted. Works to the façade are not only expensive, especially for two
storey construction utilizing scaffolding access, but time consuming. The contractor saw an opportunity here to
obtain in part the benefits that off-site manufacture offers by providing completed surface finishes at the time of
the concrete pour. Utilising MCB to provide a concrete wall panel that will give the final outer face a completed
finish at the time of manufacture, will thereby eliminate or minimize the scope of works post panel erection. Such
finishes can be many and varied, from adapting a manufactured latex mould that would provide a finish face
down, to face up finish either trowlled incorporating expressed joints, to a broom finish. The concrete can be
coloured, textured, or simply smooth plain. A surface that is rough trowelled with an added retardant can be
washed to expose the aggregate is one of many relatively cheap surface treatments that can be applied at the
time of manufacture on site to achieve a particular aesthetic appearance .

The MCB essentially is a steel casting bed measuring 3000mm wide x 6800mm long that can be dragged or lifted
from the transport vehicle and located as close as practical to the cast walls permanent position. The construction
of the MCB is of steel plate over a steel grillage system to aid buckling resistance, incorporating lifting hooks and
side attachments for formwork side adjustment. The prototype is shown here in photograph 1.

Photograph 1 – MCB prototype

3
Transporting the MCB is to be done utilizing a low loader and a backhoe. The backhoe is unloaded, levels the area
in preparation for siting the MCB’s. The backhoe then lifts each MCB from the low-loader onto the prepared flat
area with adjustments made to leveling manually. The MCB can be relocated for better reach using the mobile
crane after the concrete panel has been lifted into position.

The contractor adopting MCB calculated the effective number of MCB’S required against current resources
employed for economies of scale. It is impractical to only pour one panel at a time, book in the crane, lift into
position, and then send the crane off again. The cost of this method of production would be prohibitive. Three
panels per day were calculated to be of optimum production. This also provides for an economical two day cycle
after initial setup as follows:

Day 1: MCB’s set up, panels formed and inspected.

Day 2: pour & cure
Day 3: lifted into position; forms cleaned; steel in place; inspected
Repeat days 2 and 3

The main difference between MCB and the more traditional system is that as the finishes are completed at ground
level during the production stage there is no need for additional post erection works incorporating expensive
perimeter scaffold access of the building resulting in a substantial cost and time saving.

Cost appraisal

The cost of producing on-site tilt-up concrete panels varies due to a number of factors including finish and shape,
location, accessability and demand to name a few, but is often in the vicinity of A$110 per m2 manufactured and
installed in its final position. This compares favourably with similar panels factory produced with costs around
A$200 + per m2. The factory produced panel however provides for a more superior surface finish, in particular,
the outer surface finish where potentially no further rework is required on site after erection. However, in some
case studies a painted finish has been applied after the dwelling was completed, opting to use extended handle
paint rollers rather than other means of height access.

The concrete wall panel is only part of the overall wall system and subsequent cost in a house. Table 1 (extracted
in part from Vines (2006)) provides indicative costs surrounding extra works required for a completed wall. Not
only is there a cost associated with the coating materials and the labour involved to apply the coatings, it is also
necessary to provide scaffolding when the height from natural ground level to the underface of the eaves is
greater than 3000mm - Code of Practice (2004). Hence, with two storey construction any work to the facade
necessitates the need for access scaffolding with costs added to the overall project.

4
Table 1 Comparative Cost Analysis – tilt -up; pre-cast

The contractor as previously stated has calculated for optimum use that three MCB’s are to be used at any one
time to maximize not only the current labour force employed, but for crane hire capacity for any one given day.

2
The cost of a standard concrete panel utilising MCB is envisaged to fall from A$110 per m to around A$102 per
2
m as there is no setup of a lost concrete casting bed for materials and labour involved in its preparation and
pouring of the slab. This is providing a finished floor slab is not used as the casting bed in the first instance for
the panels. However, there are added costs from extra carnage required with the new method of production.
Instead of hiring a crane with driver for a continual use over for example four days, there is a requirement to call
in a crane for shorter periods of time, over a number of occasions. The difference in crane hire charge when
using MCB must be added to the overall cost. Therefore, the cost build up of the MCB is as follows:
Crane hire cost @ $380 minimum 3 hour hire. Included in the three hour hire is one hour travel time and half
hour setup time, leaving 1.5 hours productive lifting time.
To lift three panels into their final position the contractor has allowed an extra 1.5 hours hire time @ $116 per
hour. Total cost for three panels: $380 + (2x $116) = $612
Based on a production of 28 panels there will be 10 lifting times.
Total cost will therefore be: 10 x $612 = $6120 crane hire charges.

Under the traditional tilt-up method of construction the crane hire charge (already included in the m2 rate) is as
follows:
4 day crane hire to lift 28 panels into position and secured:
$380 + (5 hours x $116) + (3 x 8 hours x $116) = $3744 crane hire charges

The cost differential $6120 - $3744 = $2376 to be added to the MCB raw costs.
2 2
Using case study1 - 410m of panels, cost per m is $5.80

On top of this cost is the initial steel fabrication. This cost has been calculated at $8300 each with anticipated
uses of 1000 castings. This initial capital outlay will be amortized over the 1000 castings. Cartage and cranage to
and subsequent removal from the site, possible storage, repair and maintenance will also be included. This is
calculated as follows:
2 2
($8300 x 3) / (1000 x $16m ) = $1.50m addition.
2
Transport, repairs and maintenance have been estimated at $2.50m additional

5
There is still a requirement to have safe access to height for completion of connections, caulking panel joints and
windows, and possible repair work. An all terrain cherry picker for such access is used, thereby negating the need
for scaffold use. The cost for this has already been incorporated into the standard m2 rate.

Table 2 includes costs from Table 1 with the additional charges illustrating the cost2 differences in manufacture
between traditional tilt-up panels, pre-cast panels, and that of utilizing MCB’s.

Table 2 Cost Comparisons: tilt-up; pre-cast; MCB

The findings represented in Table 2 clearly demonstrate that the MCB method adopted as part of a completed
wall system is more cost competitive than the other two traditional methods. In fact, whilst the actual cost per
m2 of panels produced using the MCB method to that of tilt-up are relatively the same, the cost differential is
evident with respect to post erection wall surface works. Unlike factory produced panels, there may be delays to
the manufacture onsite due to weather dependency and this factor would need to be considered when calculating
completion dates.

The pre-cast panel is the most expensive overall due mainly to overhead recovery costs and that of transport of
panels to the site. It is interesting to note that although there is a capital outlay for the initial construction of the
three MCB’s (treated now as depreciating assets $24,900) when amortized over the 1000 castings, only a small
dollar amount is proportioned to each wall panel (equating to $24,90 extra additional cost per cast). The MCB
does not have to recover the costs of infrastructure such as a factory with gantries.

2 For this paper comparative system costs have been calculated using ‘Cordell Housing Building Cost Guide’ January 2006. It is
acknowledged that costs may vary for project specific situations due to many factors including the economic climate, location
and availability of materials and labour.

6
Conclusion

Cost savings anticipated predominantly surround the post erection façade treatments. Vines (2006) details such
costs and highlights that there are large costs when two storey construction is involved when implementing height
access measures. When applying final finishes at the manufacturing stage this eliminates the need for working at
height access. By value adding to the more traditional concrete wall panel would see many more benefits
emerging for the house builder and subsequent owner.

The acceptance of using concrete as a wall system is reliant upon exploiting the many advantages that such
systems offer. The knowledge of how to use the system has been lacking with traditional house builders and still
remains a stumbling block. It appears from these results that one of the perceived barriers - cost, restricting the
use of pre-cast concrete as a wall system in house building may well be dispelled.

To take the MCB concept further would be to provide both completed surfaces at the time of manufacture. There
still remains an inherent problem with insulation properties. However, whilst it is acknowledged that concrete
exhibits excellent thermal mass, without some form of barrier the transition of the immediate external climate
internally is of concern. This is why currently the internal face is insulated by battening out. The use of sandwich
panel is a strong prospect, gaining momentum for use in other countries such as the UAE. Its use in the
Australian environment has been minimal, especially in domestic house construction. Greater understanding of
sandwich panel technology and its uses needs to be explored further to gain the required thermal advantages,
thus providing potential further cost savings could be the next area for investigation.

Bibliography

Annon. (2004) ‘Off-site prefabrication: the advantage of precast cladding construction’. Concrete, Ed. July/August.

Annon. (2004) “House with new concrete technology and an improved construction with precast elements”. CPI.
Iss. 6, p

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2005). ‘Manufacturing Production, Australia’.

Building Code of Australia – Volume 2 Australian Building Codes Board, CCH Australia Limited, 1996.

Code of Practice – ‘Prevention of Falls in Housing Construction’ March 2004

Glass, J. (2002) ‘The future for precast concrete in low-rise housing’. British Precast.

Strategic Forum for Construction. (2002). ‘Accelerating Change’. Rethinking Construction c/o. Construction
Industry Council. UK.

Webb, P. (2002). The Rescrete total precast concept: quick, low-cost, great-to-look-at, low-rise building solutions’.
Precast News. No.6.

Vines, M. (2006) ‘Is There a Re-emergence of Concrete Pre-Cast in Australian Housing?’ XXXIV IAHS World
Housing Congress on Housing, Naples, Italy.

Yeung, N. Chan, A. Chan, D. (2002) ‘Application of Prefabrication in Construction – A New Research Agenda for
Reform by CII-HK’. CII-HK. Presented at the Conference on Precast Concrete Building System. Hong Kong.

Zwarun, S. (2004). ‘Concrete housing flourishing in Calgary area: Everybody is using the material’. Daily
Commercial News and Construction Record. Vol 77, iss. 51

7
Paper one

Scenarios for Future Development of

Flexible Housing
S. Verweij, SBR Rotterdam, (sannieverweij@yahoo.com)
A.I.M.Voorbij, TU Delft, (A.I.M.Voorbij@tudelft.nl)

Abstract

Different social and technical developments lead to different possible futures. It is for sure that the technology of
the current building industry has to move forward towards a more industrialized way of production. However,
history shows that projects with an aim for industrialization in the building industry often failed. If industrialization
would be used as a means to reach other goals such as customization, it will give new opportunities for technical
development. However, it is difficult to foresee how technology and even more how the society will develop in this
field. With the scenario method used in this paper it is possible to describe different possible futures by defining
the difference between the probable developments and the uncertain developments. All future scenarios make
use of computer technologies to improve the industrialization. The uncertainties are the level of prefabrication and
the level of customization. The main findings are that the size of the building component is inversely proportional
to the level of customization and that the best scenario can differ for each kind of company.

Keywords: Future Developments, Scenarios, Flexible, Prefabrication, Mass Customisation

Background

Industrial Context

Historical review on the history of industrialisation shows that industrialisation of housing has been tried many
times before (S. Verweij, 2002). But often industrialisation was used as the goal itself. The projects where
industrialisation was used as a tool to reach a goal performed much better. An important goal to reach in this time
is the involvement of the customer.
Looking towards the future, it is certain that the housing industry has to go towards a more industrialised housing
industry by the use of more information technology. But many other subjects remain uncertain. For example it is
uncertain to what extend the consumer will participate in the building process. It is also uncertain to what extent
houses will be prefabricated. The Open Building philosophy shows that a partition between the structure and the
infill system might give different solutions for the level of customisation and the level of prefabrication (S. Kendall
and J.Teicher, 2000) (Habraken, 1961).

Problem

The future is difficult to foresee. De Jong said: “some futures can be predicted, others must be designed’’ (Jong
T.M. de and Voordt D.J.M. van der 2002). A design is the view of a designer on a future reality based on expected
developments. Different types of designs can be made depending on different expected developments. Some
trends or developments are very likely to happen; those are called the probable future. Other trends and
developments are more uncertain; those are called the improbable future. This improbable future is the most

1
interesting for a design task at the Delft University of Technology (Eekhout, Haagsman et al. 2004). The problem
is that companies in the building industry start with technical developments without a clear view on what they
want to achieve; a wrong combination of developments results in a product that fails on the market.

Learning Objectives

 Foresee different possible futures for industrialized and customized housing.

 Learn how to get to these different possible futures in the building industry

Approach

There are different means to forecast the future. Taeke de Jong and Hugo Priemus describe amongst others the
scenario method (Jong T.M. de and Voordt D.J.M. van der 2002). By using the method of scenario’s it is possible
to describe different possible futures. The uncertain trends and developments can be used to set up different
combinations of possible futures in a scenarios method. Working with scenarios is a method to create more than
one design, based on different combinations of expected developments. All scenarios use the same subject of
description. In this way, the scenarios make it possible to communicate with different actors in the field of
building houses. The scenarios clearly show the different steps to take and what possible consequences these
steps could have. It is important to understand that the different scenarios all have equal possibilities. Only after
studying the scenarios, the most desired future might be identified. This can be done by making a so called
SWOT analysis, in which strengths and weaknesses of the scenarios are identified and also the external
opportunities and threats are identified.
The paper will describe a number of possible futures for industrialized customized housing and compares them on
specific points as the role of the actor, the difference in production and the difference in process.

Analysis

Introduction Scenarios

As before, it is certain that the housing industry has to go towards a more industrialised housing industry by the
use of more information technology. Uncertain is in what way the consumer will participate in the building
process. Also uncertain is to what extent houses will be prefabricated. Those two uncertainties can be set on two
axes in order to create 4 quadrants. On one axis the consumer participation in the design process is shown, going
from acting as a group to an individual. On the other axis the prefabrication is set from not prefabricated at all to
total prefabrication (see figure 1).
The grid shows four quadrants. In the first quadrant we see more or less the current situation. In the other three
quadrants three scenarios are created. In the next paragraph each of these scenarios will be described. In the
description it will become clear why the scenario is in this quadrant, which actors will participate in the scenario,
which have to take the initiative to get to this scenario, the role of the architect, and what the effects are of the
choices made. Each scenario description will mention the aspects of production and a process description in which
the actors are mentioned, since they play an important role in how the scenario could be executed. Also how
other future developments, not shown in this diagram, can help or interact with the different scenarios. In the key
findings in the end all scenarios will be weighed on aspects as price, transportation, industrialisation, freedom of
choice for the customer, use of new technologies, possibilities for implementation and how the social lifetime,
technical lifetime and economical lifetime could be tuned. Some of these aspects are related to the initial goals of
industrialization and customization; other aspects are related to more general goals of sustainability and low
prices.

2
Figure 1: The grid shows four quadrants with different scenarios.

Future changes in all scenarios

Some future developments will occur in all future scenarios. In this section those developments are explained,
since they have an important influence on the different possibilities in the different scenarios. In all three
scenario’s for the future of industrialised customised housing Information and Communication Technology will be
used more than in the current building industry (see also part 1 of this book about industrialisation). ICT can be
used for:
 the customer focus, from market research to communication with the customer;

 communication between all actors;

 quality control of the products and the process;

 design to manufacturing, planning and control of the process;

 performance measuring and re-use of the knowledge in new projects.

The more the customer is involved in the building process, the more the use of ICT needs to be implemented.
Using computerised models makes it easier to communicate with the customer about difficult matters in the
design process. Computers can also make it easier to exchange knowledge between the building partners. The
design can be optimized if different designers exchange information early in the design process and link this
information towards planning, budget, and quality tools. This will prevent interference problems on the building
site and therefore avoids the instant solution by the different craftsmen. As a result of clear communication in the
design phase, the architect has more say about the looks of the final result. Furthermore, the use of computers in
the manufacturing process can improve the accuracy of the size of building components. However, this will never
replace the studies on tolerances. A good connection detail still needs tolerances but at the same time should
make the connection invisible. Invisibility doesn’t mean that it is not there, but that it is part of the beauty.

3
By measuring the quality and process from particular buildings, the planning and production of the next project
can be improved. The quality can improve by communicating the findings and share the knowledge between the
different actors. Once this becomes a habit, this knowledge can even be shared with potential competitors,
something that is at this moment not even to be discussed.
In the next sections will be explained how these future changes will work in the different scenarios.

Scenario 1: the house as a product

Description

The box unit is a fully prefabricated 3 dimensional unit, designed for a special target group. The initiator is often a
project developer or a housing corporation on the demand side, or a box supplier on the supply side. The project
developer or housing corporation come up with a specific target group and they will give the program of
requirements to the architect. The architect will design one specific box unit that is prefabricated in the factory
and fits the requirements of this target group. Therefore we can say that the house as a whole is designed as a
product.
Production
The use of three dimensional boxes has consequences for transportation, stacking the boxes, and the way of
prefabrication. This implies the use of some materials or building systems and explicitly excludes the use of other
materials or building systems. Concrete is not lightweight enough. Steel is more useful, but also composites and
sandwich technologies are very interesting for future development. Building services are all included in the
prefabricated product. The box as a whole will be transported to the building site. The dimensions of the box are
therefore dependent on the maximum sizes of the transportation regulations, or the final house can be combined
from several boxes that are connected on the building site.

Process description

The initiative for designing the house is with the architect or the supplier, sometimes as an assignment from a
project developer or housing corporation. The architect designs the house in cooperation with the supplier of the
boxes. The knowledge that is build up in this cooperation can be reused when for the next project a new design
is made of similar boxes for a different target group. There is one building system that can be reused in the next
design. The project developer or Housing Corporation can buy the house as a ready made product.
The quality standards can be really high because of the prefabrication: in a factory the work is very accurate. And
with a good planning and control system, the performance of the production can be high (fast) as well. The
installation on the building site can be done in less than a day.
The boxes for similar target groups can be reused for different locations. On each location in a context related
configuration, change of colours or with a different façade.
Optimisation is in the system level of the house, structure and design, the system level of construction, the
system level of production and in the system level of design and development.

Actors

The architect plays a role on two levels. On the one hand an architect can be involved in the design of the box
itself, on the other hand the architect can be involved in the configuration of the boxes on a certain location and
sometimes this includes the design of an external façade.
The influence of the client is not very high. The boxes are designed for specific target groups. The dwelling
process of these target groups is studied during the design phase, so it is most likely that the customers in this
target group are happy with the design. The stockholding decoupling point is very late in the process. On a

4
certain location there might be an opportunity for the clients to choose from a collection of different boxes.
There are less contractors and subcontractors that need to be on the building site, since the work is done in the
factory. The role of the contractor and supplier are more combined into one job and are located on one spot (the
factory). The placement of the factory can influence the way of transportation. For example over the water the
sizes might be bigger than over the road, but then the final destination has to be close to the water as well. If
the factory is located in Eastern Europe, or even Asia, the wages of the craftsmen are lower, but the
transportation costs are higher. The profit needs to be calculated per project.
The relation between the different actors in this scenario is based on a long-term involvement. The product house
will improve each time because the experience of building is shared within the group of actors and the same
participants give their growing knowledge as input.

Scenario 2: the building component as a product

Description

Building products, designed by architects or industrial designers, which can be used to build a house. It is more
than a simple catalogue house, because in catalogue building, there is only one supplier. In this scenario all
different products and building elements of different suppliers can be combined. In this way customers have total
freedom.
All the building components are designed and prefabricated off-site. The technical systems are highly developed
as is the construction process. The on-site delivery of the components is managed by computerised processes and
optimised in supply chain management.

Production

The building system for this type of building implies regulation about connecting the different building
components. For mountable and demountable structures, some materials are more useful than others. The design
of detailing should consider the transportation of the building components as well. Some building services can be
sold as components other services require installation by specialist. This service can be bought as a component as
well

Process description

The project developer is the owner of the ground and therefore the initiator in this scenario. He will sell, rent or
lease the ground or floor plots to the individual customers. If the location is in the urban environment, the
building needs to fit in the context. An urban architect can be assigned to design a façade using the façade
building components. The initiative for designing the building element is with the designer or the supplier. A
project developer, housing corporation or customer can buy the building element as a ready made product. The
customer buys an empty plot or casco and then goes shopping for infill walls, façade elements, kitchen and
bathroom. A shop is needed were people can buy these design products for building their house.
At the moment there is already a large market for kitchens and bathrooms, but in the new shop you will find all
the utilities that are needed to place these functions everywhere in the house. In the current market in the
Netherlands this shop will be placed somewhere between Gamma and Ikea. Ikea only sells interior, Gamma only
sell do it yourself materials.
The stockholding decoupling point in this scenario is more towards the beginning of the process; it can be
qualified as assemble to order.

5
Actors

The role of the architect will go back to its original role: to be hired by the individual inhabitants and design a
house for this location out of existing products. Project developers are not hiring the architect anymore for the
total project. They will only make sure that a location is available and is prepared for the start of the building.
Also contractors and subcontractors will be hired by the individual inhabitants. Although the most components will
be prefabricated in the factory and might come along with installation contractors, depending on the quality level
you buy.
The relation between the different actors for the prefabricated projects is close, it is a long term relation. The
building products will improve in quality because the knowledge is shared and a lot of money is invested in
research and development. Each product will have a series number and will be improved over time towards a
version xx.
On the building site itself it is not the relation between the different actors that is long term, but the experience
of the building contractors will be very high after using this component system for some time, so hopefully they
have the knowledge that the consumer is lacking. This building contractor is not neccesarly the same as the
current building contractor. It can be a whole new provision. Computer simulations will help the customer by
determining his own dwelling process. From that knowledge they can derive the arrangement of products for this
customer.

Scenario 3: the system as a product.

Description

The system as a product is a system that is designed for a high customisation. This can be reached independently
from the prefabrication. The described system in this scenario has a shell and support that is fabricated by a
project developer or Housing Corporation and put on location. In a sense it is thus prefabricated for the customer.
The customer is completely free to make the infill of his dwelling, including the floor plan and equipment. The
idea is based on the open building principles that were developed by John Habraken in the sixties. The technical
developments for this scenario needs to be focussed on the use of wires and ducts within the support system to
enable the maximum flexibility for the inhabitant.

Production

Since the system is the product, there is not really something to describe about the production. A traditional way
of producing can even work for this scenario. Especially the shell will probably be made of traditional techniques.

Process description

Housing corporations (or project developers) start with a location in the urban context. He will ask an architect to
design a shell that fits in the urban context. The shell will provide flexibility for the customer in the way columns,
beams, wires, ducts, entrance and stairs are arranged. The customer is free to hire his own architects and
contractors to design and built his own floor plans and finishing’s. The shell and support will be finished before
the customer can start building. The initiative for designing the system is with the housing corporation; it is
difficult to buy the system as a product. The system is just the way of organizing, it is a concept and not a
product one can buy in a store.
The stockholding decoupling point in this scenario can be defined as made to stock of the shell system and as
assemble to order for the infill system.

6
Actors

The role of the housing corporation as project developer is very much the same as in traditional projects, as is the
basic role of the architect. Since the shell can be made in any way, from traditional to high tech, the role of the
contractors doesn’t have to change. The subcontractors for the infill and building services are hired by the
customer in stead of the main contractor. The Housing Corporation or the architects or somebody in a new
profession probably get a new job in giving information about building the infill system to the customers. As in
scenario two also here they might develop computer simulations to help the customer by determining his dwelling
processes in order to arrange the inner walls of his apartment.
The relation between the different actors is based on long term key participants as the housing corporation, the
municipality, the main architect and the main contractor for the base building. The relation with the customers
and subcontractors can be one-time occasions. The information flow therefore should be started with the main
key-participant: the housing corporation.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings
In this paper three possible scenarios for future housing are described. With describing these different scenarios
for possible futures it becomes clear that developments are not easy to compare to each other, because they
follow a different path. None of them can be called wrong, because they take a different path towards the future.
Still, some scenarios have certain advantages above the others.
In scenario 1 mass production is very likely to happen, and this makes the boxes very cheap. Also the time spent
on the building site is very short. A disadvantage of scenario 1 is that the box unit is made for target groups and
therefore not completely customized; while in scenario 2 and 3 the customer have much more freedom of choice.
It seems that the size of the building component is inversely proportional to the level of customization.
Also on the aspect of transportation, scenario 1 has a disadvantage above scenario 2 and 3. The transportation of
three dimensional products is quite expensive; boxes have to be lightweight and have maximum transportation
sizes. For each box a truck is needed because you transport a lot of air.
All scenarios make use of new materials and production techniques. Especially in scenario 1 the development by
architects in corporation with suppliers will give a lot of possibilities. Examples show that when suppliers from
other industries are used, the technology transfer can be really high, e.g. the Spaceboxes are made by a
shipbuilder. In scenario 2, the different components are prefabricated and therefore of superior quality, but the
quality of the inner climate in a house depends totally on the junctions. The quality of installation of products is
not guaranteed. There has to be really only one structural building system in which all building components will
fit.
In scenario 2 and 3 the technical lifetime of the building components can be tuned to the social lifetime and the
economical lifetime. The division in support and infill system makes it possible to have a straight division in
component sizes for prefabrication. The boxes of scenario 1 are not flexible. The expected social lifespan is
relatively short. The designer should foresee that and design a short expected technical lifespan and a short
economic lifespan as well. This can be reached by make the boxes reusable or demountable and the different
parts reusable.

7
Business Impacts

The different scenarios can be initiated by different actors. It is possible that the government will initiate a more
industrialized building industry, or on the other hand, will initiate a more customized building industry. For
instance the government can come up with regulations to make the step towards more industrialisation easier.
But the current trend is that the market is more and more the initiator of processes. Scenario 1 is the most
probable scenario when the initiative lies with the supplying industries. Scenario 1 is a real niche market
approach. All kinds of technologies can be tested for the first target groups. It will probably cover less than 10%
of the total market of newly built houses, but the spin off development of these products can be implemented in
the existing building industry.
An opportunity for scenario 2 is that quality levels can be introduced. People can decide for themselves on what
element they want to save money and accept a lower quality level. And on the other hand decide for what
component he wants to buy a more expensive high standard product. A threat for this scenario is that if the
system is not introduced on large scale, the benefits of mass production, differentiation and freedom are going
down and will make the system fail as well.
Opportunity for scenario 2: There are some opportunities to sell the building components with a return service, or
have a lease contract.
Opportunity for scenario 2 and 3: groups of users can cooperate to hire one architect or one contractor to build
their different components.
All scenarios work towards the future with new technology. Only scenario 3 also works partly with existing
technology. Using existing technology for the shell makes it easier to fit in the existing building industry and the
whole concept is thus more likely to be accepted by the other actors. Therefore, scenario 3 is more likely to
happen on the short term, as can be seen in the solids project in Amsterdam [Bijdendijk, 2006]. Scenario 2 is a
future further away, because it needs changes in technology as well as major changes in the entire building
industry. Aspects of scenario 1 and 3 can both be a first step towards future scenario 2.
Conclusions
The paper shows that there are different possible paths towards the future. The scenario method is a good way
to show the path an organisation or industry might follow. A scenario where architects work together with the
supplier will give more opportunities for new materials and new technologies in the building industry. A scenario
where a difference is made in the shell and infill systems has more customization opportunities, not only for the
first inhabitant. The main findings are that the size of the building component is inversely proportional to the level
of customization and that the best scenario can differ for each kind of company.

Key Lessons Learned

 The scenario method is a possibility to describe different possible futures;

 the size of the building component seems inversely proportional to the level of customization;
 further research is necessary to show which scenario suits a certain kind of company.

8
References

Bijdendijk, F. P. (2006). Met andere ogen. Amsterdam, drukkerij Mart.Spruijt bv, Amsterdam, ISBN: 9076765022.
Eekhout, M., E. Haagsman, et al. (2004). Start Report Concept House, towards Industrialized, Customized Concept
Houses. Delft, TU Delft: 75.
Habraken, N. J. (1961). De dragers en de mensen; het einde van de massawoningbouw. Amsterdam, Scheltema
en Holkema.
Jong T.M. de and Voordt D.J.M. van der, Eds. (2002). Ways to study and research urban, architectural and
technical design. Delft, DUP Science, ISBN: 90-407-2332-X.
Kendall, S. and J. Teicher (2000). Residential open building. London, Spon, ISBN: 0-419-23830-1 or 0-203-05676-
0.
Verweij, S. (2007). New Concepts for building Houses. Delft, expected in february 2007.

Authors’ Biographies

Sannie Verweij is born in 1978 in Amsterdam. She studied Architecture at Delft University
of Technology from 1996 till 2002. For her graduation she worked on a project about
customized industrial housing. After working shortly for several building projects and
teaching in the Faculty of Architecture. She continued this research as a research fellow
at Delft University of Technology from 2004 till 2006. Currently she is working for SBR, an
organisation that provides knowledge for the building industry.

Liek Voorbij, (1969) graduated in 1994 at the faculty of Industrial Design Engineering. In
the same year she obtained a PhD position at the chair of Physical Ergonomics and in
2000 she graduated on “Isometric and isoinertial force exertion in product handling”.
Afterwards she stayed at faculty of Industrial Engineering as a PostDoc to publish several
articles and write study books. From 2002 to 2006 she was a standardization consultant
at the Dutch Standardization Organisation (NEN). Since 2006 she is an assistant professor
in the chair of Product Development

9
BICQ House, solution for rehabilitation of
pre war residential housing
neighbourhoods.
Rens Metz, MetzConsult; rens.metz@hccnet.nl
Jur Jonges, Hogeschool Utrecht, jur.jonges@hu.nl

Abstract

BICQ House, solution for rehabilitation of pre war residential housing neighbourhoods.
Concept for Design, Manufacturing and Logistics of housing; University education;

In the Netherlands single family houses were build in complex urban areas near city centres. These are now
neighbourhoods where people like to live, in spite of the lack of quality. Some owners (ownership: mix of
private ownership and housing corporations?) have renovated their house up to a reasonable level, but the
costs were high related to new construction, in particular if extensions or new fitting were executed. Even then
performances are not comparable with new houses.(You can’t rehabilitate a T-Ford into a new VW Golf) Other
residents reject these investments (with the) due to future threat of deterioration of these areas. Opportunistic
market development will take place then and developers start creating multi storey buildings with apartments
and offices.
To (stop) prevent this process a new housing concept will be developed that replaces the existing house in an
extremely short period and keeps the existing residents in their own neighbourhood. The house owner makes
his choice from a diversity of facades from a catalogue. Floor plan, infill and installation are customer’s choice,
with different quality levels for individual customers. To limit the nuisance in the neighbourhood the process
from demolition up to erection and finishing of the new house is one week. Demands are financial
transparency, light weight, flexibility, energy efficient, industrially manufactured and assembled on site. The
development concerns the technical aspects and includes logistic, marketing and business solutions to inform
and guide the customer, to demolish the existing house on an innovative way and to supply new financial
products like new energy mortgages.
With an integrated design process, applying new (industrial) design methods in architecture and ICT, prices will
be 30 % less. BICQ, a cooperation of WellDesign and MetzConsult develops this concept in cooperation with
students of Architecture and Industrial Design of Hogeschool Utrecht.
Students and their lecturers learn new innovative insights in the process of industrialization and consumer
orientation that takes place in the building industry.

Concept ready 2007, production 2008.

Keywords: design methods, housing, logistics, rehabilitation, education

1
Background

Industrial Context

The focus in the housing industry will change in the near future from new houses in green fields (VINEX) to
renovation of (the)existing houses and building new houses in already build(=urban) areas. The traditional
approach is renovation of the total building (multi-storey rental apartments) or of a row of identical terrace
houses owned by housing corporations. The traditional housing industry in the Netherlands is used to execute
these large scale renovations with identical solutions per individual dwelling (temperature and sound isolation/new
facades, new kitchens and bathrooms). For every renovation project new solutions are being designed by
architects and executed by a team of a contractor and subcontractors, working together (on project base) only for
this project. Every project is in fact a prototype which inherently causes new not expected problems on site; these
have to be solved by the contractors while working on site. Craftsmanship is therefore very important, which
causes extra costs and unfortunately still a high failure rate. Craftsmanship in the building industry is less
available, and in the future this problem will even increase.
In the present consumer markets customers (want) prefer individual solutions, for their individual wishes and
needs. In the housing industry individual solutions were only possible for a very small (high) segment of the
population; volume oriented, supply controlled in stead of control on demand.
In the current Housing Industry during the last five years a tendency of growth of diversity in housing is
perceived, to go along with customers wishes. In the rehabilitation of the existing environment the same need for
diversity has also to be taken into account. New concepts have to be developed for that.
The solution will be sought(found) in the design and supply of new concepts for building components,
rehabilitation systems for e.g. isolation and ventilation and even complete houses. These concepts should be
based on principles of Mass Customization, nowadays used in every other consumer and industrial market with a
need for diversity in solutions. Combining the growing lack of craftsmanship, the rising costs of labour, the
growing complexity of a house (energy, sustainability and health) and customer demands, the solution have to be
found in a more industrialized approach. Market research, industrial design methods and marketing to the end
user(consumer) will be organised by supplying industries; they will take the lead in this transition.
In stead of a project oriented design process specialized sale- and marketing organizations will design concepts
for specific target groups, with individual choices, produced by these organizations themselves or outsourced,
logistics controlled by modern ICT programs and the marketing supported by new media exposure. Digital
showrooms and internet ordering will be standard.
The application of the products on site will be done by specialized companies, operating as permanent
(sub)contractor of the supply industry or as a separate licensee, who is also executing the marketing and sales for
the products in a specific region. This will bring new business opportunities to existing players in the construction
chain, builders/(sub)contractors / building merchants who will loose market share by a growing power of the end
customer and the use of new communication media and efficient logistics.
BiCQ HUIS will be the product concept where a renovation of a house means the complete replacement of the
existing (terrace) house, keeping the two dwellings at both sides on its place.

Problem(s)

Housing areas concerned

Housing areas, built in the beginning of last century face major transitions. In these areas near to the city centres
2/3 storey dwellings build in the pre war period are threatened to be demolished and replaced by high rise
apartment blocks or offices. Existing house owners/inhabitants of these areas mostly oppose these large scale
redevelopment operations; decisions seem to be made top down in cooperation between city government and

2
commercial developers, in spite of the democratic process gone trough. The living areas near the cities are
considered (as) to be very attractive even though the bad technical qualities/performances of the dwellings. In
many cities these large scale transitions take many years, caused by the opposition of the existing inhabitants.
Knowing that at the end the intended large scale development will take(s) place anyway, the inhabitants leave
their house after all and move out off the area.
Rehabilitation was considered economically (and technical) justified only to be done per block. When different
owners and tenants were involved it could take several years (more than 5) before all the inhabitants had left the
block (or row) (and) before starting the building process of the new block. In the meantime the living quality of
the inhabitants who stay behind deteriorates dramatically. The social structure falls apart, investments are
blocked, and the vicious circle downwards (is there) shows up.
Nowadays the power of the individual house owners and tenants is growing, not directly by law, but because
people are more aware of their legal position and know much better how to influence public opinion. Large scale
operations are still more complicated to execute. This brings the planning horizon of large scale development
operations so far away and risks are so high that an inflexible long term plan must be rejected. In stead of a top
down planning for the meant living areas a bottom up rehabilitation process must be considered, keeping the
inhabitants in their area.

“Sneetje Huis”

In stead of the removal of the complete set of teeth by a false set when it is too late, a step by step repair or
replacement of a bad tooth just in time is in favour.

The solution will be a housing concept as a surgical operation. The housing product has to be build in a very
short time, without nuisance of the surrounding houses, providing more living space, less energy consumption, a
personal appeal, a simple and reliable buying and realization process, and costs more than (25) 30% less than
traditionally done.
This concept is “Sneetje Huis” (sneetje is the Dutch word for a slice of bread cut out of a complete bread) or
BiCQ Huis, called after the company (JointVenture) which started the development.

Utrecht Design : Design as a tool of Building Innovation

The research and development of the BiCQ Huis is one of the projects within the overall design promotion project
Utrecht Design. The aim of UDesign is to stimulate the creative industry in the region of Utrecht (NL) by
supporting projects of the industry in the region with know how, R&D- and design capacity from the Hogeschool
Utrecht (University of Applied Sciences) and the Hogeschool van de Kunsten (Faculty of Art)
BiCQ Huis is adopted by the Institutes of the Built Environment and Industrial Design and has been the bachelor
thesis for 2 consecutive student groups.
(Thinking about the problems the building industry will be facing in the near future, more focus on the existing
environment and more focus on real industrialisation of the industry, students now leaving the schools must be
able to cope with these matters.)
The project offers the Universities a perfect opportunity to meet the current and future needs in Industry, in
comparison with the methods of the actual curricula. Continuous evaluation must lead to a valid and competent
based program.
Both interdisciplinary groups have worked on the design of concept of the BiCQ Huis.

3
Learning Objectives

 New approach of rehabilitation

 Industrialized quality is boost for existing housing market
 Transition of pre war residential areas bottom up in stead of top down
 Does the curriculum of the HU fits into the new focus?

Approach
The first ideation was done by the partners of BiCQ , the managing directors/owners of Well Design and
MetzConsult; both have a university background in Industrial Design and over 25 years experience in industrial
design, business development, marketing and general management in the OEM, supply and building industry and
several years in the development of housing.
Mathijs van Dijk van Well Design is one of the founders of the Vereniging Esprit Huis, a platform for exchange
and development of know how regarding Consumer Oriented Housing. The platform consists of 30 participants
from the building industry (e.g. supply side, architects, consultants, designers, developers)
A working relationship from Well Design with the HU lead to the participation at the UDesign project. The idea of
the BiCQ Huis was introduced to the students during a regular lecture about innovations in the building industry.
Students had to apply for a position in the development team if they wher interested in the project for their final
thesis. (6 months)
The first group (HUMEN) consisted of 4 students from the Institutes of the Built Environment and 1 of Industrial
Design. The second group (Home) also from IBE and 1 from ID.
The students were supported by lecturers from the HU. From BiCQ both partners discussed and evaluated the
results of the students on a regular basis (once a week)
During the second period supplying companies have been introduced to the students by BiCQ and the HU for
more specific information. These introduction was also meant as a first step of involvement of these companies in
the future development.
The development of BiCQ Huis is (in not just) a development process of a concept of an “industrial house”; (the
project is) but also a research project to gain insight in the possibilities and constraints of the present housing
industry and their educational system to participate in the transition. By developing a product that had to be sold
and produced on a commercial basis students will find out which extra information is needed for a proper
solution.
The integrated design process followed is split up in different phases (sketch, concept, preliminary design,
production preparation) based on (has) a concentric pattern, which means that all the relevant aspects of the
design (usage, production, marketing) have to be studied in every phase and the impact of every aspect (known
uptill then) has(ve) to be incorporated in the design. Every phase will be concluded (with) in a comparison
between market value (business) and technical (production/logistics) potential or costs. According the slogan of
the HU the students had to be “creative in solutions” as a result of thinking in alternatives.

Analysis and Design

Background

The development of the BiCQ Huis is based on the following observations:

 WeLL Design and MetzConsult being partners in Esprit Huis work together with supplying industries in different
development projects. WeLL Design eg has recently developed a new type of “roof light” for Ubbink. This product
integrated with light and other extra functions is a “new category product” in the home building market.
Marketing is done differently. Panagro, another partner in Esprit has launched a housing concept for “spare spaces

4
 in cities” a mainly prefab concrete house build in less than a month.
 WeLL Design was involved in the co-development of the Senseo Crema (coffee maker) (design of the technical
principles and the prototyping) and saw first hand what co-development and co-marketing can achieve in a
saturated market.
 Rens Metz from MetzConsult was responsible for the introduction of Consumer Oriented Housing Concepts at
ERA Bouw, ERA Personal Housing .
 Even in large scale housing development projects the Voice of the Customer is being heard. Variety in volume,
appeal, and more choices for the consumer are offered nowadays.
 Every large house builder/developer in the Netherlands has developed his own consumer oriented housing
concept during the last 5 years.
 Individual clients/home builders (Particulier Opdrachtgevers, NL) are still a small minority in the new housing
market, in spite of the large and growing interest among individual customers.
 In Almere the alderman for housing has decided to start a large experiment for 25.000 houses with individual
clients, keeping the professional developers aside.

Development of the BiCQ Huis

In the following paragraph some aspects of the development will be highlighted.

The project is still in the development process.

Lombok, demo area

Lombok is a housing area in the city of Utrecht, which complies the caracteristics mentioned (earlier) before. The
area will be used as a model area and the dwellings build as examples (if possible) to be replaced.

The area is an example for many housing areas build in the first circle around the centres of many cities and
towns in the Netherlands. The dwellings (fig. 1 and 2) have 2 or 3 storeys with a flat roof or different sloped
rooftypes.

Realization process : demands

Realizing a new house on the same spot in a populated area, with narrow streets, give restraints for the time
schedule. One week of nuisance for the inhabitants and their neighbours was regarded as acceptable: 5 max 7

Fig 1 and 2, Dwellings concerned Utrecht

working days to demolish the existing house and realize the new one on site. Time to study, to prepare the
demolition, to produce the building elements elsewhere and to ship the elements to the site could be excluded.
Per working day 2 shifts are planned; 6 pm – 14 and from 14- 22 hr. By introducing 2 working shifts on site traffic
delays in rush hours are avoided and time schedules could be followed more accurately.

5
A design assignment with constraints as mentioned makes it necessary to search for innovative solutions.
Traditionally “speed” of the building process is no real issue such as building on green fields in a real estate
market with a limited power from the demand side of the market. Costs are being paid bedoel je : are
transparant?. In the areas where BiCQ Huis( is) can be developed ( time and) avoidance of( avoiding) nuisance is
a important aspect. The design principle (here) is to develop a simple and fast (lean) process. Therefore and
integrated concept is necessary.

Green fields

Although the purpose of the project is to develop a housing solution for urban areas (type of house to be build
(installed) in already build areas), the BiCQ Huis concept could very well be suitable in green fields. (a built in
green fields). The logistic constraints in populated areas as been mentioned, don’t occur there. If BiCQ Huis
succeeds in obtaining a market share in the aimed market (green fields good very well be the next market) green
field locations can be considered to be an alternative or subsequent market

Demolition and Foundation

In Lombok research is executed on the type and quality of the existing foundation. Searching in the city archives
and discussion with experts and with local experience, showed that the foundation ( “strip foundation”) could
remain during demolishing and in continuation be used for the new house. Interviews with several demolition
firms showed that the time needed to demolish the given type of house on a traditional way was between 4 days
and 2 weeks. Some of the experts confirmed that after some research and specific development effort 2 working
days with 2 shifts is attainable.

Fig. 3 Streetplan and room to manoeuvre the truck

6
During the development process in the second period some doubts have brought up. BiCQ have decided to start a
R &D project together with companies involved in this field (demolition and foundation firms)
This project will be executed under the umbrella of UDesign.

Cutting the existing house out of the row of houses

Design concept

Given the constraints of the space left between the two remaining houses extra volume of the new house could
be realized by extending the height and/or enlarge the floorspace on groundlevel. A basement only if the ground
condition (eg. water level) permits.
The building system to be used should be light weight: easier to handle, simple (low cost) crane, existing
foundation could be used in spite of extra height.

The façade (front) will be the most important building element for the “looks” the appeal of the new house. The
new design will be based on consumer market research; the first preliminary survey showed that the architectural
style favourable by the target group is rather traditional but a small percentage liked modern or even post
modern designs. To permit customers to make their own choice the façade will be a separate element of the
construction; the façade will not contribute to the structural function of the building system.

To install different building elements on site the amount of interfaces to be fixed should be minimal. Logistic
restraints (narrow streets) lead to the decision use 2 D elements for the floor and walls. In the design stage is
decided to study Starframe , the steelframe system developed by Corus IJmuiden. Starframe is an approved
(KOMO) steel structure. The system complies with the demands as far as they are developed in this stage.
Several subcontractors were assigned by Corus as licensee for the production and installation of Starframe on site.
While the footprints of these dwellings are small, individual choices are even more important, thus flexibility in
floorplans to be chosen by the individual customer is an important demand for the BiCQ Huis. Installation

7
components, and wiring and pipes for heating, ventilation, wash and toilet facilities are in that case the bottleneck
in design. By using the Starframe floor including space for pipes these constraints should be managed.
The design principle for the E installation is to use plug and play components, as far as they are available. The
Kiss concept for electricity and domotica from Hager Tehalit is available, besides Kabelweg .
Besides the façade the roof determines the appeal of a house located in a row of attached houses. Taking the
different architectural preferences of customers, a variety of roof types and tiles/claddings should be possible. In
the design phase Lafarge Roof systems has proven to be a possible partner for the project.

Time schedule

The time schedule for the realization of the BiCQ Huis wich has been given as a design objective is 3 month for
production preparation and 1 week installation on site (2 shifts)

Preparation in production : 3 month

On site : 1 week:
 Demolish : 1 day
 Foundation: 1 day
 Frame/ façade/roof : 2 days
 Completion: 2 days

The result of primarily design phase of the first group proves that the chosen time schedule is obtainable.

Sustainability, energy saving

New houses in the Netherlands have to comply with the building code 2006 (“bouwbesluit”) and CO² reduction
standards. In the Dutch housing market usually the standard is not regarded as a minimum requirement, but as
the goal to reach. BiCQ has expressed their ambition to reach a higher level. Therefore low energy consumption
combined with high comfort (cooling) and demands on controlled ventilation will be integrated in the BiCQHuis.
Industrial supplied heat-pumps and innovative ventilation systems are involved in the project.
The foreseen rise of the cost of energy (fossile) will cause a dramatic increase in housing costs from 2010. Low
energy consumption means lower exploitation costs. Together with a financial partner BiCQ is developing a new
“low energy mortgage” to take advantage from the future benefits.

8
Educational aspects

Mid 2006 6 students (group name HUMEN) have developed their product concept and obtained their bachelor
degree. 5 students had a back ground in construction and architecture (C&A), 1 in industrial design (ID). To
develop a complete product in teamwork with team members with different backgrounds seemed complicated;
students with the C&A background were not used to design according to a specific method, and not aware of the
concentric pattern of an integrated design method. Idea generation methods were not instructed. By working in
the team the students were able to learn from each other and gained insight in ID methodology.
The result of HUMEN was not a complete concept but gave enough food for the second group.
The second group, HOME , had to “step on” the results of the first group and work out the missing steps.
Unfortunately it took them a rather long time to get acquainted with the information of the first group. Although
BiCQ established this problem already with the first group the second group also had a lack in understanding
integrated design and knowledge of industrialized construction. BiCQ hopes that future bachelor students will have
more know how on these subjects. While writing this paper HOME is finalizing their reports for final exams, so no
comments could be made regarding the result.
In cooperation with the HU BiCQ has decided that the new group/new individual students will not work as a team
on the concept as a whole, but every individual student will study a specific aspect. The Partners in BICQ will
bring the results together and integrate them into the final product.
In preparation of the coming group of students, the team of HU lecturers and BiCQ has decided to change the
didactical approach of the student work. The emphasis will be on the individual contribution of each student on a
specific aspect. The team of professionals and students will have the assignment to establish the integration of
the different sub-themes into the system as a whole.

Lombok before the BiCQ Huis

Lombok after the introduction of the BiCQ Huis

9
Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

 BiCQ Huis concept has been accepted as an interesting concept; also in new housing areas (green fields)
 Logistic constraints seem to be manageable; time schedule seems realistic
 To finalize the project BiCQ has to work together with specialists in demolition and foundation
 To finalize the project BICQ decided to introduce major suppliers into the project
 Assigning bachelor students to design the product concept asks for more back ground in industrialized building
techniques and concepts
 Bachelor students of IBE should be instructed in de methodology of industrial modelling

Business Impacts

 Changing focus from new housing to renovation of the existing; traditional production chain is inappropriate
for existing housing market
 A new housing industry has to be developed with new business models,
 Marketing in housing will be a key issue in the future

Conclusions

Key Lessons Learned

 Rehabilitation of populated areas as a bottom up process is possible with a new housing concept
 A housing concept based on modern logistic principles have to be introduced
 Diversity in volume and design has to be offered
 A boost in rehabilitation is only possible with integrated solutions
 New business models are necessary; the (complete) entire building industry will have to deal with this
 Chaining the “traditional approach in the building industry” has to be supported by education. Bachelor level
students are the new key players in introducing new practices.
 Bachelor curriculum has to be extended with “modern building concepts and techniques”
 Introducing new design methods in building and architectural education on bachelor level

Authors’ Biographies

Ir. L (Rens) Metz , has studied Industrial Design at Delft University, had several
management positions in the supply and building industry and Project
development Atag, Polynorm, Era Bouw)
In 2003 he started his consultancy firm MetzConsult. MetzConsult supports leading
organizations in Real Estate and Building Industry in innovation processes and
consumer orientation. At the Hogeschool Utrecht Rens Metz is as module leader
responsible for teaching Creating Added Value in Master of Engineering. Rens
Metz founded BiCQ Huis in 2006 together with Mathijs van Dijk , MD of WeLL
Design.

10
Standardisation as a success factor for
open building – strategic considerations
Dr.ir. Liek Voorbij, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, (a.i.m.voorbij@tudelft.nl)

Abstract
Standardisation has been suggested as an effective tool for open building. This paper concentrates on the merits
of standardisation in relation to open building and the building market. It is investigated in what way and
according to what strategy standardisation can be incorporated in the open building principle and how it can
contribute. For this purpose literature about standardisation was studied as well as the relevant aspects of open
building and the international building market. Additionally the current situation of standardisation was
investigated. In the end it seems that when started as soon as possible in the development process and carried
by a large part of the stakeholders and experts, standardisation might speed up innovation integration for open
building.

Keywords: standardisation, open building, ISO, building market

Background

Ever since open building has been subject of interest to building experts, the tool of standardisation has been
suggested. In most cases this suggestion did not go any further than the assumption that because open building
is amongst other things about gearing elements and components to each other this requires some sort of steering
on the interactions. But there is also a hesitation to be noticed regarding standardisation and the assumed effects
on the creative freedom of designers. Habraken (2003) suggests for instance that because “…the co-ordination of
so many products into a larger composite system is based on the simple principle that standardisation must only
deal with interface conditions… Beyond that each designer is free to do his or her own”.
The latter links to the overall concept op open building in which a large flexibility is also realised by presenting a
lot of options and variety to the house owners when it comes to products and components. (Kendall, 2004) One
does not expect an increase in variety when standardisation is at hand, because most standards prescribe certain
product aspects that seem to diminish design freedom.
However, systemisation is thought to emerge spontaneously when habits are formed and a way of working
becomes generally accepted, which opens the door to industrial production of dedicated systems (Habraken,
2003). Then standardisation could simply be formalising this systemisation.
Studies on the effects and results of standardisation in other markets show that in this field of study it is regarded
essential in developing markets to put great effort in the development of standardisation because of the economic
advances.
According to the international organisation for standardisation (ISO) their main goal is: Facilitation of global trade,
Improvement of quality, safety, security, environmental and consumer protection, as well as rational use of natural
resources, Global dissemination of technology and good practises. All of which contribute to economic and social
progress (www.iso.org).
These different views on standardisation and the effort and priority it should have in the process of open building
lead to the topic of this paper.

1
Industrial Context
One of the important aspects in the strategies for open building is the fact that this way of thinking and building
leads to a more efficient building process amongst others because it suits lean production (Kendall, 2004;
Cuperus, 2001 and 2003). However, some other aspects of open building might influence this efficiency
negatively. An increase in variety of products and buildings might for instance lead to a lack in overview and
confuse both the end users and the builders. Standardisation is known for its restriction of variety and might for
that reason be a good tool.
The international standardisation process itself might also contribute to the efficiency enhancement, as several
parties need to be involved and thoroughly discuss the decisive issues. Because open building constitutes of a
large variety of components, designing processes with multiple participants and large amounts of companies
involved, the forming of consortia or committees that confer about all relevant aspects are possibilities to
structure the process.

Problem

Because the assets of open building did not yet change the building habits drastically, it would be good to search
for accomplishing techniques such as standardisation to become more effective in the market. Although
standardisation is already used in a lot of markets, the problems that are faced in open building are in some
aspects more complex than for instance with a solitude product. Therefore it is essential to develop a good
strategy for the use of standardisation in open building in order to optimise the results.

Learning Objectives

 Relevant knowledge of standardisation to be used in open building

 Possible strategy for optimal use of standardisation in open building

Approach

To come to an optimal strategy for the use of standardisation in the development of open building, it is essential
to investigate the merits of standardisation in relation to open building on the one hand and the characteristics of
open building relevant for standardisation on the other hand. Furthermore, because standardisation is a marketing
tool it is important to look at the relevant aspects and trends in the building market to set out a strategy.
For this purpose literature about strategies in other similar markets was studied as well as the relevant aspects of
open building and the international building market. Additionally the current situation of standardisation in
building products and systems was investigated and the present standardisation committees that might offer
opportunities for standardisation of open building were assessed.
When the most important aspects are assessed it becomes possible to define a strategy based on the procedures
of the international organisation for standardisation (ISO).

Analysis

Standardization

There are a few forms of standardisation that can be discriminated. These are however not specifically defined.
Amongst others Witte (2004) discriminates voluntary and governmental standards. Gröndahl (2003) distinguishes
de-facto (market) and formal standards while Blind and Iversen (2004) refer to: de-facto, governmental and
voluntary. For this study it is not necessary to make a full investigation of all terms used.

2
In general de-facto standards are standards that are formed in practice and not often formalised by a committee
or organisation. Governmental standards are law-like documents that are often regarded as binding. Voluntary
standards are made out of a wish to have an agreement and are often composed by a committee with the
consensus of all parties concerned.
Formal standards are officially registered by a standardisation organisation and often written according to the
rules and regulations of the standardisation organisation. Formal standards can be traced. Informal standards do
not have such a scheme and are sometimes not even published. For this study the main goal is to investigate the
possibilities of ISO-standards for open building. This regards formal and voluntary standards.
The list of currently available standards shows that there are no standards that directly link to open building. This
term is not in one of the subjects or titles. Standards that are slightly relevant are about modular co-ordination,
and therefore concentrate on the idea that industrial flexibility depends on a systemisation of the used measures.
However this is an old idea and the standards were developed around 1974 and 1982. Some examples:

ISO 2776: 1974 Modular co-ordination – Co-ordinating sizes for door sets – External and internal;
ISO 2777: 1974 Modular co-ordination – Co-ordinating sizes for rigid flat sheet boards used in building;
ISO 6511: 1982 Building construction – Modular co-ordination – Modular floor plane for vertical dimensions;
ISO 6512: 1982 Building construction – Modular co-ordination – Storey heights and room heights;
ISO 6513: 1982 Building construction – Modular co-ordination – Series of preferred modular sizes for
horizontal dimensions;
ISO 1006: 1983 Building construction – Modular co-ordination – Basic module;
ISO 1791: 1983 Building construction – Modular co-ordination – Vocabulary;
ISO 1040: 1983 Building construction – Modular co-ordination – Multi modules for horizontal co-ordinating
dimensions;
ISO 2848: 1984 Building construction – Modular co-ordination – Principles and rules.

It was already mentioned that these standards are old. This is however not the main problem. Because ISO does
not interfere with the national standardisation activities it is possible to have a national standard overrule the ISO
standard. Although all participation members of ISO strive for international ISO standards instead of national or
European standards, this goal can not always be fulfilled. This depends on the national standardisation committee
and sometimes on national law. The standards mentioned above are for instance not used in the Netherlands as
they use NEN 6000, NEN 2890 and NPR 2573 (www.NEN.nl; Cuperus, 2001). It is therefore essential for the
development of international standards on open building that the subject is internationally supported. The
standards should take national boundaries into account so the national bodies will be able to withdraw their
eventual national standard.
The organisation of ISO is well structured but somewhat complex. Figure 1 shows the structure of the
organisation. The actual developing of the standards is done within the technical committees (TC). These
technical committees often divide the work over several subcommittees (SC). Officially the technical committees
stay in charge over the work done by the subcommittees, but they often fully rely on the judgement of the
subcommittees. Additionally the TC and SC will install working groups (WG) to start the development of a
standard.

3
Figure 1: The organisation structure of ISO (source www.iso.org)

The structure leaves unattended that it is not possible for a firm to become a member of ISO. The ISO
membership is organised along national lines. If a firm wants to participate they have to join one of the national
delegations that are supported and steered by the national standardisation organisations. National standardisation
organisations have the so-called mirror committees that look at the proposals of ISO and comment to it if
required. These mirror committees also have the right to vote over a proposed standard. Because consensus
within the mirror committee is essential for voting, it is vital for a firm to win the other stakeholders for its vision.
If anybody would like to have a standard developed there is a strict order of work and processes to go trough.
ISO has its own standardisation process, which is a multi-stage process consisting of five phases:

1. Proposal Stage;
2. Preparatory Stage;
3. Committee Stage;
4. Enquiry Stage;
5. Approval Stage.
The multi-stage strategy of ISO is not unique. De Vries (2005) studied the standardisation process intensively and
found that it was possible to recognize 8 steps from matching the problem to the check if the problem is solved.

4
Although the number of stages in the ISO process differs the overall concept corresponds. There are however
some differences between international standardisation such as ISO and for instance national standardisation. The
access to national standardisation is often easier to organise than the access to international standardisation
because they offer only indirect voting. Nevertheless there are big advantages in having a subject standardised
internationally. Several researchers studied the pros and cons of standardisation (Söderström, 2004; Spirco 2006;
Märtson, 1999). Based on these studies the pros are in general:

 Reduced time to align business processes and systems

 Reduced costs, simplification of doing business between organisations
 Increase in efficiency in how organisations carry out their work
 Increased quality of work and products on the market
 Simpler communication
 Improved utilisation of human resources.

Although most of the positive effects can be gained from any form of standardisation some of these effects are
stronger in international standardisation. Especially the international trade possibilities are much better with
international standardisation and also the time, cost and efficiency in marketing are much more positively
influenced. On the other hand, the negative effects time and cost are also more explicit in international
standardisation. Although it is not a rule as such, international standardisation is more complex and takes more
time and therefore more money to become effective. If companies want to have international standards on open
building they should seek for sufficient time and money to fund this.
The five stages of ISO need to be followed through to get an international ISO standard. In the first stage
(proposal stage) organisations have to express their need for a standard to their national standards development
body. This national standards development body then transmits this demand to the relevant TC or SC in ISO.
There are two main requirements for a proposal to become a part of the work program of the technical
committee:

1. The majority of the members of the committee have to vote in favour of the proposal.
2. At least five members have to declare their willingness to actively work on the project.

If these requirements are met it will be possible to go to the second stage (preparatory stage). During this phase
the TC forms a working group (WG). Experts of the participating national standards development bodies are
invited to join this working group. This group produces a working draft (WD) for the standard. In this draft the
scope of the standard is defined and the basis for the technical content of the standard is set. If the group of
experts is satisfied with the draft the draft is send to the technical committee.
The official registration that follows the sending of the draft to the technical committee is the start of the third
phase (committee stage). In this stage the working draft is transposed as a committee draft (CD) and is
distributed among the members of the technical committee with the request to comment on the document. The
CD is constantly revised until consensus is reached. In case of the ISO process this means that none of members
of the technical committee has major objections to the draft left open.
As soon as the consensus is a fact the fourth stage can start (enquiry stage). In principle the fourth stage will
take at least five months. During this time all ISO members are allowed to comment on the document. The
document will be accepted as a final draft as soon as two-third of the committee members votes in favour of it
and no more than one quarter of the votes is against it. If a document is rejected as a final draft the document
goes back to the committee stage.
The fifth and last stage (approval stage) is entered after the acceptance of a document as a final draft. This final
draft is then circulated amongst all ISO member bodies for a final vote. The document will be published as an ISO
international standard if again two-third of the committee members votes in favour of it and no more than one

5
quarter of the votes is against it.
Revisions or alterations to the ISO international standard can be initiated during the review procedure. Such a
review period is usually every five years. A standard will only be changed when a majority of the committee
members agrees to initiate a review procedure.
When analysing this procedural information about ISO there are several moments of possible influence to be
discovered. Of course most influence can be gained by joining the whole process. It is essential for organisations
that want to have a real effect on the development of a standard to join in from the beginning. It will be very
hard to or even impossible for firms or organisations that join in a later stage to reverse earlier decisions. This
also means that it is essential to seek access to early and accurate information about standardisation of open
building.
To join the whole process means entering the working committee of experts. However before this working
committee is realised the subject has to be brought up to a technical committee or a subcommittee and
additionally the requirements mentioned have to be met. It might therefore be practical to find the relevant
committees first and then start the process in more than one member countries simultaneously. Then the
proposal is most likely to reach the preparatory stage.
Based on the current work program and the standards published until now there are three technical committees
that might be relevant to open building:

1. TC 59 Building construction,
2. TC 98 Bases for design of structures,
3. TC 195 Building construction machinery and equipment.

TC 59 Building construction: Standardisation in the field of building and civil engineering, of: General
terminology for building and civil engineering. Organisation of information in the processes of design,
manufacture and construction. General geometric requirements for building. Building elements and
components including modular co-ordination and its basic principles, general rules for joints, tolerances and
fits. General rules for other performance requirements for buildings and building elements including the co-
ordination of these with performance requirements of building components to be used in building and civil
engineering. Geometric and performance requirements for components that are not in the scope of separate
ISO technical committees.
TC 98 bases for design of structures: Standardisation of the bases for design of structures irrespective of the
material of construction including especially terminology and symbols, load, forces and other actions and
limitations of deformations. Consideration and co-ordination of basic reliability requirements concerning the
structures as a whole, including consideration of structures made of particular materials (steel, stone, concrete,
wood, etc.) as far as is necessary for the preparation of a common approach to reliability in liaison with the
relevant technical committees. Example of relevant standard: ISO/TR 8266:1984 Guidelines for the
presentation of International Standards dealing with the design of structures
TC 195 Building construction machinery and equipment: Standardisation in the field of machines and
equipment used on construction sites, including aggregate processing, road construction and maintenance
equipment concerning nomenclature, application, classification, ratings, technical requirements and test
methods, safety requirements, operation and maintenance manuals formats
A proposal to start standardisation on open building should best be send to one of the above TC’s.

The building market

Because money is part of the essential aspects of ISO standardisation it is important to look at the building
market and its financial condition. The building market is huge and the economic figures are immense. This
seems a positive basis for standardisation, however if we look at this market more closely it can be seen that a

6
big part of the work is done within SMEs and a lot of the innovation is captured in intellectual property rights
(IPR). Furthermore the building industry seems very differentiated and not so well co-ordinated.

IPR vs Standardisation

There is some conflict of interest between standardisation and IPR. It can be concluded that patents influence
standardisation processes and may cause problems in standardisation (Blind and Iversen, 2004; Wegberg, 2004;
Bekkers et al. 2002; Blind, 2003; Shapiro, 2001). It is discussed and studied by several researchers that IPR will
cause the risk of too much variety which is in the end inefficient while standardisation might limit variety to much
which will curtail the potentiality for new combinations of techniques (Steinmuller, 1990; David and Foray, 1995).
Nevertheless both standardisation and IPR show a similar growth in the last decade. To prevent a complicating
situation it would be good to seek for a balance in both systems. To find such a balance it is essential to look at
the merits of both standardisation and IPR for open building and the building market.
According tot Blind and Iversen (2004) IPR influences the search process and fosters the diversification of new
technologies for one actor, while standardisation provides a selection process to reduce variety and non-propriety
goods that work for the collective interest of all actors. Lipczynski and Wilson (2001) conclude that the effect of
standards on innovation is contradictory. On the one hand standards slow down the diffusion of new innovation
but it can on the other hand speed up this diffusion. This is the case if, for instance, a government imposes a
standard to enforce desirable behaviour. Additionally standards can help legitimise certain technology if the
innovation is standardised. Furthermore, standards may reduce uncertainty about the characteristics of new
technology in users.
The latter three are examples of situations in which standardisation might speed up diffusion of technology.
Because there are not many products produced under the open building principle yet it is arguable that
standardisation would speed up the innovation diffusion for this subject. Furthermore, because there are not
much IPR on open building that would seriously interfere with standardisation it would be possible to prevent a
conflict between standardisation and IPR. Blind and Iversen (2004) give some suggestion on how to remain
successful in combining IPR and standardisation in a new subject such as open building:

 Start standardisation together with R&D and do not wait for techniques to mature
 Assure a high level of quality of the issued patents, so there will be no question about the content of the
patents
 Do not standardise design of components but only their performance

If the balance between IPR and standardisation in open building is carefully guided it would be possible for
companies to balance the protection of their inventions with the need to attract partners and legitimate their
technology.

SME and standardisation

SMEs are an important factor in the building market, but not only to the building market. In Europe the share of
SMEs in the total number of companies is extremely high. For instance in 2000 99.8% of a total of 20.5 million
companies were SMEs (Iffour, 2003). According to a recent report of CSIR for the CAA (2006) in the construction
industry world wide 97 % of the companies are SME. This makes SMEs an essential part of the building market.
However, these small companies have much more problems when trying to join in standardisation processes.
These companies neither have the money nor the people to invest in standardisation.
To have a solid basis for standardisation in the building market it would be essential to have the SMEs participate
in standardisation. This would be possible if they unite to bigger consortia or join coalitions with bigger
companies. This would mean that the SMEs work together in for instance trade associations. In this way they can

7
have themselves represented in standardisation with less effort and costs. Of course this would require that SMEs
in an association would have comparable interest and stake if it comes to standardisation.
Because it can be argued that standardisation also offers advantages to SMEs (Iffour, 2003) and SMEs form such
a large percentage of the building market it would be essential to incorporate SMEs in the eventual
standardisation activities around open building. However this would require that those SMEs are informed of the
options and receive help to enter the process.

Differentiated market and standardisation

As mentioned before a large part of the building market consists of SMEs. This causes the market to be
fragmented, which makes it harder to focus on standardisation for one subject. However, the same fragmentation
makes standardisation a vital road to generalisation of the open building strategy. Experts on open building will
need to collaborate and convince the building market of the practical effect of open building. This is also required
for standardisation as one of its vital elements is sufficient technical expertise. If the working group under the ISO
TC cannot be filled with people that are regarded as experts by most of the members, the working drafts
produced will hardly ever reach the final stage. If standardisation of open building principles is to become a
success it is essential that the building market becomes aware of leading companies and experts and that those
are willing to take the lead in standardisation. This is one of the biggest hurdles that has to be taken before
standardisation of open building can be a successful process.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

Current ISO standards on open building do not exist and those related are old and not internationally accepted.
Because the actual development of ISO standards is done within the technical committees it is important to get
access to those committees (for instance TC 59, 98 or 195). This is to be done via national standardisation
organisations.
Consensus about the subject in national standardisation bodies is essential to get the subject introduced
internationally.
If companies want to have international standards on open building they should seek for sufficient time and
money to fund this.
It is essential for organisations that want to have a real effect on the development of a standard to join in from
the beginning of the process.
To join the whole process means entering the working committee of experts this requires sufficient technical
expertise. For the total building market this requires for leading companies and experts in open building to stand
up.
IPR and standardisation need to be balanced to have inventions protected but also partnerships formed to
legitimate technology.
SMEs are important to the building market and are therefor important for standardisation.

Business Impacts
All stakeholders in open building project should be aware of the fact that it might be strategically sound to start
standardisation early in the development process of services and principles. They should carefully balance the
protection of their inventions and the search for fruitful collaboration with other experts in this field. The open
building concept can largely benefit from a well-organised structure and principle and this can be partially induced
by standardisation.
Because international standardisation offers more benefits to all stakeholders it would be best to invest in this

8
kind of standardisation, which is delivered by ISO.
The experts on the open building concepts in universities and other research institutes should seek for
acknowledgement of their expertise in the building market so they can prepare the first steps into standardisation
and maybe represent the contributing companies in the international ISO working groups. Initiatives such as CIB
W104 might help here.

Conclusions

The key findings of this paper correspond highly to the crucial factors influencing the ability of stakeholders to
impact ISO standards of Witte (2004). The difference lies in the fact that this paper entirely concentrates on open
building and the building market, which makes some factors more prominent aspects than others.
The results also point out that the main risks for the building market to fail standardisation are finances and a
constant presence of expertise. The paper points to some solutions in this direction, but at this stage it is
impossible to predict whether the building market will address the necessary attention to open building.
At this stage the principles of open building are set out, but the practical solutions to make the principle a world-
wide success are not convincing yet. For an effective and efficient standardisation process these subjects need
more guidance.

Key Lessons Learned

 Money and expertise are the most decisive factors for standardisation in open building
 Incorporation of standardisation early in the R&D processes is essential to gain optimal benefit from it
 Standardisation can be a good tool to speed up the implementation of the principle of open building in the
building market

References

Bekkers R., Duysters, G., and Verspagen, B. (2002) Intellectual property rights, strategic technology agreements
and market structure: the case of GSM. Research Policy, No. 31, pp 1141-1161.
Blind, K. (2003) Patented tools – a solution to patent conflicts in standardisation and an instrument of technology
transfer: the MP3 case Proceedings of the 3rd IEEE Conference on Standardization and Innovation in Information
Technology, SIIT 2003, October 22-24 2003, Delft, the Netherlands
Blind K. and Iversen E. (2004) The interrelationship between IPR and Standardisation: Patterns and Policies Euras
workshop Proceedings Aacher Beiträge zur Informatik band 36, Wissenschaftsverlag Mainz, Aachen ISBN 3-86073-
765-1
CSIR (2006) An Architect’s Guide to Designing for Sustainability, build environment unit, pretoria South Africa
http://www.comarchitect.org/WebHelp/an_architect_s_guide_
to_designing_for_sustainability_1.htm (date accessed: 4 January 2006)
Cuperus, Y. (2001) An introduction to open building Proceedings of the 9th International Group for lean
construction conference, http://www.obom.org/DOWNLOADS2/IntroToOB.pdf (date accessed: 4 January 2006)
Cuperus, Y. (2003) Mass Customization in Housing an Open Building/ Lean Construction Study. paper presented
at Dense Living Urban Structures International Conference on Open Building, Hong Kong, October 23-26, 2003.
http://www.obom.org/DOWNLOADS2/
MCinHousing.pdf (date accessed: 4 January 2006)
David, P.A. and Foray D. (1995) Accessing and expanding the science and technology base, STI Review, nr.16.
Gröndahl J.(2003) Power and standardization Euras workshop Proceedings Aacher Beiträge zur Informatik band
33, Wissenschaftsverlag Mainz, Aachen ISBN 3-86073-762-7

9
Habraken N.J. (2003) Open building as a condition for industrial construction. http://www.sev-
realisatie.nl/ifd/content/documents/OpenBuilding.pdf (date accessed: 4 January 2006)
Iffour, K. (2003) SMEs & European Standards Euras workshop Proceedings Aacher Beiträge zur Informatik band
33, Wissenschaftsverlag Mainz, Aachen ISBN 3-86073-762-7
Kendall, S. (2004) An Open Building Strategy for Balancing Production Efficiency and Consumer Choice in Housing
in NSF/PATH Housing Research Agenda Workshop Proceedings and Recommendations Vol I and II. Michigan
State University, June 2004. pp 60-71
Lipczynski and Wilson (2001) Industrial Organization: An analysis of competitive markets. Harlow: Pearson
Education Ltd.
Märtson, I. (1999) The essence of Standardization and a Way of Calculating its Benefits. EURAS Yearbook of
standardization, Vol. 2, ed. by Manfred J. Holler and Esko Niskanen (Homo oeconomicus XV(3)), Munich: Accedo.
Shapiro, C. (2001) Navigating the patient thicket: Cross Licenses, Patent pools and standard setting. NBER
Innovation policy &the economy, 1(1), 119-150.
Söderström, E. 2004 Pros and Cons about Standards from Multiple Stakeholder Perspectives Euras workshop
Proceedings Aacher Beiträge zur Informatik band 36, Wissenschaftsverlag Mainz, Aachen ISBN 3-86073-765-1
Spirco, J. (2006) Strategic Importance of Standards for Innovation, Euras workshop Proceedings Aacher Beiträge
zur Informatik band 38, Wissenschaftsverlag Mainz, Aachen ISBN 3-86130-836-3
Steinmuller, W.E. (1990) The political economy of data communication standards. In Hawkins, R., Mansfield R.
and Skea J. (Eds.) Standards innovation and competitiveness. Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
Vries, H.J. de (2005) Standardization Education EURAS Yearbook of standardization, Vol. 5, (Homo oeconomicus
XXII(1)), Munich: Accedo.
Wegberg, M. van (2004) Intellectual Property Rights and Competitively Fragmented Standardization processes: A
review of the Literature, Euras workshop Proceedings Aacher Beiträge zur Informatik band 36,
Wissenschaftsverlag Mainz, Aachen ISBN 3-86073-765-1
Witte (2004) A "Single European Voice” in International Standardization? – American Perceptions, European
Reality, Euras workshop Proceedings Aacher Beiträge zur Informatik band 36, Wissenschaftsverlag Mainz, Aachen
ISBN 3-86073-765-1
Website NEN: www.nen.nl (date accessed: 4 January 2006)
Website ISO: www.iso.org (date accessed: 4 January 2006)

Authors’ Biography

Liek Voorbij, (1969) graduated in 1994 at the faculty of Industrial Design Engineering.
In the same year she obtained a PhD position at the chair of Physical Ergonomics and
in 2000 she graduated on “Isometric and isoinertial force exertion in product handling”.
Afterwards she stayed at faculty of Industrial Engineering as a PostDoc to publish
several articles and write study books. From 2002 to 2006 she was a standardization
consultant at the Dutch Standardization Organisation (NEN). Since 2006 she is an
assistant professor in the chair of Product Development

10
Standardised information flow for
connections in industrialised construction
Marie Johansson, Victor Lassl, Patrik Löfgren, Björn Engström, Robert Kliger
Structural Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
E-mail: marie.johansson@chalmers.se

Abstract

The ideal open building system is a vision that the building industry should aim at. It means a system that
combines the industrial efficiency with the traditional flexibility. Such a system would mean individual designs,
built up with different elements that could be bought from any producer around the world, connected to each
other with connections from different producers. Even more challenging would be to have components that are
flexible, compatible with each other and interchangeable at a later date.
In order for manufacturers of different components to be able to sell their products to a large number of
contractors; flexible, integrated connections are needed, that also are very easy to use during assembly and are
cheap and effective to produce. To make this possible it is necessary to find a way to communicate connection
features and requirements in an easy manner.
The aim of this paper is to show two strategies, i.e. design-based strategy and function-based strategy, analyse
them and to produce guidelines on further development of such strategies. The question is which strategy is best
suited to be used when working with open building systems.
The final output is the idea of the standardisation of information; the Part Request Form with which the
performance of connections in term of specifications could be communicated so that it is understandable for
everyone, from the system owner to the manufacturer of connections.

Keywords: Part Request Form, open building system, communication

Background

Industrial Context
Traditionally, buildings in Europe have been constructed manually on-site and engineered for one project at the
time. In comparison to other industries, where many prototypes are built and tested before the final product is
completed, the building industry has always been building one prototype, which also serves as the final product.
This means that any problems with the building have to be corrected either during production or, in worst case,
while it is in use. This can be both costly and produce a poor performance of the final product. However, this way
of manufacturing also gives one big advantage; namely the freedom to construct buildings in any shape and form
after the clients requirements.
The building sector is probably the only industrial sector that has not seen any major effectivisation during 20th
century, the production processes has not been significantly developed since 1960. The number of working hours
has instead increased due to new requirements on product quality. This method can be justified when it comes to
repair and reconstruction, but not in the construction of new structures. Another growing problem is the lack of
skilled construction workers in Europe (Brege et al. 2004). By changing the construction industry to a more
industrialised industry several of the problems mentioned above will be overcome.
An open building system is difficult to define. The definition used in this paper is a system that provides individual
user-oriented designs with an increased flexibility, compatibility and interchangability of components and

1
alternative assemblies with standardised connections that allows for future changes without costly measures. With
an industrialised open building system it should be possible to reduce the building costs and time while at the
same time produce buildings of high quality according to the requirements of the customer. To achieve this, it is
important to have a well working product development stage where the components are designed and a project
development stage where the actual building is designed from the pre-defined products. In this paper building
components are defined as the parts that are assembled on site to create a building, i.e. a wall component,
connection detail etc.
One very important factor to create an effective building process is to make the assembly on the construction site
more effective. For a one-family house the costs at the construction site is about 25% of the total building cost.
By using a more effective process it is possible to cut this cost by 50% (Brege et al. 2004). To do this, the
assembly time at the building site must be reduced. The most critical part to make the assembly faster is the
connections between the building components. The reason why the design procedure for connection details is
interesting to study is that open industrialised construction sets new requirements on the connections, compared
to traditional construction. These requirements derive both from the demands of faster assembly and from the
fact that highly refined components from different manufacturers are to be used and connected to each other.

Problem

In this work, the connections between the different building components are in focus. In the creation of a
connection several partners are usually involved; the system owner (the company that is responsible and owner
of the system at hand), the producers of the building components, the producer of the connection detail, the
production partner responsible for the assembly. The statical building system is to a large extent dependent on
the connections. To find a way to communicate all requirements set on a connection detail is therefore very
important to achieve a rational building process.
The question is then how to communicate these requirements. These requirements will be dependent of how the
actual design work is organised. Two strategies can be seen concerning the organisation of the work; either the
system owner gives the supplier of a connection detail a comprehensive requirement list where the description of
the connection should be specified in detail. This is hereafter called design-based strategy.
The system owner could also, on the other side of the spectra, give the supplier specifications in terms of the
functional requirements that the connection should fulfil, regarding for example load bearing capacity and
aesthetics. This is called function-based strategy.
Some questions arising are: What consequences will the different strategies produce concerning technical,
aesthetical and economical aspects? What requirements will the different strategies place on the need for
communication? How should the requirements on the actual connection be communicated?

Learning Objectives

 Impact of different design work organisation on the communication needs

 What needs to be communicated between different partners regarding a connection detail
 Suggestion for one way of communicating the requirements between partners – the Part Request Form.

Approach

The paper is based on an MSc thesis conducted as a joint project between Chalmers University of Technology and
NCC Teknik (Lassl and Löfgren 2006). The method consists partly of literature studies to gain a theoretical base.
The theories from literature studies that were found useful have been adapted and in many cases further
developed to fit the special needs of the building industry.

2
This paper is restricted to structural connections, i.e. connections that transfer loads between structural elements;
the main connection requirement is load bearing capacity. According to fib (2004), a certain structural connection
is often designed to withstand one major action, such as shear, tension, compression etc., and is then categorised
by this major action as for example “shear connection”, “tension connection” etc. In many cases, however, the
connection needs to be capable to transfer a combination of different actions. This is especially true in open
industrialised construction, where the number of different connections available within a building system should
be held to a minimum, and thus the connection details needs to be capable of taking different actions. There are,
however, a number of other requirements that also has to be fulfilled by a connection such as; aesthetical
performance, multi functionality, durability, allowance for movement, maintenance and repair, manufacturing the
connection detail, assembly on-site, cost, insulation and tolerances.
As indicated in the introduction, it is assumed that the most probable way of working with open systems in the
future is to have a set of methodologies and standards that companies freely can use to create their own building
systems with interchange ability and compatibility within the system. In other words, the goal of the construction
industry should be to create a platform making it easier for different companies to develop systems in cooperation
with each other.

Analysis

The building process

An industrial building process aiming at an open building system can be divided into stages, the product
development stage and project development stage. The product development stage is in this work defined as
where the system itself is developed and a more scientific research is deployed. Here new connection details are
thought out, existing ones are improved and new ways of industrialising the building process are considered.
The other stage is the project development: this is when the developed system is used to create a building in a
project. In this stage, no further development of the system’s parts is carried out, but these are only used as
components in the project. However, the components may need to be adjusted and engineered to fit the project’s
special needs, concerning aesthetics, special design and functional requirements. Therefore it is not only about
stacking ready-made, ready-designed components on top of each other; since this may suggest that all buildings
would look and feel alike, and that is the opposite of what an open industrial construction system should be. It
can however, be possible to have a variation in building designs only using standardised parts, if that has been
taken into consideration early on.

Project 3 Information flow

Project 2

Project 1

Product development

Time

Figure 1. Product development and project development.

Note that these stages are quite different when it comes to the timeframe (Fig 1). The product development

3
stage is an ongoing stage, which is active as long as the system is, while the project development stage only is
active until the project (building) is finished. They are also, most likely, occurring at the same time, meaning that
the product development is ongoing while one or several project development stages are active.

Product development stage

Description

The first step in an open building manufacturing design is to develop the actual system, and the parts that will be
included. This process starts with a general decision on which type of structural system it should consist of;
volume elements stacked on each other, flat elements joined to create the building system or some sort of frame
system with non-load bearing walls, or maybe a combination of these. Even though the system eventually may be
expanded to have different choices of structural systems, it is generally a good idea to start with just one.
It is also important to decide, roughly, how the elements should be connected, in what directions, in what order
and how the actual joining should be performed. This work does not necessarily have to produce physical
components, but rather drawings of them with production planning that quickly could be slightly altered to fit
each project and thereafter quickly produced.
It is assumed that when developing a new system, one company or organisation acts as the system owner,
meaning one company has started to develop a building system and will market it outwards, and possibly also
build the houses using this system.

Different organisation of the work

The design-based and function-based strategy will result in differences in the organisation of the work.
The design-based strategy will mean that the work will probably be organised as a traditional sub-contractor deal.
The system owner decides the design of the connection which the sub-contractor will manufacture. The system
owner takes all the risks in this arrangement as he is responsible for the performance of the system also during
the life span of the building, but will also make the profit. In this arrangement the system owner needs to have
complete knowledge of the total process.
The function-based strategy will lead to a more partnering deal in the organisation. In this system all partners will
take part in the development of the system and will jointly be responsible for the whole system. In this
arrangement the focus is on the system and each partner is responsible for the success of the system. With this
organisation of the work it is possible to utilize the collected knowledge of all the partners.

Information needs

The two different arrangements will also have a profound effect on the need for communication and information
exchange between the different partners in the design process.
For the case with design-based strategy a major information flow will occur within the company that owns the
system. The information can be kept more informal, since possible questions or misunderstandings can be dealt
with rather quickly. The disadvantage is that the information could become too informal, that minutes from
meetings are not taken, which could lead to misunderstanding of why and when, and by whom, a certain decision
was made. The information sent to the manufacturer is in this cased mostly drawings and material specifications.
In the function-based strategy the information to be sent between different partners are functional requirements
related to different parts. There are many requirements and it is necessary to find some way to organise this kind
of information. The function-based approach requires coordination between the element manufacturer and the
connection designer/manufacturer as well as the partner responsible for the assembly of the building. Will a
certain design of the connection cause problems for the manufacturing of the elements or vice versa? How will

4
the force paths within an element go? Will this connection be fast to assemble without many man-hours of work?
As an example, concrete walls likely means that the connection details have to be anchored into the element,
which will require some information exchange. One way of facilitating this information exchange is by a Part
Request Form.

Part request form

A Part Request Form is basically a standardised sheet where the system owner can specify the requirements for
the specific part, and where the sub-contractor easily can understand those requirements. With such a form,
companies delivering connections for open building systems can sign a contract with the system-owner, where
they undertake that their products fulfil the requirements stated in the Part Request Form.
The detailed shape of the components to be connected is not dealt with in the Part Request Form. Instead,
preliminary drawings describing this should be submitted with the Part Request Form. In this way, the Part
Request Form is meant to act like the instructions of what is expected from the connection, while the drawings of
components are meant to supply description of how the components to be connected appear. Together they can
be used by the supplier to create a connection detail.
The part request form is built up of several excel sheets were the function of the connection is described in
words. There are a number of different requirements for the connection that is described in Table 1. Nine of these
groups of requirements are shortly described.

Type Description of the type of connection, i.e. wall-wall, wall-floor etc. Here is also an
area for a visualization of the connection with its co-ordinate system described.
Design loads Requirements on the design loads the connection should withstand, defined in the
above mentioned co-ordinate system. Here is also possible to state fatigue loads.
Assembly Requirements on assembly direction stated in the co-ordinate system above as
well as from which direction the connection should be locked. Another aspect for
the assembly is to state whether the connection should be made impossible to
mount wrongly. Number of assembly workers necessary can be stated as well as
time the assembly is allowed to take.
Tolerances Requirements on tolerances for the connection should be stated in all directions.
Tolerances are important since they will affect the total assembly possibilities of
the whole structure.
Sealing Requirements on air- and/or moisture tightness.
Visibility Requirements whether the connection should be visible or not. If the connection is
visible extra care needs to be taken regarding the aesthetical appearance of the
connection.
Environmental impact Requirements on the level of environmental impact of the connection. This is
possibly hard to evaluate for only the connection.
Durability Requirements on the ability to withstand deterioration actions; such as moisture
levels, chemical agents. This will affect the material and surfaces treatment of the
connection.
Disassembly Requirements whether the connection should be possible to disassemble. The
request should also include how much work and how much of the surrounding
structure will be affected by the disassembly.

Table 1. Description of the different parts in the suggested Part Request Form.

5
For some requirements, it is impossible to express functional requirements on the connection level. Examples of
such requirements are related to room climate, fire protection and sound level. If, for instance, the client tells the
supplier to design a connection which corresponds to Sound Class A, that is an impossible demand, since the
sound level in the room also will depend on the amount of sound insulation in the walls, floors and roofs.
Therefore there is a need to take decisions regarding acoustics, fire requirements and room climate on a higher
level. This is of course also true for the main force paths in a load bearing system.

Database

To take this information into the project development stage it is probably necessary to create a database of all
possible building components. Each component needs to be described in detail. For the connection details, this
information is more elaborate than for other components. This is due to the fact that the connection is crucial for
the behaviour of the complete building as well as for the assembly. The connection description should be seen as
a more elaborated form of the part request form earlier discussed. While the Part Request Form gives the
requirements that are needed to be fulfilled by the connection detail, the connection description is describing the
details actual capacities, but not exclusively. It should also give information about delivery times, description of
how it should be used during assembly, how repair should be carried out (if needed), an exact model of the detail
that can be used in the building model, and information on how to anchor the connection in different elements.
One could say that it should be like a manual for the connection detail to make the work of designing the actual
building as easy as possible.
What is gained by making such a description standardised is that the tedious task of understanding and
communicating information between different companies will be made easier, since the same description is used
in every project, and in every system. It is possible that the same company specialised in designing connections,
works with several different systems in cooperation with different companies. Instead of having to describe the
connections in different ways for every different system, one standardised way of describing it should be
deployed.

Project development stage

Description

In a project development phase, the components developed in the product development phase is utilised to
design and construct an actual building. This process is somewhat different than the process of developing a
system, since this phase actually has an end; the finished building.
The first and most important tool to be used when designing a building in an open building manufacturing
system, is a robust way to visualise the building, preferably in 4D (i.e. considering the time dimension as well as
the three room dimensions). In such a system, all components and details, from connection details to elements
and installation details, should be modelled. In this way, the designer can more easily export geometry of a part
for further analysis using FEM and also visualise where there may be problems with parts interfering with other
parts. The designer can also export exact 3D-models to be sent to the manufacturers of the components in digital
form. However, the largest gain is that the designer could make a virtual assembly. A virtual assembly is a
visualisation of the actual assembly work, where the designer can see how the elements are lifted in place, that
there is room so that the assembly can be made from the directions allowed by the connection detail chosen and
that the assembly worker easily can access the connection details that need locking.

Information needs

When a new project is started using a certain building system, the knowledge gained in the product development

6
phase until that moment must be gathered and made easily accessible. Then, the building designers working with
a certain project will have access to the latest data from the actual building system to use in their design. As the
product development phase is a continuing phase (it will be active during the whole lifespan of a system), the
knowledge will continuously be updated. Therefore, the gathering of this knowledge must be as easy and fast as
possible so that each new project can have the latest information as soon as the project starts. It is also vital for
the development of the system that knowledge gained during a building project can be returned to the product
developers.
The single most important reason for using a standardised description is the use of databases, as proposed
earlier. Databases can speed up the project development stage noticeably, if established correctly. By correctly, it
is meant that the database should be easy to use both regarding import of data as well as export. In the import
phase, the data available for the different components needs to be added to the database. This can be a very
tedious task if the data is given differently for each component. In such a case, no automatic import of the data
can be done; it must be translated into the form that the database uses. The translation could range from
problems such as different units being used to different file formats for the drawings (model) of the component. If
the descriptions are standardised, the process of importing the data into the database can be made automatic,
and even handled by the component designer him/herself.

Feedback to product development

It is of great importance that the experiences gained during a building project are reported back to the continued
product development. This means that, for example, if a certain connection detail is used during a certain building
project, problems, if any, using that detail (during design, assembly or manufacturing) should be reported. In this
way, the building project development phases will not be an isolated event, separate from the overall
development of the system. Instead, each new project provides invaluable information on how and in which areas
the system needs to be improved to become as good as possible.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

This paper presents two possible strategies for working with an open building system, design-based approach and
function-based approach. The function-based approach has higher potential when it comes to using all actors’
strength and allows for more out-scorching of the design work. This strategy will, however, put higher demands
on the communication between the different partners. Here one way of standardising the information flow
between different partners in the building process is presented, the Part Request Form. In this Part Request Form
all possible requirements can be quantified and specified. With the help of this form it will be possible to reduce
the information flow between buyer and supplier, reduce the risk of misinterpretation and help to juridically tie the
supplier to fulfil the task given.
The part request form will help both in the product development stage to develop the connection. However, it will
also help to characterise the connection in the project development stage. With the information stored it will be
possible to find a suitable connection but also to incorporate it in the visualisation of the building process in a 4D
environment. This will make it possible to study the assembly process that is the key factor to reduce building
costs.
In this work a prototype for a Part Request Form was done. This prototype is probably not sufficient to be used in
practice. Another area that needs to adressed is how to create tha database to store the information in.

7
Key Lessons Learned

 Different organisation of the work in the product development stage results in different needs for
communication
 One suggestion how to standardise the information related to a connection is given.

References

Lassl, V. Löfgren, P. 2006: Smart connection development for industrial construction – future requirements,
challenges and solutions. Master’s thesis in Structural Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden.
Brege S. Johansson, H-J. Pihlqvist, B. 2004: Trämanufaktur – det systembrytande innovationssytemet (Wood
manufacture – The Innovation System that beats the System). Vinnova analys report VA 2004:02. Vinnova,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Fib: Commission C6: Prefabrication, TG 6.2: Connections (2004): Structural connections for pre-cast concrete
buildings. Draft 2004-04-20

Authors’ Biographies

MARIE JOHANSSON, graduated from Chalmers University of Technology,

Göteborg, Sweden with a M.Sc. in civil engineering where she also obtained her
PhD at Steel and Timber Structures 2002. She is working as a researcher
specialised in Timber Structures. She has also during the last years been teaching
in the basic courses in Steel and Timber Structures in the Master’s programme in
Structural Engineering. At present she is active in a research project concerning
standardisation of connections for in industrialised building process.

VICTOR LASSL, graduated from Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,

Sweden with a M.Sc. in civil engineering 2006. He did his Master’s thesis at NCC
Teknik working with smart connection development for industrial connection.
PATRICK LÖFGREN, graduated from Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,
Sweden with a M.Sc. in civil engineering 2007. He did his Master’s thesis at NCC
Teknik working with smart connection development for industrial connection.

BJÖRN ENGSTRÖM, graduated from Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,

Sweden with a M.Sc. in civil engineering where he also obtained his PhD at
Concrete Structures 1992. He has more than 25 years' experience as a researcher
and lecturer in Concrete Structures. Professor in Concrete Structures since 1996
He is responsible for the international Masters programme in Structural
Engineering and Building Performance Design at Chalmers University of
Technology.

ROBERT KLIGER, graduated from Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,

Sweden with a M.Sc. in civil engineering where he also obtained his PhD at Steel
and Timber Structures 1993. He has more than 25 years' experience within the
fields of structural engineering and wood properties. Between 1987 and 1994,
involved in consulting operations for the steel frame manufacturer, specialising in
design of steel girders and steel frames for industrial and commercial buildings.
Professor in Steel and timber structures since 2001 and a leader of the research
group at the division of Structural engineering.

8
Simulating the technical factors of
Precast Concrete Production
G Long, University of Nottingham (gavin.long@nottingham.ac.uk)
Dr K Elliott, University of Nottingham (kim.elliott@nottingham.ac.uk)
Dr M Mawdesley, University of Nottingham (michael.mawdesley@nottingham.ac.uk)
Prof N Dawood, CCIR, University of Teesside (n.n.dawood@tees.ac.uk)
J Dean, CCIR, University of Teesside (j.dean@tees.ac.uk)
Dr R Ahmed, CCIR, University of Teesside (r.ahmed@tees.ac.uk)

Abstract

The use of precast concrete in construction provides an example of successfully employing off-site manufacturing
in the industry. The UK construction industry aspires to increase its use of off-site manufacture in line with the
findings of industrial reviews (Egan and Latham reports). Innovation in the precast concrete industry is limited by
the risks associated with change. There is scope for simulation to provide a tool for reducing these risks and
enabling greater innovation and use of precast concrete.

The Enterprise Simulation for Precast Concrete Operations (ESPCO) project intends to address this limitation by
developing a virtual precast concrete manufacturing facility. ESPCO will adopt a flight simulator or sandbox
approach to simulation allowing the user free rein in modelling a specific facility in detail or examining the effect
of changing a single element of production such as plant equipment or materials.

This paper describes work on development of a simulation of precast concrete production from a technical
perspective. The simulation focuses on concrete as a material, modelling its constituents and the production
processes that affect its properties. In addition to modelling current practice, the simulation aims to enable the
input of novel materials or processes and examine their impact on the concrete produced

Findings from the research undertaken in the production of a prototype technical simulation are described. The
integration between the technical and operational simulations being developed is also detailed. Preliminary work
moving from a prototype to a full simulation of precast concrete production is discussed.

Keywords: Virtual simulated construction sites, Integration of products, processes, Off-site manufacturing and
preassembly

Background

Industrial Context

This paper reports on the results of a prototype simulation model development for Enterprise Simulation for
Precast Operations (ESPCO). The ESPCO project has been funded for the UK precast industry by the British
Department of Trade and Industry under technology their initiative program. The University of Nottingham (UoN)
and the University of Teesside (UoT) are acting as academic partners; industrial collaborators include AMEC,
Tarmac, and Aggregate Industries; the project is being led by the British Precast Concrete Federation.
The ESPCO project aims to provide a flight-simulator-like tool to precast concrete companies. It should

1
encapsulate technical and operational aspects of precast concrete production to help them study cost and
schedule tradeoffs and identify effects of different concrete mix designs on the production process. The project
has been divided into two areas: technical simulation and operational simulation of precast production operations.
The University of Nottingham (UoN) is responsible for the technical simulation of precast concrete production
operations and University of Teesside (UoT) is responsible for operational simulation. A prototype of operational
aspects of precast concrete production has been developed by UoT and is described in a separate report by UoT.
The two models will be integrated to form the flight simulator for the precast concrete industry.
This report presents a review of the activities undertaken in ESPCO at UoN. A review of the work carried out at
the UoT can be found in Dawood et al (2007).
The precast concrete industry in the UK is far from homogeneous. It consists of a variety of companies ranging
from small to large. The products can be classified in several ways such as Manufacture for Stock or Manufacture
to order; or Structural components or non-structural components.
The methods of manufacture employed also vary and include wet casting, dry casting and spinning. Despite all
these variations, the process used is significantly the same at the macro level and consists of the following steps:
Production of concrete, Preparation of moulds, placing of concrete, Curing of concrete, Removal of moulds, and
Transfer to storage. In addition the process for the manufacture of some units has reinforcement and
prestressing steps.

Problem

Much of the precast production process is affected by the design of the concrete mix irrespective of the
precasting method used or the product being made. Examples of the effects are shown in table 1.
This paper describes the development of a prototype model of the design of mixes and production of batches of
the mixes. It provides the data for the process model and data to allow the combined model to evaluate the mix.
This data is in terms of important measures and includes, the rate of strength gain, the workability, the curing
methods allowed and their effects on the strength gain, the mixing time the actual quantities produced. Future
work will investigate the provision of safety and sustainability related information for a more holistic evaluation of
a mix and the process.
The prototype will act as proof of concept for the final technical model and the overall simulation model. It will
allow users to investigate new constituent materials and mixes and their effects on both the batches produced
and, through the process model, on the process. It also include the effects of uncertainties inherent in the
individual material properties the behaviour of the materials when they are combined into a mix and the amounts
of each material in any given batch of the concrete.

2
 Process step
Concrete production
Placing of concrete
Curing of the units
Removal of / from moulds
Effect of mix design
Cost of raw materials
Workability of the mix is affected. This in turn
affects the amount of vibration required, the
quality of the finished item (in terms of voids),
and how long is required for the placing process.
These all affect the cost of production. In
addition, the mix design will affect the maximum
amount of time that is available for placing after
the mixing. If this is too short, material may have
to be discarded.
The mix may determine the curing methods that
can be used and the rate of strength gain. This in
turn will determine the amount of time which
must be allowed for curing.
The mix design will affect the rate of strength gain
and hence the time before stripping is possible. It
may also affect the methods that can be applied
including the lifting equipment that can be used or
are required.

Table 1: Illustrations of effects of mix design on process steps

Learning Objectives

 How a simulation model of the behaviour of a concrete mix can be developed

 How such a simulation model can be used to predict the values of parameters which will affect the precasting
process
 How such a simulation model can be used to provide input to a process simulation model
 How such a model can be used to improve a concrete mix in terms of cost, strength, environmental impact
and safety.
 How such a model can be used as a method of knowledge elicitation
 How uncertainty in the material properties can be incorporated into such a simulation model

3
Approach

A five-step approach as shown in figure 2 was adopted for this work. This paper covers the first two steps.

In itia l k n o w le d g e c a p tu re

D e v e lo p m e n t o f p ro to ty p e
te c h n ic a l m o d e l

D e ta ile d kn o w le d g e
e lic ita tio n

D e v e lo p m e n t o f fin a l
te c h n ic a l m o d e l

In te g ra tio n o f te c h n ic a l a n d
p ro c e s s m o d e ls

Figure 2: The outline development process

Initial Knowledge Capture

The main source of the information required for this phase was the industrial partners. Their practical knowledge
was used to extend the information available from the literature and from academic sources. Several important
points arose during the phase. Firstly, it became obvious that industry treated much of the required information
as commercially sensitive. For example, the detailed effects of admixtures and additives were often not divulged.
This is surprising because the manufacturers often want the properties of their products to be known and treat
them as selling points. It is understandable however, that they would want to maintain strict control of their
product information.
Secondly, and related to the first point, the products range provided by the material manufacturers changes
rapidly. This is particularly true of admixtures. This sensitivity and rapid changes meant that the design of the
simulation had to incorporate general materials but allow users to add their own specific materials and define
exactly their effects when added to mixes.
A third point which affected the design of the simulation model was how much of the information existed only in
the form of graphs and not in terms of equations. An example of this is the strength gain over time for a
concrete. Curve fitting could be used to produce equations but there would be no real scientific reason behind
the resultant equations and it was decided, therefore, to use the graphs as these were what is used in practice.
The graphs of strength gain that are available are usually related to in-situ placed concrete and not to concrete
used for precasting. In precasting, the behaviour of the concrete during the first few hours after mixing is
important since it must gain sufficient strength rapidly to enable the precast unit to be moved and the mould
reused. In general concrete, the first few hours are relatively unimportant since the moulds will normally not be
stripped for over a day. This sparsity of data could affect the accuracy of the model and some experimentation
might be required if further data cannot be found. Data obtained from industrial partners was used to alleviate
this omission for the purposes of prototype development.

A final point which arose from this phase of the work is that many of the interactions of the parameters are very
non-linear. A specific example of this is the effects of combining Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and cement

4
replacement products (CRPs) (such as blast furnace slag, fuel ash or silica fume) in various proportions. There is
not a linear relationship between the strength and the proportion of OPC. Indeed, there is no easily apparent
relationship. This has meant that the prototype model has been designed so that the user has to specify any
combination of a two materials as a third, new material representing a blend of the OPC and CRP.

Prototype Model Development

The model was developed around the concept that all concrete was made up of a maximum of four types of
material: Binders, Bulkers, Hydrators and Admixtures.
- A ‘Binder’ is the material, such as OPC, Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC) or a blend of
these with CRPs which binds all the materials together. It is the main active ingredient of the
concrete.
- A ’Bulker’ is a material which gives the final product its volume. Typical bulkers are the coarse
and fine aggregates. Bulker materials are held together by the paste formed during the hydration
process. Bulker materials usually make up the largest percentage of a concrete.
- A ‘Hydrator’ is the material required by the binder to enable the process of hydration to occur. In
all situations encountered so far in the project this is ordinary water although the model would
allow for other materials to be used providing they acted with the binder to form hydration. The
temperature of the water added to the mixture appears to have some impact over early strength
gain but other properties seem to have little or no impact.
- An ‘Admixture’ is anything added to the mix to alter the behaviour of the mix in respect of the
major measures considered. Typically, an admixture would change the workability or final
strength of a mix.

More detailed descriptions of these types of materials and their effects on a concrete are given in a number of the
sources given in this paper’s references such as Neville, Powers or Dewar (Neville, 1995; Powers, 1968; Dewar,
1992). For a more detailed examination of the science and chemistry of concrete admixtures Rizom (Rizom &
Mailvaganam, 1999), amongst others, provides a good background. Due to the variety of type, action and
evolution of admixtures, these materials were particularly difficult to model in terms of a prototype

Several different development tools were examined before the final choice was made. Simulation packages such
as ARENA and AnyLogic were eventually rejected because of the nature of the problem and it was decided to use
a high-level language development environment. Visual Studio and Delphi were investigated and Delphi selected
for personal preference. An Access database is used to pass information between the process and technical
models and to store the information about the materials.

The method chosen for modelling the mix for the prototype model is that developed by the Building Research
Establishment (BRE, 1988) and often referred to outside the UK as the British Method. This was selected as it is
the most commonly used by the industrial partners at present. As more detail and accuracy becomes necessary,
this choice may be re-examined. Other potential methods for concrete mixture examined range from the complex
theoretical models based on particle interactions and requiring detailed material information (De Larrard, 1999;
Dewar, 1999; Wong, 2005) to less complex methods based on experimental results such as the one chosen or
Shacklock (Shacklock, 1974).

Mix design methods are generally used to calculate the approximate proportions of constituents in order to
produce a concrete to a set of specified constraints, usually in terms of compressive strength and/or workability of
the fresh concrete. A number of assumptions are made in the case of most mix design methods. For example,
that trial mixes will be made and the mix design modified in light of the results obtained from these trial mixes. It

5
may also be that the types of mixture applicable to a method are limited.

A generic, computational simulation of concrete mixtures requires greater accuracy, precision and coverage (in
terms of potential constituents and mixture types) than is often provided by the traditional mix design methods.
Therefore some adaptation of the method chosen was undertaken to allow for the inclusion of admixtures into the
concrete and to model the early curing of the concrete produced (essential for the precasting industry). The
inherent variability’s of the materials used in a mixture have some effect on the properties of the concrete and
some additional allowance or inclusion of these was employed. For example, the reference 28 strength1 of a
binder was extended to cover the likely range it would fall into based on data gathered from industry.

Integration with the Operational model

One of the key features of the ESPCO project is the combination of technical and operational factors to produce a
truly holistic simulation of the precast concrete production. For the purposes of the ESPCO prototype, a limited
integration between technical and operational models has been included to demonstrate proof of concept. This
utilises a shared data model with clearly defined ownership and editing rules.

The technical model is used to develop a concrete mixture and simulate its likely compressive strength as a
function of time since mixing. This curing profile is then utilised by the operational model in order to estimate the
curing time required for the product. In addition to the simulated data on the concrete mixture, the operational
model also employs technical data on the product and production process, specifically in terms of the transfer
strength2 required for that process. This integration between the two models can be used to demonstrate the
effects of changes to the mix design in terms of production cycle times and costs.

Details of the full scale integration between the full simulation tools have been planned and will be reviewed in
light of feedback from the prototype models. It is likely to include the addition of the following issues:
- Mapping of workability/consistency constraints for fresh concrete onto the operational production
processes. This would be used to ensure that appropriate concrete mixtures are employed for a
given production method. It will aid to differentiate in greater detail between the benefits and
limitations of particular methods of production.
- The use of detailed technical specifications for precast concrete products in the selection of mix
and production process.
- The effect on technical properties of various production processes. For example, the impact of the
degree of compaction on the strength, permeability and durability of the concrete produced.

There are a number of other issues and details regarding the integration of simulation models but it is outside the
scope of this paper to provide a full explanation of these here.

Analysis

The technical simulation model is called from the main menu/hub of the overall system. This hub enables access
to the various modules that make up ESPCO and is intended to represent an overview of a precasting facility. Key
information is displayed here detailing current production options and recent production history.

1 Binders often specify a reference strength, e.g. OPC = 42.5N/mm2, to indicate the likely strength of a concrete at 28 days
based on a water/cement ratio of 0.5. Data gathering has shown this reference strength to be a highly approximate value,
with actual strength’s varying by some degree from the reference value.
2 Transfer Strength refers to the compressive strength required to remove the product from its mould or form. It is
dependent on the specific product and lifting or removal method.

6
Figure 3: Materials Database
Figure 3 shows details for typical materials stored in the system database. The screen can be used to browse
through materials and select materials for editing, deletion or inclusion in the mix design module. Selecting a
material is done by setting the “InUse” field to true. Materials are classified by type (i.e. binders, coarse bulkers,
fine bulkers, admixtures, etc).

Figure 4 shows the screen used to input data for a material such as a binder (example shown above), bulker
(coarse and fine) or other concrete constituent. Data consists of a variety of types and includes the ability for the
user to input tabular information via a graphical interface. The example shown illustrates how the package has
been designed to allow a user to input graph-based data which is commonly the only type available. In this case
hydration profile(s) for a binder are input by positioning the y-values on the graph to indicate strength values at
fixed time intervals (x-values)

Figure 4: Add new material screen.

Figure 5 shows a screen which displays details of mix designs and concrete batches created from those mixes.
The user can see extra data specific to the selected mix or batch if necessary and can use this module to open
the mix designer module (see figure 8) for creating or editing concrete mixes.

7
Figure 5: Mix and Batch Book

Figure 6 shows a screen-dump from the ‘Product Catalogue’. This contains information for finished products
which the precasting company makes. It is useful to have this information for the technical model as some mixes
might not be suitable for some products. For example, a mix with a low workability might not be suitable for a
wall panel if it is cast vertically but would be suitable if it were cast horizontally. The database works in a similar
fashion to the materials database but displays product data relevant to the ESPCO system. A user can view, edit,
browse or add products used in the simulation. Additional data for a selected product is shown in the lower area
of the form.

Figure 6: Product Catalogue.

Figure 7 shows a screen dump from the mix designer. This is the main element of the technical simulation.
Previous screens exist for the administration, data entry or navigation in the system. The mix designer consists of
a number of sub-windows that perform specific functions:

8
Figure 7: Mix Designer

 Object Inspector – displays data for the item (material) currently selected (if any) in the mix designer.
 Mixer Window – Used to combine the selected elements and set the relative proportions of each element in
the mix design.
 Estimate Window – gives an estimate of the likely concrete specification once a viable mix has been produced
in the mixer window. This window only provides a limited subset of concrete properties such as strength,
workability, etc.
 Binder/Bulker/Hydrator/Admixture windows – These windows contain the relevant concrete constituents

identified for use in the mixer in the materials database. Each constituent is represented by an icon which can be
dragged into the mixer image in the mixer window for addition to a mix. When an icon is selected the data for
that item is displayed in the object inspector window

Results and Business Impacts

The prototype simulation has been completed. It can produce mixes and batches from any materials that the
user wishes to specify. The specification is not a simple matter of naming a material. It is necessary to give its
properties and the effects it has on all the major parameters when combined with other materials.
Figure 8 shows a screen-dump of the results of the main mix design interface. This is displayed when the users
have selected the materials and proportions to use. It shows the main results of the technical simulation. It can

9
be seen that it includes, for example, the curing profile is performed and the mix data window will be displayed
with the results of this processing.

Figure 8: Mix Data window

It contains the properties of a concrete that are determined through the mix design method chosen and produces
an estimated curing profile for the mixture. Some relative measures of key performance indicators such as
sustainability and finish are given along with calculated figures such as strength, cost and workability. The user
can also produce test batches using a specified batching plant and mixer to examine the potential variability of
concrete produced using the specified mixture under those conditions. Figure 8 shows the simulated output
including hydration profiles for two different test mixtures.

Key Findings

A summary of the major findings of the work undertaken are listed below.
- Concrete is a complex, composite material. Its properties are governed and affected by a number
of factors and are prone to be altered by the inherent variability of its constituents. The curing
process by which concrete gains it hardened properties is subject to environmental conditions
such as temperature and humidity.
- A number of methods for the modelling of concrete mixtures are used. These are mainly based
on a body of experimental findings rather than detailed theoretical models. Mix design methods
have been primarily designed for the ready-mix and in-situ placed concretes. When dealing with
precast concrete some modification to the methods are often required.
- Concrete mixture design methods are not widely used in the precasting industry. Practitioners
tend to rely on their experience, historical data and research undertaken by their material
suppliers such as cement and admixture manufacturers.
- Key properties of concrete mixes and products have been identified and modelled. The data
model developed allows for the simulation of a concrete mixture using the standard UK method of
mix design. The method has been expanded to include key requirements for the precast industry
such as the common use of admixtures and the need for early hydration and curing profiles for
binders and concrete mixtures respectively. Intentional redundancy has been included in the
model to allow for its expansion to include other more complex methods for simulating concrete
mixtures.
- Technical properties of concrete mixtures and precast concrete products can be integrated with a
process based simulation of precasting operations in order to develop a holistic simulation of
overall precast concrete production. This takes account of the technical factors and constraints
affecting precasting which have been an issue in employing process based simulation in the
industry.

10
Business Impacts

The simulation models (technical and operational) will be able to provide the precast industry with tools to
forecast production schedules using different concrete mix and manufacturing methods. The models will be able
to predict the effect of new materials, mix designs and production technologies before major investment by a
precast company. The ability to model Heath and Safety factors (such as noise, vibration and dust) in a
precasting factory is of a great interest for the industry and will be included in the models.

Next Steps

Future work plans involve testing and validation of the prototype technical simulation tool with our industrial
partners and the wider UK precast concrete industry. Feedback from this exercise will be used in the transition to
a full technical simulation. Preliminary feedback has identified a number of areas where the technical simulation
should focus along with other areas to include and omit.

The currently limited integration between the technical and operational models will be expanded upon to
introduce greater technical underpinning of the operational model. The operational prototype omits a number of
key technical issues such as batch yields, workability constraints and batch variability’s which require inclusion in
the development of a fully integrated simulation.

In terms of the technical simulation and modelling, the next key phase involves detailed data acquisition and
analysis in conjunction with our industrial partners and through the industrial links provided by the BPCF. Some
laboratory testing of physical materials may be required during this phase where industrial and published research
data is lacking or sparsely populated.

Conclusions

This paper reports on the results of a prototype simulation model development for Enterprise Simulation for
Precast Operations (ESPCO). The ESPCO project aims to provide a flight simulator like tool for the precaster
industry. It will encapsulate technical and operational aspects of precast concrete production to help them study
cost and schedule tradeoffs and identify effects of different concrete mix designs on production process. The
paper introduced the concept of the modelling of the technical aspects of precasting. It has illustrated some of
the problems encountered and solutions proposed.

Key Lessons Learned

 An holistic approach to precasting process is needed to optimise production plans and thus factory operation
 The approach should include materials, mix design and process aspects.
 Modelling material behaviour is a complex issue.

References

Building Research Establishment (BRE) (1988). Design of normal concrete mixes. HMSO, UK
Dawood, N., Ahmed, R. Dean, J., Mawdesley, M., Long, G. & Elliott, K. (2007). Modelling of Precast Concrete
Production Operations and Innovations: A Simulation Approach. Submitted for Manubuild 1st International
Conference, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 2007.
De Larrard, F. (1999) Concrete mixture proportioning: a scientific approach. E & FN Spon, London.
Dewar, J. D. (1999) Computer modelling of concrete mixtures. E & FN Spon, London.

11
Dewar, J. D. & Anderson, R. (1992) Manual of Ready-Mixed Concrete (2nd Edition). Blackie Academic &
Professional.
Neville, A. (1995), Properties of Concrete, Longman, 4th Ed.
Powers, T. C. (1968). The properties of fresh concrete. Wiley & Sons, New York.
Rizom, R. & Mailvaganam, N. (1999). Chemical admixtures for concrete (3rd Edition). E & FN Spon, London.
Shacklock, B. W. (1974). Concrete constituents and mixture proportions. Cement and Concrete Association,
London.
Wong, H. C. & Kwan, A. K. H. (2005). Packing Density: A Key Concept for Mix Design of High Performance
Concrete. Materials Science and Technology in Engineering Conference, 2005. Hong Kong.

Authors’ Biographies

Gavin Long has been a research associate at Nottingham University for the last 6
years. He has worked on a number of projects during this time including the
development of games and simulations for teaching construction management, a
method for visual inspection of flood defence infrastructure and a tool for
assessing the potential for use of modular building service units in large buildings.
His main area of research is in the use of simulations and games for teaching and
training.

Dr Mawdesley has an extensive background in the development and use of

simulations in the construction industry. He has developed a number of
simulations during his academic career both for use in the teaching of
undergraduates and for practical use in industry. His research interests cover
many aspects of construction management including project management,
planning and control and the use of AI techniques to improve the management of
construction projects.

Dr. Kim S Elliott (BTech, PhD, MICE, CEng) is Senior Lecturer in the School of Civil
Engineering, University of Nottingham. He has published 110 journal and
conference papers on the structural and material behaviour of precast and
prestressed concrete structures, twice winning the Henry Adams Award from the
IStructE. He has authored 4 books, Precast Frame Buildings Design Guide (1992),
Multi-Storey Precast Concrete Frame Structures (1996), Precast Concrete
Structures (2002) and Precast Concrete in Mixed Construction (2002). He has
lectured on this subject is 15 countries worldwide and at 25 universities in UK. Dr
Elliott is a member of the FIB Commission on Prefabrication, and was Chairman of
the European research project COST C1 on Semi-Rigid Connection in Precast
Concrete Structures

Nashwan Dawood is a Professor of construction management and IT. Currently

director of CCIR at Teesside and have spent many years as an academic and
researcher within the field of project and construction management and the
application of IT in the construction and precast processes. This has ranged
across a number of research topics including Information Technologies and
Systems (4D,VR,Integrated databases), risk management, intelligent decision
support systems, cost forecasting and control and business processes. This has
resulted in over 140 published papers in refereed international journal and

12
 conferences, and research grants totalling about £1,800,000 in cash and £600,000
in kind.

Rizwan Ahmed is a Research Fellow in process modelling and simulation at CCIR,

University of Teesside. He is currently working on the ESPCO project funded by
the DTI and teaching project management to engineering students. He obtained
his PhD in process modelling and simulation from University of Hertfordshire, UK
in 2006. Where he proposed and evaluated an empirically formulated framework
for process modelling and simulation. He has presented at various high profile
conference in simulation. He holds a first degree in computer science and MSc. in
Software Engineering.

J.T. Dean an electrical engineer with experience at board level in process i

ndustries and an MSc on Operational Management, Member-Institute of
operations Management, Member-chartered Management Institute. Specialising in
Automation change management in the Precast Industry over eight years prior to
2006. Currently engaged in developing IT projects and supervising PhD student at
t he University of Teesside.

13
Open building, open standards and open
communications – how open?
Colin H. Davidson, University of Montreal <colinhdavidson@sympatico.ca>

Abstract

Building, process improvement through re-engineering, performance-based building and the systems approach are
currently promoted but traditional building turns out to be remarkably resilient; it is a “multi-industry” and each
project is entrusted (through established routines) to a “temporary multi-organization”. Each participant has
entrenched interests and is only interested in changes that favour those interests. Against this background, the
last sixty years have seen calls for the industrialization of that industry, with “light-and-dry open systems” set in
opposition to “heavy-and-wet closed systems”. The open building approach requires agreement on technical
standards (notably on dimensions, jointing and performance categories); it also requires organizational
coordination at both the programme and the project levels.
A detailed case history of a semi-open building system from the late sixties (studied through participatory
research methods) highlights some of the problems with open building, emphasizing the needed organizational
‘fit’ within the organizational environment of the traditional industry. This experience is compared with a brief case
history of a successful introduction of semi-open building in North America.
Conclusions can be drawn about organizational design - a necessary concomitant of technical innovation. From
this analysis, the accessibility of information (key to innovation) is related to developing technology watch services
specifically designed to suit the fragmented building industry.

Keywords: information, open building systems, organizational design, technology watch, traditional building
industry

Background

Industrial Context

The building industry is often criticized for its apparent inability to improve its productivity and adopt a proactive
approach to innovation – though there are reasons to believe that this is somewhat unfair. Indeed, the building
industry has always been “project oriented” and has learnt to cope with the concomitant uncertainties, while only
today other industries are beginning to learn the benefits of project management-based organization (Groàk,
1992).
There are obvious reasons to explain this situation – but not to justify it. For example, the building industry is, in
management jargon, a multi-industry, reflecting the fact that it is composed of a number of different categories of
participants, each with its technical competencies and each with its own set of behavioural rules (Figure 1, right
panel). Each project is executed by a temporary multi organization, brought into being by the building owner’s
procurement strategy for the sole duration of the project, after which the organization disperses and its members
probably never all work together on another project (Davidson, 1988) – see Figure 1, left panel.

1
 The environment of the building industry

general and subcontractors

political environment
architect-engineers social environment
building owner

economic environment

manufacturer
financial institutions

manufacturer

manufacturer
Clients É ..

supplier

supplier

supplier
Architects É ..
Engineers É ..
Contractors É ..
Sub-contractors É ..
Suppliers É ..
manufacturers É ..
contractual link

manufacturer
manufacturer

manufacturer
information link professional bodies codes authorities

standards bodies

The building industry The project participants

Figure 1. Left panel: traditional building project participants and their relationships; right panel: systems view of
the project team within the traditional building industry and its environment.

Central players are the design teams (architects and engineers, and their specialty consultants), and the building
contractors and their trade sub-contractors; controlling authorities, financial institutions etc. also belong – but
somewhat less directly. Manufacturers enjoy a special position, through their supplying role and their involvement
in many projects (Figure 1, right panel).
Innovation takes place within this industry context; industrialization (one of the forms of innovation), includes
“light-and-dry open systems” and “heavy-and-wet closed systems”, which form a kind of theoretical continuum,
but which is not necessarily reflected in practice. Open building systems involve technical processes and
organizational design (a fact that is often overlooked), whereas open system building “only” involves technical
standardization.
The necessary and inextricable association of technique and organization underlies this chapter; indeed, that
there cannot be the one without the other constitutes the research hypothesis.
Problem
When improved productivity is sought and some form of industrialized building is proposed, technical designs are
closely followed by large-scale investments, seemingly disregarding the resilience of the traditional practices and
the nature of the building market. In other words, technical and financial preoccupations pre-empt the systemic
designing of a new organizational form. This can be illustrated by British contractors’ experience in the mid-
sixties. Believing the publicity surrounding the then upcoming elections with a political party’s slogans such as
“vote for XX and we will build 1000 houses a day”, these major players bought French technical licences for
closed building systems, built factories in the U.K. and waited for their order-books to fill – which they did not;
the system sponsors had overlooked the fact that the French government – highly centralized as we know it to be
– was placing individual contracts for thousands of dwellings with premiums for labour saving methods, whereas
in the U.K., housing demand is decentralized to the point that the average housing contract at the time was 35
dwellings.
The case history presented in the next section describes the genesis of a so-called “open system” and its fit to
the traditional housing market in the U.K. of the time. The detailed case is then compared to a somewhat similar
case developed at the same time in the USA.

Learning Objectives

This chapter – through its cases, leads to an understanding of:

 Open building systems and the needed conventions

 The fit between technical and organizational design

 Participants’ motivations and scope for sharing advantages between all affected parties.

2
Approach

The Author, who worked on the principal case described in the following section for several years, obtained the
information “hands-on”; its analysis, however, draws on many subsequent years of reflection and comparative
studies. The information for the second case was also obtained by participation (“embedded research”) and from
many discussions with the lead innovator.
The analyses of both cases draw upon many years of system building teaching and research, and as many
conferences and publications.

Analysis: two case studies

Case 1: an open building system for social housing in the U.K

In the mid-sixties, a small design firm in London decided to tackle the problem of improved social housing
through an open systems approach, more accurately termed the design of an “open building system”. The starting
point was knowledge about the Arcon® post-war “prefab” semi-open system and about a closed low-rise housing
system from Sweden called Erbest®, in which dry-assembled two-man-carry concrete panels formed the
structural envelope. (For a discussion about the context, see Bowley, 1966).
The U.K. system started with a thorough analysis of the kinds of social houses currently being designed - their
overall geometry and critical dimensions, and upper-level performance characteristics. This analysis suggested the
scope for a multi-materials “kit-of-parts” approach.

Figure 2. Elevational sketch of prototype COSMOS houses showing typical component ranges.

At this point, a set of critical decisions was necessary: either opt for small, repetitive non-location-specific single-
function components (the success of which supposes quick and dry assembly methods) or larger and location-
specific multi-functional components (probably presupposing broader tolerances and “wet” – i.e. concreting -
assembly techniques). The outcome of this decision was bound to affect potentially interested fellow-participants
(manufacturers in the first case, contractors in the second); the outcome would also open or close certain public-
sector regulatory constraints (the possibility to name a manufactured product in public-sector specifications versus
the virtual impossibility of selecting a contractor-systems sponsor without open or semi-open tendering).
In a parallel study, key actors in the public housing sector were identified for their potential interest and influence.
It was obvious at the time that social housing in the U.K. was characterized by the key role played by highly
motivated architects; this suggested that the emerging system should, above all, be appealing for them.
The technical decisions lead to a “kit-of-parts” approach, in which 3M/1M (12”/4”) modular coordination was
strictly applied to component ranges to be made from the most appropriate materials (concrete, aluminium,

3
timber, pressed fibre, etc., see Figure 3, left panel). Joints were all based on the modular rules of detailing the
edges of the components and selecting boundary materials so that (a) the components remained within the
modular spaces allocated to them, and (b) a limited range of “third members” ensured the maintenance of the
required performances (performances for fixing the components and for filling the spaces between them). This
approach was designed to open the door for the use of components obtained from other modular systems, such
as the timber-framed external wall panels obtained from another “open” system, used in the prototype project
(visible at the extreme right of Figure 4, right panel).
The organizational design was based on bringing manufacturers “on board” (the system was appropriately called
COSMOS – Consortium of Selected Manufacturers’ Open System). The manufacturer for each component range
was invited to consider being selected on the basis of (a) technical and administrative reputation plus (b) the
possibility of meeting a maximum price FOB based on a hypothetical order book (this price was calculated by
working backwards from an in-place price which had to be comparable with traditional elemental prices). For site
assembly, since contractors could not be selected without running foul of the regulation stipulating the need for
tendering, a contractor in each region of the U.K. was provided with complete technical information and know-
how so that he/she could, when a project was initiated in that region, prepare a tender - without having to add
on to the tender price a “fear-of-the-unknown” factor.

general and subcontractors

architect-engineers
building owner

supplier
supplier
system sponsor

manufacturer

manufacturer
manufacturer

manufacturer

manufacturer
manufacturer
new organization
to manage the
system

contractual link

information link

Figure 3. COSMOS: left panel: component ranges, one per selected manufacturer; right panel: organizational
design showing the new group responsible for coordinating the manufacturers and the system designers
(compare with the left panel of Figure 1).

In terms of marketing procedures, the system was addressed to architects; no plans were ever shown to them
(since they were well able to produce them) – instead drawings of design principles, as shown in Figure 4, left
panel, were provided. Once provisionally interested, a

Figure 4. COSMOS: left

panel: typical details;
right panel: prototype project (ex-system timber wall panels obtained from
another modular “open” system can be seen at the extreme right).

4
project architect submitted his/her sketches to the system organizers, who, within a day, adjusted them – as little
as possible - to the modular and technical catalogue rules and also provided complete preliminary bills of
quantities and preliminary price (excluding foundations and site work, of course). This price included a known
2½% management fee. The interest for architects lay in the fact that many uncertainties were avoided, quite
apart from the improved performance characteristics of the principal component ranges.
Interestingly, this system proposal addressed the problem of motivating the necessary participants: manufacturers
(through the processes of focused negotiation), contractors (through the supply of information) and designers
(through facilitating the repetitive parts of their work).
System description “COSMOS is an open system. COSMOS components form a kit-of-
parts available ex-Catalogue for industrialized housing
performances”
COSMOS organisation “The COSMOS organisation provides a link between the Architect
and the manufacturers in the consortium. COSMOS is specifically
intended to be a tool for the Client and his Architect; to use
COSMOS does not restrict the Architect’s responsibility and
prerogatives, nor does it require a change from the better
existing procedures for ensuring value for money”
COSMOS components “COSMOS components are produced by manufacturers in a
consortium”
COSMOS prices “COSMOS component prices are initially prepared from a
comparative elemental cost analysis; each COSMOS built element
is equivalent in cost with the average traditional element it
replaces”
Specials “There is no such thing as a COSMOS “special”; non-standard
components or standard components from other ranges can be
obtained through traditional channels at traditional prices”

Table 1. Extracts from a COSMOS promotion document illustrating the system’s principles

Case 2: an open building system for university housing in the USA.

Called URBS – University Residential Building System, this system was prepared by Mr. Ezra Ehrenkrantz of
Building Systems Development Inc. (BSDI) for the University of California.
The client’s requirements were for between 4500 and 9000 residential spaces to be spread among the University’s
many campuses: flat, hot and dry Sacramento, urbane high density Berkeley, undulating temperate marine Santa
Cruz, motorized and polluted Los Angeles … . The client also stipulated that many life-styles should be
accommodated (dormitory, small rooms, apartments for communes, couples with or without children etc.) and
that provision should be made for frequent adaptations.
These requirements were translated by BSDI into performance specifications, stipulating – for each functional
element (structure including earthquake resistance, partitioning, sanitary, HVAC, storage, etc.) – (a) the
performance criteria and (b) the responsibility for the interface between the functional elements or subsystems.
The specifications also stipulated a 20” planning module.
Major manufacturers from throughout the USA were invited to compete; indeed there were several working within
the technical domains of each of the subsystems. Winners (one manufacturer per subsystem) were selected (a)
on demonstrating their inter-subsystem technical compatibilities (e.g. structure to partitions, structure to HVAC),
and (b) the lowest combination of prices for a full set of compatible subsystems (Figure 5, left panel).
This approach circumvented a US requirement that products can only be named in a specification if accompanied
by the “or equivalent” phrase (and there must be demonstrable equivalents too). The outcome of this competition
led to there being “equivalent” subsystems in the market (where equivalence was ensured by the winners and the
losers having satisfied the performance requirements), so that they could be specified in a perfectly normal way.
Contractors were selected by open bidding and architects for each campus project were selected in the usual way
(it being stipulated, however, that they had to design their university residence projects in respect of the system’s
rules, modules, planning constraints etc.).

5
 architect-engineers
general and subcontractors

building owner

system organizers

system designer
system designer

system designer
system designer

manufacturer +
manufacturer +

manufacturer +
manufacturer +

supplier
supplier

manufacturer
manufacturer
new organization
to manage the virtual organization
system to coordinate the
sub-systems
contractual link
information link
information link
+ competition conditions

Figure 5. URBS system: left panel: perspective of assembly possibility of winning sub-systems (structure, HVAC,
partitioning, plumbing and bathrooms, and storage); right panel: organizational arrangements, showing the two
new organizational groupings to manage the sub-systems and to coordinate the manufacturers (compare with the
left panel of Figure 1).

Interestingly, this system proposal only mobilized the participation potential of the competing manufacturers;
contractors’ and designers’ roles were marginally affected – both positively (by savings in time) and negatively (by
changes in their normal processes). For further information about this approach, see Glover, 1974, and
Ehrenkrantz, 1998.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

Both these case histories demonstrate the genesis of open building systems in different regulatory contexts - but
with similar aims: the improvement of residential facilities through mobilization of manufacturers’ design and
production capabilities. They both underline the importance of maintaining a strong and centralizing control over
management aspects of the systems (thus “closing” them in organizational terms) while allowing for component
flexibility (thus “opening” them in technical terms)1 .
For example, in the first case history, as has been mentioned, timber framed components were brought in from a
third party supplier; while on paper this seemed a reasonable decision (incidentally reinforcing the claim that the
system was indeed an “open system”), in practice there turned out to be technical difficulties with tolerances and
joints, and administrative difficulties with logistics. In the second case history, non-system parts (such as external
walls) (a) interacted with the system and its process logic and (b) were also constrained by rules stemming from
the system itself (in this instance, the rules governing the structure subsystem). Moreover, the system might well
be affected by a non-system element; again considering the case of the external walls: if, for example, brickwork
was chosen, it would delay the whole assembly cycle and require scaffolding; if, on the other hand, pre-cast
concrete were chosen, it would be assembled as quickly as the structure using the same cranes.
In both cases, the quality of the buildings produced was improved (set by the system sponsors as a prime
objective - as opposed to a reduction of costs since price and cost are often driven by “what the market will bear”
rather than by a rational analysis of actual costs plus disclosure of otherwise confidential mark-ups). In both
cases, there were difficulties in longterm applications (due to shifts in the market place and the corresponding
effective demand).
1Remember that an open system exchanges objects, information and energy with its environment, whereas a closed
system does not. (Hall, 1962).
6
Business Impacts

The business impacts are clear but difficult to learn from. By developing open building systems (as opposed to
open system building), the initiators in both cases exposed themselves, as has just been mentioned, to the
vagaries of their target markets (public sector housing in the first case, University of California’s residences in the
second). However, developing an “open building system” can be envisaged within the framework of a programme
of projects whereas developing “open system building” involves the broad scale application in practice of a set of
theoretical concepts for a whole industry, thus lying outside the competence of any one firm or group of firms and
outside the scope of a single construction programme.
The history of industrialized and system building – open systems and even closed – is littered with examples of
failures and financial disasters. An examination of the underlying reasons suggests an inability on the part of the
innovators to arrive at a fit between the proposed techniques and the relevant business environment; expressed
differently, the innovators overestimated their power to control that environment and its impacts on their work.

Conclusions

At this point it is appropriate to reflect on the resilience of traditional building processes and on the traditional
building industry – since they are the yardsticks against which all attempts at innovation have to measure up.
Traditional building is defined not only as a method of building, which is recognized to be the norm in a given
region at a given time, but also by the fact that it requires skill not only in the execution of work but also in the
interpretation of instructions (UN-ECE, 1959). Thus, even if traditional building requires many operations to be
executed in a complex sequence with iterative loops (a construction management nightmare), its continued
success depends on all participants knowing that they all know how traditional building is done and what they are
expected to do. Innovation – by definition - breaks with this definition and requires new skills and new knowledge
to replace the traditions.
Within the framework of open building systems, a responsible manager assumes responsibility for knowledge and
skills coordination; open system building presupposes substituting a new set of rules and their broad acceptance,
that is to say, a new spread of knowledge throughout the industry that all participants can count on. To illustrate
the required extent of this new knowledge, ISO TC 59’s scope is stated in the following terms:

“Standardization in the field of building and civil engineering of: general terminology for building and civil
engineering; organization of information in the processes of design, manufacture and constructing; general
geometric requirements for buildings, building elements and components including modular coordination and its
basic principles; general rules for joints, tolerances and fits; general rules for other performance requirements for
buildings and building elements [ … ]; geometric and performance requirements for components that are not in
the scope of separate ISO technical committees”.

The two cases of open building systems presented above show just how difficult it is to take even the first steps
towards open building. The question is: rather than give up, where could one start? It seems that access to
information holds the key. With contemporary information and communication technologies available, it is now
possible to provide for sharing experience and demonstrating how the theory of open system building finds
practical applications, initially, for example, through open building systems. However, focused information
dissemination is paramount; technology and business watch services need to be designed expressly for the
characteristics of the building industry (Figure 6). Who assumes this critical first step?

7
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FIRMS WHICH MIGHT COMMENTS
POTENTIALLY FOR INNOVATION, TAK E UP INFORMATION
BROADCAST GENERALLY ABOUT INNOVATIONS

A. IN GENERAL

A1 large firms with in-house technolgy watch

services capture information selectively,
analyze and distribute it with in the firms

A2
large number of small firms unable to afford
in-house technolgy watch services; only cap-
ture informatio n randomly; analysis and dis-
tribution within the firms are not systematic

A3

TECHNOLOGY large n umber of small firms (una ble to afford in-house techn olo gy watch
WATCH services) su bscribe to a technology wach service which captures information
SERVICE systematically an d distributes it selective ly to ÒgatekeepersÓ within the firms

B. IN THE BUILDING SECTOR

contractor
?

th e project tea m brings toge ther a number of generally small firms each of
which is una ble to afford an in-house technology watch service; it is not
clea r which pa rticipant captures releva nt information (probably randomly)
and how it is then d istributed a mong th e team membe rs - if at all?

Figure 6. Technology watch services: the case of the building sector requiring special design of the services to
reflect its multi-industry/temporary multi-organization characteristics.

Key Lessons Learned

Traditional building owes its resilience to an inbuilt logic; innovators have to improve on it
 Open building systems exercise some organizational control over their work but are exposed to forces from

within their environments

 Open building systems’ sponsors have to share the benefits with those whose collaboration is needed and to

reduce the risk of third party obstructionism

 Open system building requires broad scope, industry-wide innovation and can only start from the availability of

focused information, suggesting the need for systematically designed technology and business watch services.

8
References

Bowley, Marian. (1966). The British Building Industry; Four Studies in Response and Resistance to Change,
Cambridge, the University Press.
Davidson, Colin H. (1988). “Building Team”, in: Wilkes, Joseph A., and Robert T. Packard (eds.), Encyclopedia of
Architecture: Design, Engineering & Construction, New York, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 509-515.
Ehrenkrantz, Ezra. (1998). “Procurement and Innovation – Some Successful Strategies”, in Davidson, Prof. Colin
H. (ed.), Procurement – the Way Forward, Montreal, IF Research Corporation, pp. 17-26.
Glover, Michael, (Editor). (1974). Building Procurement – Proceedings of a Work¬shop, IF Occasional Paper
Number One, Montreal, IF Research Group, and Champaign, Ill. Construction Engineering Research Laboratory,
pp. 15-18.
Groàk, Stephen (1992). The Idea of Building – Thought and Action in the Design and Pro¬duction of Buildings,
London, E. & F.N. Spon, 249 pp.
Hall, Arthur D. (1962). A Methodology for Systems Engineering. Toronto, Van Nostrand.
ISO International Standards Organization
http://www.iso.org/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/tc/tclist/TechnicalCommitteeDetailPage.TechnicalCommitteeDetail?CO
MMID=1912 (consulted January 2007).
United Nations. (1959). Government Policies and the Cost of Building, Geneva, United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe.

Author’s Biography

Prof. Colin Davidson, architect, teaches and conducts research at the Faculty of
Environmental Design (Faculté de l’aménagement”) at the University of Montreal,
where he was Dean from 1975 to 1985, and where he is responsible for the
graduate programmes in Project initiation and management (“Montage et gestion
de projets d’aménagement”). Prof. Davidson’s research brings a systems approach
to project organization and procurement, information and communications within
the building team, and to reconstruction after natural disasters in developing
countries. He has also practiced in the U.K., the USA and Italy.

9
The Built Environment as a Positive
Constraint
Ype Cuperus, Assistant Professor Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of
Technology

Abstract

This paper reflects on ManuBuild's vision: 'The ManuBuild vision is of a future where customers will be able to
purchase high quality, manufactured buildings having a high degree of design flexibility and at low cost compared
to today. For the first time, inspirational unconstrained building design will be combined with highly efficient
industrialised production'. ManuBuild's mission statement thus connects customers, manufactured buildings and
inspirational unconstrained building design.
The objective of this paper is to extend ManuBuild's vision to the quality and control of the built environment (the
ultimate product) rather than the quality of the process. Lessons learned from Lean Production and Open Building
can provide ManuBuild with the framework to optimize the production process of manu-building.
First facts and figures of ManuBuild, Open and Lean are collected, underpinned with references. Then Open and
Lean strategies are applied to draw conclusions and recommendations for ManuBuild.
A extended framework to better appreciate ManuBuild that advocates constrained rather than unconstrained
building design.
Clarity about definitions, understanding the quality of the built environment and the context of the town-fabric as
a constraint for building an environment that can be controlled and the necessity to create value in whatever we
do offer a framework to position further research.

Keywords: Open Building, Lean Construction, Design, Constraints, Built Environment.

Background

This paper draws on the argument developed in the author's submission for the ManuBuild book 'Open Building
manufacturing, Core Concepts and Industrial Requirements' and shares the description of its background. 'We add
to the build environment by erecting buildings of all sorts. The concept of Open Building accepts control as a
guiding force in design, construct and usage of the built environment. Whether we look at private space, such as
the interior of our house of public space, streets of residential areas, inner cities or industrial areas, it has to be
clear who controls what. If this is not clear, the house will not be maintained, the street will be vandalized and
becomes a place in which we feel uncomfortable and unsafe. The built environment is the product of the
construction industry that like any other industry cannot survive without making profit. Cutting costs contributes
to increasing profit. As long as wanted value can be cut off, thus adding to the profit, it is hard to get it realised.
Lean construction explores how the construction industry can raise its profit by creating value, rather than by
axing it.' (Cuperus 2007). ManuBuild is clear about its mission: 'The ManuBuild vision is of a future where
customers will be able to purchase high quality, manufactured buildings having a high degree of design flexibility
and at low cost compared to today. For the first time, inspirational unconstrained building design will be combined
with highly efficient industrialised production' (ManuBuild 2006). In this paper the argument is made that
unconstrained building design may reduce the designer's problem, it doesn not contribute to the quality of the

1
built environment, since this is the result of a complex process of design decisions made that need to comply with
constraints of a higher order (for example: the street is of a higher order than the building), at the same time
setting constraints for the underlying level (for example: the base building sets constraints and creates capacity
for the fit out).
In order to develop thoughts for ManuBuild, the industrial context needs to be characterised before we can
identify the problem and the research approach.

Industrial Context

Design refers to a product as well as a process. Designing without constraints is the domain of the artist.
Although they can create environments we all appreciate, in the industrial context of ManuBuild it is realistic to
say that design is what engineers do: they solve well defined problems by designing and constructing objects
such as machines, new materials, chemical compounds, mathematical formulas, and buildings that make urban
spaces, towns and landscapes.

Problem

It is tempting to reduce problems to one's own sphere of influence. The designer wants to bring a design
commission to a good end and a builder wants to satisfy his client by completing buildings. The complexities of
designing, constructing and using the built environment do not justify this simplification. A nice building design
that is not supported by the street it is in fails to work and the most efficiently constructed building in the wrong
place is a waste. How can we deal with constraints as a positive input rather than as a limitation?

Learning Objectives

 ManuBuild's objective ('unconstrained building design (...) combined with industrialised production') should be
extended from process to product, being the quality of the built environment.
 Lessons learned from Open Building and Lean Construction can provide ManuBuild with the framework to
optimize the production process of manu-building.

Approach

The line of thought of this paper is based on the presumption that engineers design within known constraints,
rather than aiming for unconstraint building design. Open Building and Lean Construction are explored to give
guidelines for dealing with constraints. The Open Building concept advocates identifying different levels of
decision-making. The dividing lines are determined by the way the built environment is controlled. The concept of
Lean: 'create value banish waste' unavoidably leads to the question: 'What value and value for whom? Both Open
Building and Lean Construction make clear that design can never create an environment that works, value in
stead of waste, if the designer refuses to see constraints as a positive input.
Analysis
First we need to reflect on the designer's task before we can draw any conclusions on the importance of
constraints. The concepts of Open Building and Lean Construction are used to interpret constraints a positive feed
rather than a limitation.

Design: strategy to explore the invisible yet possible

Design has different meanings. It can be an object, a plan or a process.

Design as an object can have a cultural meaning: A Charles Eames chair is called design. An Ikea Billy bookshelf

2
is a perfect design without a cultural meaning. Design as an object is the end of a process. The built environment
is partly the result of a design process. Some elements, such as equipment and interior decoration have a short
life cycle, with characteristics of a consumer product: they depreciate. Medium long-term elements such as the
base building slowly appreciate in value, if maintained well. Long-term aspects such as the urban fabric ('location')
have unpredictable influences on the value of real estate. From the Open Building perspective it makes sense to
decouple design decisions with regard to building parts with different life-cylces.
A ship design or a building design is a plan and it is the start of a process.
Design is also an activity. It is a strategy to solve problems. As a strategy it explores and finds solutions in
terrains that are invisible to many other problem solvers.

Figure 1, the Egg Diagram, Domains according to De Jong.

De Jong (1992) recognizes a partly overlapping desirable, a probable and a possible future. The egg diagram
makes clear that not everything desirable is possible and some of what we want it is probable. We don’t have to
design the probable future; we already know how it will probably be. This of course is an alarming prospective if
we see how the environment is being exhausted. De Jong gives it a positive twist. There is more than the
probable future. The impossible future is the domain of science fiction. The impossible will never happen or else it
would not be impossible. And then there is the improbable but possible future. We do not know how this will be,
because we cannot imagine. Still, this is where many desirable solutions for problems can be found. This domain
can only be explored by design.
Design as an activity precedes the construction phase. How can we during the design stage create conditions for
a lean production process?
Design as an activity is also subject to creating waste. How can we create value and banish waste in the design
process? (Cuperus 2006).

Design in the Open Building perspective

The central question of Open Building is how can we build for an unknown demand? In other words how can we
design, build and use a built environment that gets better over time? It is Needless to say that the answer to this
question has a strong environmental angle. If we can design build and use an environment that adjusts to
changing needs without misfits running out of hand, we will prevent waste, thus saving energy.
The key to the answer is to identify how the built environment is controlled. The dweller (for example the family)
is in control of the dwelling and has the ability to influence by means of negotiation decisions that affect the
street. The dweller hands over the control of the room to the room occupant.

3
Figure 2 Levels of decision-making.

Clear lines of decision-making are essential for a built environment that works. An environment with undefined
pieces of no-mans land has the seeds to develop unpleasant places that feel dangerous and contaminate and
infect its surroundings These levels of decision making coincide with the life cycle of its consisting building parts:
the arrangement furniture can be changed instantly, the fit out of a building (kitchen, bathroom) have a life cycle
of twenty years, the street and the town respectively longer and much longer. The lower level is constrained by
the higher level, the higher level in turn offers capacity to the lower level. Thus a constraint is a double-edged
sword: is restrains and offers capacity. When industrialising the construction industry it makes sense to subdivide
the industry along these lines of decision-making. Denying the natural lines of decision-making creates unwanted
dependencies between building parts that should be left uncoupled in the first place. This is what happens if we
embed ducts and cables in concrete: it fixes positions of the fit-out that should be controlled by the dweller.
Awareness of dependencies helps us to accept constraints as a positive guide and it also makes us aware of the
constraints that are the result of a design. Decoupling dependencies in turn can be the start of a new design task.

Figure 3 Matura Infill System: space reservations for ducts and services, offering capacity and constraints.

4
This is illustrated by the Matura infill system, a raised floor of polystyrene tiles that accommodates ducts, pipes
and cables, thus decoupling the base building and the fit out that belongs to a different control party. The Matura
designers accepted the construction floor as a constraint, delivered a design that sets certain constraints on the
way the services run and the way inner partition wall interface with the under system (Kendall et al, 2000).

Design in the Lean construction perspective

The mantra of Lean is: 'Create value, banish waste'. How does design fit into this and how does this relate to
ManuBuild's supposed 'inspirational unconstrained building design?' Lean construction aims to apply lean thinking
to the process of design, build and use the built environment. Design therefore has two aspects. First of all how
does we create value and banish waste during the design phase, in other words how can we optimise the design
process and banish waste? Secondly, how can the result of the design process, being the design as a product
contribute to a construction process that creates value and banishes waste? Womack and Jones (1996) have
summarized this in five steps: value (determine the value the end user wants); value stream (set up the
production process to create the value wanted); flow (remove all glitches in the flow of value creation); pull
(value creation streams better if the next production stage dictates which parts are needed rather than pushing
parts into the value stream, creating buffers and 'traffic jams'. These are two types of waste from the seven as
identified in the Toyota Production System: waste of overproduction, waste of time on hand (waiting), waste in
transportation, waste of processing itself, waste of stock on hand (inventory), waste of movement and waste of
making defective products (Ohno, 1988). The final step is perfection (continuous improvement). In the world of
lean is no place for unconstrained design if is does not create value. This seems to be the case if we talk about
'unconstrained building design'. In terms of lean this could easily fit in the waste category of overproduction or,
since an unconstrained design may not fit constraints that show up later in the process, even in the category of
waste of defective products.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

Reflection from the viewpoint of the designer on design as a process and design as a product at first glance may
attract us to the idea that unconstrained building design is the autonomous designer's dream. This is design for
designer's sake, this is the domain of the artist. If we see the design process as a very important part of the
value chain we have to readjust our meaning: a designer creates value only if he/she is aware of the prevailing
constraints and the constraints as a product of the design.

Business Impacts

A designer performs better is he/she gets a clear brief, such as boundaries of the site, master plan regulations,
available budget, interfacing conditions, in other words constraints. The designer should be asked to deliver a plan
with clear indications of the included and resulting constraints that are the context for designers down the value
chain, now and in the unforeseen future.

Conclusions

Open Building advocates the design, construction and use of the built environment along the dividing lines of
decision-making and control. Designers cannot deliver designs without accepting constraints dictated by the
higher level. In turn they deliver designs setting constraints on the next and lower level. The ultimate aim of the
open designer is not unconstrained building design but being guided by constraints and setting new constraints. A

5
constraint is not a limitation but the context for a design as well as the outcome of a design process. Lean seems
unsympathetic towards unconstrained building design, since it has the potential of creating waste. De Jong sees
design as a way of solving problems that allow us to see solutions that remain out of sight by other solution
solving methods. In such an approach constraints can be a limitation. Like in brainstorm techniques, when design
is used to generate inspiring, unforeseen, yet possible solutions, a designer should not be constrained by
constraints. However when it comes to designing the built environment with its connected processes, constraints
themselves inspire and are a condition for a built environment that adapts to changing needs. They prevent us
from designing waste.

References

Cuperus, Y.J. (2006), Introduction to Design, EGLC3, Delft, www.obom.org.

Cuperus, Y.J. (2007) Open, Lean and the Quality of the Built Environment, to be published in the ManuBuild
book.
Kendall, S. & Teicher, J. (2000) Residential Open Building, London, E & FN Spon.
Koskola, L. (2000) An exploration towards a production theory and its application to construction. Helsinki,
Helsinki University of Technology.
Ohno, T. (1988) Toyota production system, Productivity press, Cambridge, MA.
Open Building Manufacturing ManuBuild (2006) brochure and www.manubuild.org
Womack, J. P., Jones, D. T. & Roos, D. (1990) The Machine that Changed the World, New York, HarperPerennial.
Womack, J. P. & Jones, D. T. (1996) Lean Thinking, New York, Simon & Schuster.
www.iglc.net

Authors’ Biographies

Ype Cuperus is Assistant Professor in Architectural Engineering at the Delft

University of Technology conducts research and publishes on Open Building and
Lean Construction related matters. He is director of OBOM, Open Building
Strategic Studies and participates in CIB W104, Open Building Implementation and
IGLC, International Group for Lean Construction.

6
Towards Adaptable Buildings:
pre-configuration and re-configuration
– two case studies
Alistair Gibb, Simon Austin, Andrew Dainty, Nigel Davison, Christine Pasquire
Loughborough University
a.g.gibb@lboro.ac.uk

Abstract

The future is uncertain – the present must be adaptable. The Loughborough University IMCRC Building Brands
pilot project has shown that optimum built environment solutions, whether branded or not, must be adaptable.
In other words they must be able to be changed over their life cycle to adapt to changing needs of the end users.
This is a key component of the sustainability ‘3-Rs’ of reduce, reuse, recycle and responds to the 1:5:35 ratio
which drives the need for buildings to remain efficient places to live and work in order to ensure real life-cycle
value for money. Adaptability is important pre-construction and re-configurability throughout the life cycle. This
paper discusses preliminary results from this pilot project and lays out the challenges to be addressed by
subsequent work. The paper develops concepts discussed at the 2006 Adaptables Conference in Delft (Davison et
al, 2006).

Keywords: adaptability, sustainability, life-cycle, reconfiguration

Background

Industrial Context

The future is uncertain – the present must be adaptable. A pilot project by the authors, ‘Building the Brand’,
funded by the Loughborough Innovative Manufacturing and Construction Research Centre, raised a number of key
issues – one of which is that any built environment solution, whether branded or not, must be adaptable. It must
be able to be changed over its life cycle to adapt to the inevitable evolving needs of it’s end users. Buildings
must remain efficient places to live and work to ensure real life-cycle value, driven by the ‘3-Rs’ of reduce-reuse-
recycle and responding to the ‘1:5:35’ ratio where value from building use (35) significantly outweighs cost in
design and construction (1) and maintenance (5).
The structure and fabric of the built environment is a value generating asset, increasing over time, whereas the
internal ‘fit-out’ is consumable and devalues over time – adaptability would open new ways of owning and
managing property. Customisable, standard buildings are also a direct response to UK Government demands for
more multi-use developments. The real challenge is how to make adaptable buildings without creating
unnecessary redundancy and, in so doing, significantly increase the first cost.

1
Problem

The following are the key research issues:

 What future scenarios must the various building types be able to respond to?

 Issues are external and internal to the end-user of the facilities

 Why have historical attempts at this not been successful? – technology or human failings?

 What building systems and technologies are best suited to provide this level of adaptability cost effectively?

 What implications does this have for the design and build process?

 What implications does this have on the future use and management of buildings and facilities?

Approach

The Building the Brand pilot project was a collaboration between the Loughborough University team and a
consortium of Laing O’Rourke (major contractor and construction developer), Buro Happold (engineering
consultants) & Reid Architecture (architects and designers). These three industrial partners are leading exponents
in the area of branded buildings in the UK construction industry and between them possess a great deal of
experience and knowledge in this area. They joined the project (and became a key part of the methodology)
because they recognised the need to undertake fundamental research into the concept. The project embraced a
range of qualitative and quantitative methods including a literature review examined existing schemes in the
UK and abroad, existing and potential building systems, barriers to the use of such systems and identified
relevant supporting design, procurement and management systems. Focus group workshops were held with
the project partners and other members of the industry and its customers. It was considered important to
capture not only the technological push of the industry but also the market pull, trying to better understand what
owners, occupiers and users really want - the former in terms of ownership and responsibility for building
management, and the latter from the perspective of business performance and the working experience. Semi-
structured and informal interviews were used with market leaders in the branding, design, procurement, supply
and construction of the types of buildings identified, as well as with existing and potential customers for these
systems. The state-of-the-art, as far as it existed, was explored in the housing, multi-occupancy residential and
specialised edge-of-town retail and leisure markets through case studies, with the assistance of the industrial
partners who have involvement in all these areas. This included understanding how components could be simply
but flexibly assembled into customised single or multi-use facilities. Lessons from other industries (e.g. the
business and car industries) and other countries (e.g. Japan and Europe) were identified to see what ideas or
concepts could be transferred to, and used within, the UK construction sector. Similar initiatives which have not
succeeded or have been discontinued in the UK (e.g. Mace MB1) were analysed and investigated, to try and learn
why these initiatives did not succeed in the UK market place. This paper concentrates on the adaptability issues
from this pilot project.

Analysis

To date, the main geographic focus of existing research into adaptable buildings (open building/agile architecture)
has been Japan and The Netherlands although most of this has been limited to residential buildings. Habraken
promoted the concept of open building in the 1960’s. The term open building covers a number of ideas relating to
a building and its environment which Habraken (2006) defines, in part, as ;
 The idea that, more generally, designing is a process with multiple participants also including different kinds of

professionals.
 The idea that the interface between technical systems allows the replacement of one system with another

performing the same function.

 The idea that built environment is in constant transformation and change must be recognized and understood.

2
Omi (2005) describes the ‘renovation’ of ‘Tetsu-Chin’ apartment houses and Matsumura describes the conversion
of offices to dwellings. However, the practical application of open building has been limited to one-off projects
utilising a variety of systems, mainly in housing (Schueblin 2006). Very limited new build projects are evident in
the residential sector in Japan and The Netherlands. The Next 21 project in Osaka was designed by 13 different
architects to offer a wide range of flexible accommodation options to a wide range of age groups. The Molenvliet
project near Rotterdam, is promoted as an example of open building due to the fact that every house floor plan in
the development was different (Van der Werf, 1980). The theoretical concepts behind open building have been
researched but few projects have been built using this principle and even those that have been completed have
not used the inherent flexibility as intentioned (Verweij and Poleman, 2006). Geraedts (2006) and Davison et al
(2006) outline features pertinent to the adaptability of buildings but more detailed research into more widely
applicable design solutions is required for this emerging technology.

Re-configuration

The most obvious application of adaptability in the built environment is re-configuration of a building or facility
during its life-cycle after construction. This is the re-use part of sustainability’s ‘three-Rs’ (Reduce/Re-
use/Recycle).

Why should buildings be adaptable in their lifetime?

In a survey of high profile UK property developers and agents by Reid Architecture, 94% saw the need for an
adaptable building solution providing associated capital cost increases were minimised (Gregory 2004). The
primary argument in support of re-configuration is the change in the needs of society and commerce in a
particular location, for instance, changing use from commercial to retail, or industrial to residential. Figure 1
compares the percentage change in sales and lettings of space to occupiers of retail, commercial and industrial
buildings for the first two quarters of 20061(developed from data taken from RICS, 2006). This snapshot
illustrates the volatility of the market and the trade-off between space requirements for different end-user sectors
in certain regions, such as London and Wales as well as a general trend to increase or decrease demand in some
regions. Whilst the likely adaptability of buildings currently envisaged would not apply over these short periods,
further studies are expected to identify similar trends over a number of years, thus indicating the desirability of
adaptable solutions for the built environment.
120
100
80
60
40
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Figure 1 Percentage change in sales for retail, commercial and industrial across UK regions for the first two
quarters on 2006
1Industrial sector figures Central London and Greater London were not listed separately in the RICS data.

3
‘Sustained competitiveness in the UK construction sector: a fresh perspective’, or the ‘Big Ideas’ for short, is a
government-sponsored collaborative research project between the Innovative Manufacturing Research Centres at
Loughborough, Reading and Salford Universities (www.thebigideas.org.uk). The Loughborough University team
has been focussing on developing possible future development scenarios for the UK construction industry over the
next 10 to 20 years in order to support the industry in delivering the future requirements of society and industry.
The central tenet is that a better understanding of the structure of underlying issues, events, barriers and trends
through their causal relationships will enable the industry to address the persistent and deep-rooted problems that
have hampered its performance for many decades. The initial stages of this work involved reviewing the many
construction futures reports which had been published in the last 8 years, the majority from the UK but also some
international work (Harty et al., 2007). More than 300 separate issues were identified from this literature and
content analysis was used to group these in high-level clusters of related issues (Soetanto et al., 2006). These
issues were used as a basis for identifying emerging themes in the data collection exercise, which was aimed to
capture people’s perceptions and interpretations of future events in industry workshops, in the form of causal
maps (Eden and Ackermann, 2001). One of the key cluster has been the need for adaptability in the built
environment. The recent high profile Stern review (2006) clearly promotes adaptability: ‘Adaptation to climate
change – that is, taking steps to build resilience and minimise costs – is essential. It is no longer possible to
prevent the climate change that will take place over the next two to three decades, but it is still possible to
protect our societies and economies from its impacts to some extent – for example, by providing better
information, improved planning and more climate-resilient (crops and) infrastructure’.

Multispace case study

Reid Architecture (2005) and Buro Happold have recently completed a research study which investigates the
problems of designing, constructing and letting/selling what they describe as the ‘Multispace adaptable building
design concept’. The aim of this concept was for a single, fundamental customisable, design to be the basis for
the design of a variety of mid- to high-quality offices, residential, hotels and retail developments. The study
outlines solutions for the technical aspects of the proposed concept and highlights possible barriers to the use of
the concept from users, developers, funding bodies and planners. The authors are now working with the
industrial team to build upon this previous study, by investigating further the barriers identified and
recommending solutions to overcome these. Aspects of this case study have been published elsewhere (Davison
et al, 2006) and full details are still considered commercially sensitive. Therefore, it is only possible to provide
limited information in this paper.
Multispace has developed optimum solutions for the following key parameters to take best advantage of
adaptability of building solutions:

 Storey height (this is the crux of the problem)

 Building proximity, form and plot density
 Plan depth
 Structural design
 Vertical circulation, servicing and core design
 Fire safety design
 Cladding design

A summary of adaptable building requirements are shown in Figure 2 and examples of the Multispace concept in
Figures 3 and 4..

4
Figure 2 Summary of adaptable building requirements (Reid 2005 & Davison et al, 2006)

Figure 3 The Multispace concept (Courtesy Reid Architecture)

Pre-configuration

The second aspect of adaptability is pre-configuration, where building systems are used to maximise the variation
in first-build end product. Again, the goal is that this would be achieved at no extra cost, rather that the cost
would be significantly reduced through the industrialisation of the process, reduction in variation of parts and so
forth. This has long been the ‘holy grail’ for open building systems and has been the subject of numerous
research studies and publications.

5
NewWay case study

GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) have recently ‘launched’ their NewWay initiative. This targets the reduction in design and
build time for their facilities from around 24 months to 13 weeks. This is driven by a very clear business need to
get drugs to market earlier whilst at the same time reducing the risk element caused by starting the design and
construction of a production before the pharmaceutical product is designed. Figure 5 shows the pharmaceutical
development programme. A hit is recorded when research produces a new chemical combination which is linked
to a health need. This is then developed into a product which is then developed further until it is ready for
market. Until the product is produced, GSK do not know for sure what sort of primary or secondary production
facility is required (as every one is designed uniquely for a particular drug). Currently, the two year design &
construction time for a new facility means that they need to start building prior to fully understanding what will be
manufactured – hence the increased risk. Through NewWay, the dramatic shortening of this design &
construction period enables them to wait until they really understand the required configuration of the production
plants before they start to build. It also allows them to reach the market quicker, which, due to limited life of
patents, is a major factor in a drug’s commercial success.

LABORATORY PRIMARY SECONDARY

RESEARCH DEVELOP API PRODUCT

Hit Product Market
Active
Pharmaceutical
Ingredient
PATENT LIFE

TIME TO MARKET

CURRENT PROJECT CONSTRUCTION

RISK NEW WAYS NEW WAYS

(Earlier Production) (Later start)

Figure 5 GSK’s commercial drivers for radical reduction in building delivery time
(Adapted from Nigel Barnes, GSK, 2006)

GSK, through their designer Bryden Wood McLeod are developing a configurable ‘kit of parts to facilitate this step-
change.
A number of studies have sought to categorise the extent of standardisation, including Fox & Cockerham (2000)
and Gann in Gibb et al (1999). GSK’s NewWay target for their 3 types of built environment asset (research
laboratories; primary & secondary production facilities) is to reduce their assemblies to 30 variants, components
to 90 and parts to 900 (Figure 6). This is currently challenging all the organisations to completely change their
way of working. GSK Director, Nigel Barnes, likens this to stopping trying to incrementally improve the propeller
engine and, instead, moving to the jet engine. One example of the changes required is that GSK’s design
consultants, Bryden Wood McLeod (BWM) are employing product designers from a manufacturing background
rather than traditional architects.

6
 Bespoke Hybrid Mass Mass Produced NewWay target
Customised
Parts 900
Components 90
Assemblies 30
Assets 3

Figure 6 Extent of standardisation and GSK targets for NewWay

Challenges to be overcome to achieve adaptable buildings

The authors’ research to date has identified a number of significant challenges that must be overcome to achieve
adaptable non-residential buildings in the UK. The authors have been shortlisted for a major research project to
work with GSK & Reid Architecture in this area.
The first challenge concerns the evaluation of the potential market for adaptable buildings. The impact on the
type of new build being undertaken, if this approach was adopted, would alter the balance and structure of the
construction industry. However, forecasting market size for radical new products is particularly difficult because
everything is so uncertain. It requires the use of more qualitative forecasting techniques based on expert opinion,
rather than basing forecasts on more traditional quantitative extrapolation techniques. Some of the key issues
that will need to be explored are: how would adaptable buildings contribute to organisational, sectoral and
national economics; how might customer driven requirements drive the revised design process; and how likely is
it that these new adaptable buildings will be accepted, or whether they will be seen as ‘cheap and nasty’ in
comparison to traditionally designed buildings. The exploration of this issue will provide an understanding of the
market segments that exist, providing valuable knowledge regarding the key segments that the new products
could be targeted at. One other important issue that may also need to be considered is the linkage between
customers definitions of short and long term needs and the way in which the concept should be sold to the
customer (convincing them that they are not getting less than before etc).
A review of the literature highlights that much attention in innovation research has been focussed upon
incremental innovation, rather than more radical innovation. This is despite the strategic importance and
paradigm-shifting characteristics of radical innovation. Zairi (1995) identifies that radical innovation is an
aggressive style of new product development based upon completely new rules. Humble & Jones (1989) argue
that radical innovation requires staff to develop new skills and capabilities to develop projects outside of the
current core activities of the business. Previous studies around product innovation in construction have failed to
investigate the willingness of those working in the industry to embrace the change necessary. Rather, the
capacity of those charged with responding to the transformation that innovation requires is taken for granted, and
the impact on those actually working within the industry rarely considered (Green, 1998; Green and May, 2003).
A second challenge, therefore, concerns the need to support the process of behavioural change necessary to
successfully redefine the ways in which buildings are specified and designed (i.e. in supporting the paradigm shift
in building specification and design processes from designing to a specified brief, to designing for unknown future
need). This shift is fundamental as it represents a complete redefinition of the basis upon which traditional
design decisions are predicated. It calls into question both the efficacy of traditional design protocols and
heuristics, and the appropriateness of the performance metrics against which traditional contributions to design
are evaluated. Given the redefinition of traditional design parameters that adaptability is likely to encourage, the
existing bodies of knowledge, processes and protocols from which designers draw are unlikely to support the
radical design solutions required. There is a need, therefore, for design, organizational and human resource
management solutions which support designers in the transition to adaptable solutions. Traditionally architects

7
have been trained in the expectation to design for a relatively immediate client need with a specific set of
functions identified as the starting point for a building design. This implies that a paradigm shift to adaptable
design will bring with it sociological issues in parallel with technical design and build issues.
New technologies and process innovations are malleable - they evolve and mutate through the process of
adoption (Bijker 1992; 1995). As such, design researchers are increasingly concerned with how designed
artefacts are shaped by, and shape, the contexts in which they are used (Shove et al 2005). In the case of
adaptable buildings, their success and impact is ultimately dependent upon the ways in which the technology is
applied by designers with responsibility for configuring future design solutions, and the ways in which the
completed buildings are appropriated by end users. Understanding how adaptable technology might become
embedded within the industry requires an understanding of how the demands of design practice and utilisation of
the built artefact structures the process of innovation through diffusion.
The real challenge is how to make adaptable buildings without creating unnecessary redundancy and, in so doing,
significantly increase the first cost.
The UK construction industry aspires to the standards set out by Latham and Egan in the 1990s, yet few
innovative breakthroughs have been made in how we design and procure new buildings. According to
Constructing the Future (DTI 2001), the next 20 years will be an era of unprecedented change for UK
construction. As an industry we need to be challenging the traditional ways that we design, procure and
construct to respond to this ever changing future.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings and Business Impacts

True adaptability in non-residential buildings in the UK currently remains an aspiration. However, a number of
leading players are seeking to drive the radical change required to achieve this, both in terms of flexibility in
initial, pre-construction configurability of buildings and in lifecycle re-configurability. A major research project is
planned to address these issues – further information will be presented at the Manubuild conference.
GlaxoSmithKline, as a leading client of the built environment, have a vision – to build any type of industrial
process plant, pharmaceutical manufacturing facility or drug research and development facility, anywhere in the
world, within 3 months, instead of the traditional 18 to 24 months which industry currently offers. The GSK
criteria includes an increased level of quality, with the same or extended building life expectancy and also an
ability or potential to adapt the building use in the future. The need for the latter is driven by frequent alterations
to GSK research and manufacturing requirements due to continuous changes in pharmaceutical technology. To
achieve such a step change in construction speed and building flexibility involves a product based building
construction system, using modern methods of fast assembly and offsite fabrication. GSK’s vision is not focused
on small, incremental improvements in delivery schedules across industry, instead GSK see a requirement to
rethink the entire construction methodology and design of buildings. GSK have called the vision “Project
NewWay” and are partnering with key designers and suppliers within many areas of industry to develop an
idealised product platform for the three main facility types. GSK envisage that on-demand components will be
pre-engineered, procured and manufactured to a capacity forecast, delivering the building blocks that can be
configured and re-configured, rapidly, to deliver facilities up to eight times faster than present norms
Conclusions
This paper has introduced the Adaptable Futures initiative in the UK, featuring GSK’s NewWay and Reid/Buro
Happold’s Multispace concepts. These demonstrate applications of pre-configuration before initial construction
and re-configuration during the project’s lifecycle. The commitment of these organisations demonstrates that this
is an important area for further work to understand the full technical, business, process and people implications of
adaptable building.

8
Key Lessons Learned

There is a movement towards truly adaptability in large, non-residential building which has not previously been
evidenced in the UK

 This move provides real challenges: to determine the market and understand the technical, business, process
and people implications of this radical change
 Two examples, GSK & Reid/Buro Happold point the way to an adaptable future

References

Bijker, W.E. (1992) The Social Construction of Fluorescent Lighting, or How an Artefact was Invented in Its
Diffusion Stage in Bijker, W & Law, J (Eds) Shaping Technology Building Society, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
Bijker, W. (1995) Of Bicycles, Bakelites and Bulbs: Towards a theory of Sociotechnical Change, Cambridge, MA,
the MIT Press.
Davison, N., Gibb, A.G., Austin, S.A., Goodier, C.I. and Warner, P. (2006) The Multispace Adaptable Building
Concept and its Extension into Mass Customisation, Adaptables2006, TU/e, International Conference On
Adaptable Building Structures, Eindhoven, 3, 12-7.
DTI (2001) Constructing the Future, Foresight Report, Department of Trade & Industry, London
Eden, C. and Ackermann, F. (2001) SODA – the principles. Rational Analysis for a Problematic World Revisited:
Problem Structuring Methods for Complexity, Uncertainty and Conflict, 2nd edition, Rosenhead, J. and Mingers, J.
(eds.), John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, UK.
Egan, J. (1998) Rethinking Construction, Report of the construction task force, HMSO, London
Fox & Cockerham (2000) Designing for Orders, Manufacturing Engineer, Vol 79, Issue 2, pp 63-66, ISSN 0956-
9944 (& AJ 9/03/2000 pp 50-51)
Gibb, A.G.F., Groak, S., Sparksman, W.G. & Neale, R.H. (1999) Standardisation and pre-assembly - adding value
to construction projects, Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA), Report R176, 220
pp. ISBN 0-86017-498-0
Geraedts, R.P., Offices for living in, Open House International, 28, 3, 80-90
Green, S. D. (1998), The missing arguments of lean construction, Construction Management and Economics,
Vol.17, 133-137.
Green, S.D. and May, S.C. (2003) Re-engineering construction: going against the grain. Building Research and
Information, Vol.31(2), 97-106.
Gregory, C. (2004) What is the value of our workspace, Report L25230-OD1MA-CG250902, Reid Architecture,
London
Habraken (2006) http://www.habraken.org/html/introduction.htm
Harty, C.F., Goodier, C.I., Soetanto, R., Austin, S.A., Dainty, A.R.J., Price, A.D.F. (2007) The futures of
construction: a critical review of construction futures studies. Construction Management and Economics (in
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Matsumura, S., Sato, K. (2005) An open building approach to revitalizing building stock converting offices into
dwellings’ CIB W104, Open Building implementation, Tokyo.
Omi, Y. (2005) Case studies on adaptable buildings by renovating ‘Tetsu-Chin’ apartment houses in Japan, CIB
W104, ‘Open Building Implementation’, 11th meeting in Tokyo.
Osaka (2006) http://www.arch.hku.hk/teaching/cases/next21/next21.html
Reid Architecture (2005), Multispace adaptable building design concept, Reid Architecture, internal document,

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draft rev G, 27/01/05
RICS, (2006) RICS Commercial Market Survey – United Kingdom, Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors, London,
pp. 13.
Schueblin, F.J.M. (2006) Open building in steel, development of a steel framed housing system Adaptables 2006,
TU/e, International Conference On Adaptable Building Structures, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1, 2-155.
Shove, E., Watson, M. and Ingram, J. (2005) Products and Practices: Selected concepts from science and
technology studies and from social theories of consumption and practice. In Proc. Of the Nordic Design and
Research Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Soetanto, R., Dainty, A.R.J., Goodier, C.I., Harty, C.F., Austin, S.A., Price, A.D.F. and Thorpe, A. (2006)
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Rome, pp. 308-309 (Exec summary), ISBN 88-495-1339-9 (Volume + CD-Rom).
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Verweij, S, Poleman, W.A. (2006) Evaluation of flexibility options in different housing projects, an exploration of
possible flexibility for second users in multi-storey housing, Adaptables2006, TU/e, International Conference On
Adaptable Building Structures, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1, 2-39.
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10
Authors’ Biographies

Alistair Gibb, Professor of Construction Engineering & Management

Loughborough University
Chartered Engineer and Chartered Builder with an industrial background and
strong research track record in construction innovation, offsite production and
health & safety

Simon Austin, Professor of Structural Engineering

Loughborough University
Chartered Engineer with industrial and research expertise in design management,
information and value management, process re-engineering and associated
technologies

Andrew Dainty, Professor of Construction Sociology

Loughborough University
Internationally renowned researcher in the sociology of work and organizations

Nigel Davison,Loughborough University

Significant industrial experience and senior researcher on the Building the Brand
project.

Christine Pasquire, Senior Lecturer in Quantity Surveying

Loughborough University
researcher on procurement and integration of mechanical and electrical services
into buildings, the use of offsite manufacturing Lean Construction

11
Improvement of the city strategy by
using flexible living units.
Marlous M.C. Vriethoff, Delft University of Technology, faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands
M.M.C.Vriethoff@tudelft.nl
Wim. A. Poelman, Delft University of Technology, faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands
Liek I.M. Voorbij, Delft University of Technology, faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands

Abstract

Redeveloping old industry areas towards new city centres is a recent urban strategy that is marked by a
transformation period with typical problems as crime and deterioration. Furthermore cities are often faced with a
lack of housing stock. This combination of problems leads to the suggestion that the transformation could be
improved with the open building approach, in temporary solutions. In that case the existing industry building
could act as shell and structure while the infill is adapted. With this approach it is possible to change buildings
without the need to change the urban tissue. Such an approach would be an innovation in redevelopment
strategies of cities and therefore is not yet used in redeveloping industry areas. In this research several relevant
aspects such as policy documents and potential sites for redevelopment with the open building strategy were
studied in order to come to a strategy proposal for stakeholders in a transformation process. The work proves
that with the open building approach combined with temporary solutions it is possible to use redevelopment areas
for decreasing the shortage of houses and for preventing deterioration of city parts. This however, is only
possible when a proper business plan is made and carried out.

Keywords: city strategy, redevelopment, industrial areas, temporary housing, open building.

Background

This paper concentrates on the backgrounds of the redeveloping of old industry areas towards new city centres
offering mixed-use living. The Open Building approach could fit in this redevelopment in terms of the urban tissue
and a distinction of frame and infill. Problems such as vandalism that occur during the whole redeveloping process
will in most cases be focused on the long vacancy period during the preliminary phase. The lack of housing is
another and more general problem the Dutch cities are facing right now, which is an important aspect of their
policy.
From the point of view of the Concept House research group of the TU-Delft, the redevelopment of industrial
areas is a challenging issue. The research group aims at developing industrially manufactured, customized
building systems for the housing market. At the moment there is a lack of building systems on the market,
suitable for the infill of existing industrial buildings, especially systems which allow re-use. For the research group
is it interesting to develop such systems, especially from the point of view that they would be applicable also in
other existing frames and, last but not least, in new frame concepts.

Industrial Context

This paper focuses on applications of open building in old industry areas in city ports. Redeveloping old industry
areas instead of demolishing them can be seen as an urban strategy developed lately (McCarthy, 1999). The use
of these, mostly central, city areas changed rapidly over the last years because of further technical improvements

1
in the shipping industry (McCarthy, 1999; Gordon, 1997) and alterations in long-term city planning activities. One
of the earliest port redevelopments started in the 1970s and 1980s. Examples can be found in London (London
Docklands) and in New York (Battery Park City) (Gordon, 1997). More recent projects can be found in Barcelona
(Old Port) and Rotterdam (Stadshavens) (Dicke & Zouwen, 2006; Gemeente Rotterdam, 2006-II). The last
example shows that redeveloping old industry areas is nowadays still a broadly discussed issue. Parts of the
harbour are still in a transformation phase and they remain to be until the opening of the 2nd Maasvlakte in
2015, which is a new extension of the existing harbour. Especially the industry at the Stadshavens, parts of the
harbour close to the city centre, will be replaced to the new part of the harbour. The Stadshavens areas will be
transformed into an area of housing in combination with small industry during the coming ten years (Dicke &
Zouwen, 2006; Gemeente Rotterdam, 2006-II). The central location of these areas provides the possibility for
strategic urban planning.
According to Van der Werff (1993), the Open Building method can be implemented inside the existing urban plan,
with preservation of the urban tissue. This subject has been discussed several times as part of the redeveloping
process (Van der Werff, 1993; Kendall, 2004; Dekker, 1998). The Open Building approach enables to change
without the need of changing the urban tissue. The idea of preserving the base building (frame) and changing the
infill several times, can be seen as the main principle of this approach. This distinction between frame and infill
makes it possible to reuse the infill in another base building. From the point of view of product development,
innovation of parts will be a lot easier to achieve than innovation of complete building systems.

Problem

Three main problems can be distinguished at this background. The first problem concentrates on the lack of
housing due to the majority of people renting below their living standard. Secondly, the problems of crime and
deterioration that will occur during the preliminary phase are of great concern. The third problem occurs as a lack
of knowledge with respect to open building in relation with the existing build environment.
When referring to city planning strategies the lack of housing can be described as a general problem of Dutch
cities that is still an issue today. Ever since World War II, the larger cities in The Netherlands have regarded the
growth of their housing stock as a matter of high priority (McCarthy, 1999). This housing stock needs to be
updated with the current need of specific residences. The local government investigate these needs in cooperation
with the housing associations. Recent research (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2005) points out that the majority of the
people rent below their living standard. This means these people did not move, although they earned more.
Consequently, they live relatively cheap in comparison with the rent they pay. As a result of this, people just
entering the housing market, cannot get affordable housing. The local government pleas for building more
expensive and attractive housing (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2005) which should guarantee a better flow.
Nevertheless, achieving the ideal level of a healthy housing stock will take quite some time. During this period
there is still a lack of housing for a certain target group.
The second problem concentrates on the main problems during the preliminary phase of the redevelopment of old
industry areas. This preliminary phase takes quite a long time (Gordon, 1997), which results in a long period of
vacancy and facilitates deterioration and crime. The preliminary phase is organisationally complex; lots of different
interests of multiple parties need to be included at the start of the project. According to Gordon (1997), analysis
of this phase shows that a strong and well-equipped base is needed for a successful project. However, this will
not always guarantee a short and continuous project right from the start. Hence, the time span between the
initiative and the kick-off of the actual building process can still be 2-5 years. Within this period the area is left
without care and the vacancy of the buildings will not be solved. Crime and deterioration, that are of great
concern, affect a larger area than the actual redeveloping location. The negative image of the redeveloping area
will be enlarged by the negative experience of the surrounding residences and this may affect the total image of
the city outside its boundaries. The redevelopment areas should be of great concern to the local authorities
especially at the very beginning of the project when these problems will occur.

2
 A third aspect that is relevant to this paper is the lack of knowledge about the use of the open building principle
when reusing existing buildings as a frame (base building). Not only the technical aspects need research, but also
the procedural aspects that are bound to the total organisation of the urban transformation.

Learning Objectives

More insight in whether temporary housing can be a solution for declining the lack of housing within the larger
Dutch cities.
 Knowledge on how to reduce problems in the preliminary phase of redeveloping old industry areas and use

assets more efficient.

 Better understanding of how to use existing buildings based on the Open Building ideology.

 Insight in the design specifications for industrially manufactured infill systems for application in existing

industrial buildings.

Approach

The approach used for this paper is based on two main topics; the policy used for transforming old industry areas
and urban planning in general discussed by using Rotterdam as a case study. The relation to the Open Building
strategy will be discussed next to these two topics.
This study started with the analysis of the policy documents that are related to the transformation of the city of
Rotterdam in the nearby future (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2003, 2005 and 2006-II). After that a few locations were
pointed out that complied with the criteria of old industry areas. The available buildings at the site were analysed
in terms of possibilities to be transformed for temporary housing using the Open Building strategy. Based in this
information a strategy proposal was developed that can be used by stakeholders in the transformation of such
location in Rotterdam for a more efficient preliminary phase.

Analysis

General policy redevelopment

As pointed out in the introduction, the policy of the local government is of great importance during the
preliminary phase of the redeveloping projects. The choices and decisions made by the government have turned
out to be crucial for the whole process. There are several aspects that need to be considered. For instance, a
steering board needs to be composed. During the redeveloping process a lot of parties are involved, but there is a
constant question whether the combination of parties for the board is the right one. Unfortunately in most of the
discussed cases this insight could only be gained during the whole process and not in advance. If the basic
composition of the board is not the most suitable one, the time span of getting the project started would
increase. Furthermore, to survive the whole process, the need of a proper working capital is urgent. Capital is
necessary for fast results can give the project a positive boost, especially when the local authority board will
change after new elections. Moreover, Gordon (1997) mentions the importance of continuously developing the
basic composition of the board during the process. Some parties are more important in the preliminary phase but
not at the end of the project. The composition of the board should reflect these changes in use. Additionally,
attracting local people should be taken in consideration as a condition within the process.
Policy concerning the redeveloping industrial locations is even more complex than other redevelopment projects.
Cooperation with the harbour company could get more difficult in terms of opposing interests. Where the local
government argue for developing more mixed use areas (mainly because of the central location), the harbour
company argues for new or other shipping industry employment. In most (old) harbour areas, the harbour
company still owns the ground. Therefore, the local authorities will have to convince the harbour company to
innovate and investigate in future developments.

3
Case study Rotterdam

Rotterdam was used as a case study concerning the development of old industry areas. The city has gone a long
way in redeveloping the city after the bombing in the World War II. As mentioned before, the expansion of the
harbour (2nd Maasvlakte) makes way for redefining the old city harbours. Several different parties, including the
local authorities and the harbour company, still broadly discuss those plans these days.
The government have always supervised the policy of the local authorities, however there is still enough
opportunity for own plans and creativity. In May 2006 new elections for the local authorities were held. The new
local government liked to have a great start, visible for all inhabitants. One of their ideas was to have
organisations coming up with a project that could be realised in 100 days and that could respond local interests.
The authority board selected 37 projects (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2006-I). Two of these projects (number 11 and
31) concentrated on temporary use of areas, especially redeveloping locations. The first project, handed in by the
housing association Woonbron, applied for 50 temporary houses on the former RDM docks. RDM stands for
Rotterdamse Droogdok Maatschappij; Dry dock Company Rotterdam. The other project applied for the temporary
transformation of a building site into playgrounds for children or a small park. Both plans have been realised by
now.
The first plan had to face some problems, specially based on policy matters. The harbour company (Havenbedrijf
Rotterdam) did cooperate well in the beginning. At the start of 2004, the local government and the Havenbedrijf
Rotterdam started to collaborate as Stadshavens Rotterdam. Other companies, such as investors and housing
associations also joined this cooperation. Unfortunately, due to contrary interests, the collaboration between
Havenbedrijf Rotterdam and the local government has recently ended. Future plans of transformation parts of the
harbour into mixed-use areas instead of heavy industry can be seen as one of the main reasons for the split.
Although the harbour company is aware of the need of further development in this part of the city and is still
willing to cooperate, it does not want to lose total control of the area. Fortunately the temporary houses had been
partly built before the break up. Eighteen small apartments had been realised. There were 50 units in the plan,
but due to delivery time of the units only 18 could be built within the short realizable time.
The local authorities were satisfied with the fast new apartments. The lack of housing is also a current issue in
Rotterdam (Gemeente Rotterdam, 2005). The city has a shortage of middle class residences and this provides the
departure of mostly young and high-educated people. Temporary housing with a high comfort standard could be a
solution to this problem. Although the units built within the Stadshavens project aimed at another target group,
the general merits of this solution has convinced the local authorities of Rotterdam that temporary housing can
provide a solution to the housing shortage. Of course, this gives a positive impulse to other temporary housing
projects

Stadshavens
Stadshavens did not only stand for the name of the cooperation between the Havenbedrijf Rotterdam and the
local authorities (Ontwikkelings Bedrijf Rotterdam) but it also stands for a particular part of the harbour (figure 1).
The Waalhaven, Vierhavengebied, Merwehaven and the Eemhaven are the names of the different docks. The
Merwehaven and the Vierhavengebied can be found on the North bank, the other two on the South bank of the
river Maas. The northern part of the Stadshavens links the city of Rotterdam to its neighbour, Schiedam. On the
south side, between the two harbours Waalhaven and Eemhaven, Heijplaat can be found. Heijplaat locates is an
isolated village named tuindorp Heijplaat (garden village Heijplaat). This village between the container storages
was founded in 1913 by the RDM. The company sold their housing stock to the housing association Woonbron in
1980, just before the RDM had been adjudged. After a successful turn down of the demolition plans in 1990, the
village got more fundingcapital for renovation and redevelopment. Finally this resulted in the redeveloping plans
of the Stadshavens.

4
Figure 1. The map of the area Stadshavens, with in black the gardenvillage Heijplaat.

The village has two main problems, connection with the rest of the city and the inconvenience of the harbour in
terms of noise and heavy car traffic. The facilities are very poor at this moment; therefore the connection with the
rest of the city is important. This connection to the city, on which the village strongly depends, is not very good.
The best connection is by car or by a water taxi. In contrast with this is the fact that the other side of the river,
the Vierhavens and the Merwehaven, is connected quite well. The connecting road between Rotterdam and
Schiedam follows the north side of the harbour area. This can be seen as an advantage for redevelopment of the
old industry area on the north side. However, both sides do have the charming quality of the location, even
though it would be a huge improvement if the attainability and facilities were better.
Plans for future developments show a complete transformation within the coming 10-20 years (Gemeente
Rotterdam, 2006-II) (figure 2). This transformation will be divided into different stages, parallel to the progression
of the 2nd Maasvlakte. During this process, a lot of old industry buildings will be empty waiting for their
transformation or demolition. This vacancy period could be filled with the temporary use of the buildings. During
the last decades, squatters have already made clear that temporary use of buildings can be a good housing
solution and that it is incomprehensible to have empty buildings in a period of lack of housing. Some housing
associations, like Het Oosten in Amsterdam, take these actions seriously and see the profit of it. The complex
called Tetterode is a good example (Bijdendijk, 2006).

Figure 2. (Re)developing plans Rotterdam Figure 3. Buildings at Heijplaat

5
Buildings at Stadshavens

The location Stadshavens contains a couple of monuments. Most of these monuments were listed 3.5 years ago,
during the start of the redeveloping plans. On the north side of the river, two buildings have been listed; the
Katoemveem at the Keileweg used by Atelier van Lieshout and the HAKA building at the Vierhavenstraat. The
monuments at the Heijplaat are shown in figure 3. Next to these buildings, there are several old factory buildings
with an outdated skin, but with a solid structure. At the former RDM docks there are several, too. Using these
buildings as the base structure for temporary housing projects could be worth considering. Monuments are a bit
harder to reuse because of all the restrictions that need to be taken into account. However, most of the listed
monuments are only protected on the outside; the skin. If this is the case, there is a lot of freedom for changes
on the inside of the building.

The concept of open building and existing buildings

The Open Building strategy is based on the principle of using several different subsystems to reach a high flexible
total structure responding to the users’ needs (Kendall, 1999; Habraken, 2006). In the most efficient cases, these
subsystems work separately from each other. By doing so, more possibilities are created for the design and
installation of new or improved subsystems compared to the ordinary systems that are used nowadays.
Separation between the structure (base building) and the infill could be seen as the best way to achieve this goal.
According to this principle, there is no need to design a complete system, but it becomes possible to design only
parts (subsystems). In that case, renovation or rebuilding of the infill can be done without demolishing half the
building. The shell and the structure can still be preserved while changing the infill.
Using old industry buildings to maintain the existing urban structure and yet achieving new residences is an
attractive solution to reduce the housing shortage. These residences can be combined with small industry during
the redevelopment period and even after this period the mixed use option is still possible because of the former
function of the building. The building mostly contains a solid structure with enormous empty spaces. Within these
spaces a lot of variation of programme is possible. By using the Open Building method and creating flexible living
units the composition of the entire building infill can change during the time of occupation. Even though it is a
temporary solution this strategy may decrease the lack of housing.
To enable this, there is a need for infill systems with a high degree of flexibility, due to the vast amount of
circumstances in existing buildings. The development of these systems is only possible on the basis of insight in
those circumstances and on design specifications that will come out as a result. This paper is part of the route to
these design specifications.

Strategy

To reach more insight in the strategic aspects of the idea of using old industry buildings for temporary housing
during the redeveloping period of the location a SWOT analysis has been made. In such an analysis information
about strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats is used to get an overview of future developments. Table
1 shows the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats for creating housing facilities in the described area.

6
Table 1: SWOT analysis

Strength
- no ‘art. 19 procedures’ (exception at the
development plan)
- city structure stays intact
- keep social control
- flexible infill, maximum freedom
- innovation in building parts possible
- maximum separation base building and infill
- composition of units changeable
- no expensive ground investments
- unique locations and projects
Weakness
- attainableness by public transport mostly poor
facilities mostly poor in the beginning
- costs of temporary sewerage and electricity
could raise to a high level
- quality of life can be poor in an industrial
surrounding (noise, pollution)
- reuse of building components or parts not
always possible
- temporary housing is not desired by everyone

- combination of work and living

Opportunities Threats
- the government wish to invest in plans that - rules and restrictions concerning monuments
help decreasing pressure on housing market might seriously affect the projects
- the local authorities want to achieve a relation - there are different parties involved with their
between harbour and inhabitants of the city own interests that might conflict.
- different parties will benefit from - depending on local authorities causes some
insecurity about important aspects of the project
cooperation and this projects provides
cooperation
- living on the waterside is found to be attractive - illegal occupation

- there is a great interest in sustainable - there is a lack of knowledge about selecting

architecture target groups
- decrease crime and deterioration is important
to all parties
- environmental issues are hot and reuse of the
units or components is therefore attractive
- The local authorities want to change the city
slowly and adequately

Referring to this SWOT table some strategic points can be formulated. The use of the old industry building for
temporary housing has two main qualities for the local government. The (temporary) decrease of the pressure on
the housing market and the decrease of crime and deterioration are important aspects. The advantage of the
temporary housing gives the neighbourhood a positive boost and this might influence the point of view of the
harbour company. Even though the harbour company knows that innovation and redeveloping are necessary there
is no profit for them if all the industry has to move. But if the mixed use areas are successful, they can make a
profit out of the plan by renting or selling their property. Finally, this can improve the understanding with the local
authorities and the inhabitants. It is essential that when the plan is presented these aspects be brought forward
as positive results.

7
The temporary housing solution provides optimal use of the city’s property and guarantees the city structure
during the redeveloping period. The area will slowly change into a complete new area with the maintenance of
the social security during the whole project. This will satisfy the local authorities as it meets their strategy.
The unique location (living on the waterside) and the flexible use of the space can be seen as major qualities of
the area. The freedom of this and the opportunity to live close to the city are even a match for the poor
connection and facilities. However, this indicates that proper research has to be done for the exact target groups.
According to Woonbron, there have been a lot of reactions for their temporary housing project at the RDM.
Apparently there are a lot of people enthusiastic and they took the poor public transport connection into account.
It was mainly young people who responded the advertisement. Although this seems promising for the idea, the
selection of the target group and the marketing of the dwellings remain critical.
Cooperation between the different parties can be seen both as negative as well as positive. As mentioned before,
the cooperation can positively affect the different parties and strengthen the position of the redevelopment.
Unfortunately the cooperation can also harm the project. If there are too many parties involved with completely
different interests, it will obstruct the whole process. The business plan should be worked out carefully to succeed
with the project. The best start of the temporary housing project will be to have it initiated by the local authorities
and a housing association.
The project based on the idea presented here should have a business plan as soon as possible. The base of this
plan should take into consideration not only the advantages of the idea but also the disadvantages.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

According to the analysis, the idea of using old industry buildings for temporary housing during the time span of
the redevelopment can be a good solution. It gives benefit to the local authorities and to the inhabitants. But it
definitely needs a proper worked out business plan to succeed. Additionally, due to the diverse and special
circumstances, due to the intensive use of industrial buildings, it will be necessary to develop new infill systems
with a high degree of flexibility.

Business Impacts

The business impact of this paper can be divided into two parts; one advice for the local authorities and the other
one for the building industry.
Local authorities can take the idea into consideration while they are making new developing plans for old
industrial areas. Instead of demolishing industrial complexes and rebuild the entire area after a long period of
vacancy, they had better use this period for solving the lack of housing. This gives the understanding of a positive
experience of the long preliminary phase and can solve problems of crime.
The industry can translate the idea into awareness of the possibilities of the Open Building strategy even more.
The strategy cannot only be applied to new buildings, but also to the inside of old factory buildings. Bijdendijk
(2006) already gave examples for this principle (Tetterode complex, Amsterdam) but these solutions became
permanent instead of temporary. The industry might find a solution in sense of building components that can be
used again in another building after the vacancy period has ended and the total redeveloping project has been
finished.
The example of the Tetterode complex can also be a solution to the problem of the exploitation; the building will
be sold or temporary given to a housing association. They take care of the base building and the infill will be
taken care of by the inhabitants. With restrictions if it concerns a monument. Another option is to build the units
by the housing association and rent them to the inhabitants. Adjustments can be made according to the needs of
the resident. The association can remove the units out when the location has been redeveloped and place them
somewhere else.

8
Recommendations

The recommendations that can be made for further research should concentrate on:
- Investigation of the different target groups
- Developing appropriate infill systems for temporary application in industrial buildings
- Proper business plan for exploitation of the residences
- Additional research of possibilities in other cities in The Netherlands and abroad

Key Lessons Learned

 Temporary housing in industrial areas can be a solution for declining the lack of housing
 A strong basic board and phasing the redeveloping process make the preliminary phase more efficient
 Existing buildings (such as old industry buildings) can be the base building for the Open Building concept
 Development of new infill systems necessary

References

Bijdendijk, F. (2006) Met andere ogen, Woningbouwcooperatie Het Oosten, Amsterdam, ISBN: 9076765022.
Dekker, K. (1998) Research information Open Building Systems: a casy study, Building Research & Information,
vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 311-318.
Dicke, M. and Zouwen, A. van der (2006) Stadshavens Rotterdam, Uitgeverij de Hef publishers, Rotterdam, ISBN:
906906040X.
Gemeente Rotterdam (2006-I), 100 dagen programma (policy report), Gemeente Rotterdam, Rotterdam.
Gemeente Rotterdam (2005), Stand van het Wonen Rotterdam 2005 (policy report), Gemeente Rotterdam,
Rotterdam.
Gemeente Rotterdam (2006-II), Uitvoeringsplan Stedelijke Projecten (USPR) Actualisatie 2006, (policy report),
Gemeente Rotterdam, Rotterdam.
Gemeente Rotterdam (2003), Wonen in Rotterdam, aanpak tot 2006 en koers naar 2017 (policy report),
Gemeente Rotterdam, Rotterdam.
Gordon, D. (1997) Managing the Changing Political Environment in Urban Waterfront Redevelopment, Urban
Studies, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 61-83.
Habraken N.J. (2003) Open building as a condition for industrial construction, http://www.sev-
realisatie.nl/ifd/content/documents/OpenBuilding.pdf (date accessed: 20 December 2006)
Hofman, E. and Halman, J. and Ion, R. (2006) Variation in Housing Design: Identifying Customer Preferences,
Housing Studies, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 929-943.
Kendall, S. (1999) Open Building: An Approach to Sustainable Architecture, Journal of Urban Technology, vol. 6,
no. 3, pp. 1-16.
Kendall, S. (2004) An Open Building Strategy for Balancing Production Efficiency an Consumer Choise in Housing,
National Science Foundation/ PATH Housing Research Agenda Workshop Proceedings and Recommendations,
Michigan State University, vol. I&II, pp. 60-71.
McCarthy, J. (1999) The Redevelopment of Rotterdam since 1945, Planning Perspectives, vol. 14, pp. 291-309.
Prins, E. (2003) Structuurvisie Heijplaat aan de Maas, Buro voor Woningbouw en Stedebouw, Rotterdam.
Werff, F. van der (1993) Open Ontwerpen, Groenevelt b.v., Landgraaf, ISBN: 90645017

9
Authors’ Biographies

Marlous Vriethoff , Msc.

Marlous was born on May 12, 1980 in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. After
secondary school she studied Architecture and Building technology at the faculty
of Architecture at the Delft University of Technology. During her study she entered
the Erasmus programme and studied at the Helsinki University of Technology for
half a year. She designed a European Embassy for her graduation project and
focused on the social impact and the boundary between the public and private
domain.
In September 2006 she started her PhD research at the department of Product
Development (DUT). The research will concentrate on industrial flexible living.

10
Creating Places: Sustainable
Communities Using An Open Building
Manufacturing Approach
Steve Thompson RIBA, Senior Architect, CORUS, UK (Steve.Thompson@corusgroup.com)

Abstract

One of the most outstanding features of Victorian and Edwardian housing in the UK was its adaptability. This has
enabled the dwellings to be adapted up to the present day to suit changing ways of life, but also to accommodate
an increasingly diverse set of household types and sizes. One of the benefits of this adaptability in terms of the
public realm is that it has allowed whole areas of towns and cities to remain physically intact and retain a sense
of community. In creating adaptable dwellings we reduce the likelihood of obsolescence in the future, leading to
demolition, expensive conversions or new development on greenfield sites. The main objectives of this paper are:
firstly, to demonstrate the need for flexibility by highlighting the impact of social and physical context. Secondly,
to discuss how buildings can adapt to meet changing use, requirements and context over time, and finally to
illustrate how a people-focussed open building manufacturing approach can be used to develop sustainable
communities, and how this affects the design of these systems. Design for living and design for manufacture.

Keywords: Building Concepts, Sustainability, Flexibility, Sustainable Communities, Multi-function

Background

Industrial Context

Today there is a greater awareness of the need to reduce carbon emissions than ever before. It is clear that this
is a global issue; both in terms of the reductions in emissions needed and the impact climate change will have on
our lives. Beyond the need to reduce emissions however there are also other issues that need to be addressed to
reduce our impact on the planet. WWF (2006) have described the need to reduce our global ecological footprint
to enable the earth to continue to support the lifestyles of future generations. Over the last twenty years the
resources we have taken from the planet have been over 25% more than the earth can regenerate. In 2003 the
global average Ecological Footprint per person was 2.2 gha/person (global hectares per person), and the earth’s
biocapacity to support this was only 1.8gha/person. In EU countries alone the footprint was 4.8gha/person, with
2.45gha/person being a result of CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels. The biocapacity for these same
countries was only 2.2gha/person, meaning that without any of the other factors that make up our Ecological
Footprint, our carbon emissions alone are exceeding the region’s capacity. To ensure that globally we reduce the
resources we use below the available capacity by 2050 we need at least a 40% smaller global footprint by 2100
than in 2003.

1
Figure 1: Ecological Footprint By Component, 1961-2003 (WWF, 2006)

The built environment and the development of sustainable communities can have the greatest impact on reducing
our global Ecological Footprint by reducing CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels. We need to find ways of living
well on a significantly lower footprint by creating environments with both today and the future in mind, which are
resource efficient and potentially carbon neutral. In creating long-lasting buildings and infrastructure it is crucial
that we don’t develop without considering what is required of these buildings and the flexibility that will enable
them to survive and support social and physical well-being.

Problem

This paper deals mainly with the residential sector and its role within sustainable communities, and one of the
largest contributors to residential emissions is the impact of changing demographics (Shorrock and Utley, 2003).
The issues go far beyond a simple increase in overall population; they include considerations of household
numbers and the size of those households, the age of individuals and how much space they occupy and where
they are located. Household sizes and emissions are also affected by a range of other socio-economic factors,
such as rising house prices, increased life expectancy (and increase in the proportion of elderly people), pension
under-funding, increased cost of residential care, income, availability of suitable accommodation, employment
opportunities, social provision for the young and the elderly, the age at which people move into their own home,
and tenure mix. Sustainable communities are not about supporting the needs of the ‘average’ family or
household, they are about supporting the lives of the large variety and numbers of households that exist today
and tomorrow, all of which are different. To achieve this there needs to be flexibility in terms of available
accommodation and locations for different household types, and an understanding of what type of home and
where people choose when given the choice.
In the UK between 2003 and 2026 there is an expectation for 209,000 extra new households to form each year
(Barker, 2006). This is partly due to a fall in household size partially caused by an increase in people living alone.
Along with these pressures on the housing market and land use, as incomes rise there is an increased demand for
more space and larger homes. To support these increases and changing demographics we need to develop in a

2
considered, sustainable fashion instead of eating up land and increasing urban sprawl, or developing unsuitable,
inflexible and inefficient housing designed for the ‘average’ household. If we continue to develop housing that is
unsuitable for the end user, then it is likely that the occupants will move and there will be even more pressure to
deliver additional housing. We need dwellings that relate to both their occupants and their communities, and
suitable facilities to support these communities. This paper will discuss how this can be achieved and the potential
role of open building manufacturing. The aim is to concentrate on creating the place and facilitate this through
the ManuBuild approach and systems.

Learning Objectives

The reader of this paper can expect to learn:

 The principles of sustainable communities and their design and development

 The importance of the relationship between community, dwelling and component development.

 How open building manufacturing can be assist in the development and reviving of sustainable communities.

Approach

The work covered in this paper is based on current best practice, projects, research, and developments within the
ManuBuild project relating to architectural typologies, building concepts and multi-function. It focuses on the
relationship between dwellings and their context within sustainable communities. We then discuss how open
building manufacturing systems are influenced by these requirements and can themselves play a part in the
development of communities for the future.

Creating Places: Sustainable Communities

‘An environment…is an environment only by virtue of the life that it surrounds…we do not talk about surroundings
without reference to the people surrounded, nor should we talk about housing as a thing of intrinsic value
separate from the people housed.’ (Turner 1974)

Once the relationship between individual and dwelling is repaired, by designing accommodation with the occupant
and their activities in mind, the relationship between community and housing environment can be addressed.
Having highlighted the need for flexibility within the dwelling to allow choice and provide support for different
households, we should also look at the need for flexibility to adapt to external environments (physical, social and
economic). The style and suitability of dwelling typologies changes significantly in different environments,
between regions and countries, but also depending on whether the home is in a rural or urban environment, and
even down to which block or street it is on. These differences combine with the activity approach to help define a
dwelling’s suitability for use. At a community or city scale, the form of a building or development and its
relationship to others may be equally or even more important than its function, as the form may be more
permanent and affect a great deal more people. The specific characteristics of a site, building and household need
to be considered together, and priorities considered on a holistic basis.
In environmental and ecological circles there is a common method of analysing natural ecologies known as the
transect. It is a line showing varying characteristics through different zones such as shores, wetlands, plains and
uplands, and can be used to represent the distribution of organisms within those areas. For human environments,
Duany, Wright and Sorlien (2005) developed the rural-to-urban transect, based on this concept. This theoretical
cross-section, illustrated in Figure 2, can be used to identify a set of habitats that vary by their level and intensity
of urban character, a section that ranges from rural to urban. This range of environments can be seen through
the organisation of buildings, plots, land use, streets and other physical elements that make up the human
habitat. It is useful not only to help understand the local characteristics and identity around the dwelling, but also

3
in enabling these characteristics to inform the design of the home to have a positive connection and integrate
with its vicinity, preserving the mix of architecture that makes our urban landscape a more humane and
interesting place in which to live and work.

Figure 2: Rural to urban transect (Duany, Wright and Sorlien, 2005)

This approach is a simple tool that enables us to understand the variations in context between different areas of a
region, and the suitability of different dwelling typologies in these areas. For example a high-rise apartment block
may not be suitable in a rural or suburban location, but may be in a more urban setting, whereas a detached
farmhouse is unlikely to be suitable for an urban centre, but ideal for a rural area. Then based on regional or local
practices the zones (and their dwellings and other components) can be locally refined. The approach is therefore
not to standardise all developments and regions, but to demonstrate a basic understanding of the make-up of a
region, which is then locally defined.

‘The success or otherwise of a project is a product of understanding the human as well as the physical
geography. Above all places must be stimulating for people, and buildings and open spaces must be comfortable
and safe’. (Llewelyn-Davies, 2000)

This paper discusses a range of issues that need to be considered in the development of communities.
Sustainable cities consist of much more than buildings and the space between them; they consist of sustainable
communities of citizens and their ideas on life, their movements through the world. A city is a meeting place for
people, and forms a critical part of our daily lives. Llewelyn-Davies (2000) described the key principles of urban
design and communities as: -

 Places For People – well-used, well-loved, safe, comfortable, varied and attractive
 Enrich The Existing – enrich the qualities of existing urban places, encouraging a distinctive response that
arises from and complements its setting. This applies at every scale – the region, the city, the town, the
neighbourhood, and the street.
 Make Connections - places need to be easy to get to and integrated physically and visually with their
surroundings. This requires attention to how to get around by foot, bicycle, public transport and the car – and
in that order.
 Work With The Landscape – Places that strike a balance between the natural and man made environment and
utilise each site’s intrinsic resources.
 Mix Uses And Forms – stimulating, enjoyable and convenient places meet a variety of demands from the
widest possible range of users, amenities and social groups. They will also weave together different building
forms, uses, tenures and densities.
 Manage The Investment – must be economically viable, well managed and maintained.

4
 Design For Change – needs to be flexible enough to respond to future changes in use, lifestyle and
demography. This means designing for energy and resource efficiency; creating flexibility in the use of
property, public spaces and the service infrastructure, and introducing new approaches to transportation, traffic
management and parking.
 Mix Of Social/Physical Typologies - urban living in recent years has mainly involved childless or smaller
households. Families with young children still make up a large percentage of the population, many of which
support the suburban lifestyle. This means more land being taken up.

There is extensive research (CABE, 2005) to show that one of the main considerations for residents of most
household types across different sectors (such as owner-occupied and rented accommodation), when choosing a
new home, or choosing to stay in an area, is access to local facilities and transport routes. When considering a
town, city or region we need to ensure that a full range of facilities are supported, whilst avoiding repetition or
obsolescence where possible. To achieve this, it means considering local neighbourhoods (which may be
developed on the basis of walkable neighbourhoods from transport facilities), and simultaneously recognising both
the catchment populations and areas for different facilities to remain sustainable and the potential frequency of
use.
Figure 3 (Urban Task Force, 1999), suggests the relationships and distances of a core range of local facilities
based on a city-scale urban area (the results will obviously change for different regions and densities, but the
principles are likely to be the same). What this illustrates is that some facilities can sensibly be shared between
neighbourhoods if these areas are considered on a regional scale. Figure 4 illustrates how a city may be
developed or expanded in a controlled and sustainable way to support the community facilities suggested here.
The neighbourhoods can be walkable and have sustainable public transport systems available that are suitable for
the catchment populations involved. What this approach also allows, which is key to any successful urban
expansion, is transitional zones between neighbourhoods. This allows both new and old communities to integrate
with each other instead of being isolated. What this means is that in terms of the rural to urban transect, the
suburban to urban centre zones will be repeated many times across a city region. It also reduces the likelihood of
urban sprawl and minimises unnecessary expansion into the countryside around a city.
Recent government reports in England (Barker, 2006) suggest that only 13.5 percent of the country is developed.
Although this appears low, it is important that this figure does not increase without careful thought and
consideration of the need to protect the countryside. If urban areas do expand, they need to do so in a controlled
way that takes account of available land, sites and buildings within the built-up areas first. Although we are
talking here of city environments, this does not necessarily mean high density accommodation across the board.
Density itself is a measure, and therefore should be seen as a product of design, not a determinant of it. What
this model actually needs is a range of densities, dwelling and community typologies to support both the range of
household types that are likely, and the facilities that these will require.

5
 Figure 3:
Urban Facilities Catchment Distances
(Urban Task Force, 1999)

Figure 4:
Compact City Urban Structure
(Urban Task Force, 1999)
The ManuBuild Transect: Community And
Individual, City And Component

6
‘In a quality place, the components from which it is made are fully resolved. This requires fusion of all elements:
the building, landscape, and the interface between them. All components need to have been designed with the
overall scheme, and its character and quality in mind…. form a place where the elements belong seamlessly to
each other.’ (Llewelyn-Davies, 2001)

At first glance it may be difficult to see how the regional or urban context has an affect on the design of
individual dwellings and their components. However the context, as illustrated in Figure 5, does have an affect on
the design or suitability of its dwellings. Whether a dwelling is in a suburban or urban context for example, will
affect the plot or block sizes, access points and parking or transport facilities. This will have an affect on the
building forms, access and orientation, availability of view etc. This then directly influences the internal layout of
dwellings in these areas in terms of planning for light, services, access and views in addition to external
appearance. The internal arrangement and flexibility will determine the suitability and performance criteria of the
components and connections that make up this dwelling. Affectively, this is a detail, or ManuBuild transect.

In developing a dwelling design and its elements and components with this transect in mind, we then consider
value to the wider community in addition to the individual dwelling occupants, who may eventually move and
otherwise leave their dwelling (which was designed only with their specific needs in mind) behind. The focus is on
designing for people, but when combining the physical aspects of
context with the design for occupants and the wider community
through the activity approach, the sense of integration achieved by a
development is increased significantly. In addition, taking a holistic
approach allows the quality and integrity of a dwelling to be displayed
through each component, and the significance of each component to
be clearly understood. In considering the wider issues, greater
flexibility is achieved which improves the ability for customisation,
improving the suitability of a design to an increased range of
situations.

It is important in using this approach to consider the input from

different stakeholders in the process and how this can be made
accessible and relevant across the development of dwellings and
components. Coordination both of information and dimensions, and
the design of spaces and components is key to open building, and
ManuBuild is developing a coordination system based on these
principles.

Previous examples of a layered approach to specification include the

CIB Master List (CIB, 1993), which considered specifications in five
base levels; Building, Elements, Components, Materials and Services.

Flexible Dwellings And Future-Proofing

Recent estimates in the UK suggest that at the current rate of house-

building new dwellings will need to last approximately 1200 years to
meet predicted demand, with an estimate of 100 years for the
Netherlands (Till and Schneider, 2006). We therefore need to consider
housing as a long-term resource that can grow and adapt, not as
short-term products with limited lifecycles. We have to bear in mind
Figure 5: ManuBuild Transect

7
that over time cities do develop and expand. In terms of the rural to urban transect, rural or suburban areas may
over time turn into urban areas as these cities grow. To allow for this change to occur whilst minimising the need
to demolish and redevelop we need to consider future alternative uses for the dwellings or buildings we may
design today.
Through careful consideration of the design of homes based on the needs of the occupants at both individual and
community level, we can to a large extent future-proof our homes, allowing them to adapt to their changing
requirements over time and cope with external as well as internal contextual differences. We can allow for future
upgrades or replacements whilst also providing flexibility to develop an unlimited range of typologies to suit
different requirements using the same or similar components and methodologies. Achieving this will reduce some
of the need for future housing across Europe and improve the sustainability of neighbourhoods, cities and housing
in general.

Using Open Building Manufacture

With the advent of MMC [Modern Methods of Construction] there is a perfect opportunity to reconsider the way
that our housing is put together, and with it to build-in flexibility at no greater cost. (Till and Schneider, 2006)

Open building manufacturing meets the needs discussed in this paper by combining the option for flexible,
adaptable solutions and products with repetition in manufacturing through the standardisation of methodology
and coordination, not standardisation of products. A key aspect of open building manufacturing systems is
dimensional coordination to allow flexibility in forms of construction, and the capacity to deal with differences in
dimensions and tolerances. Any building should be capable of being designed and built using the ManuBuild
approach; ManuBuild should facilitate great architecture, not define it.
Before considering individual components or systems we first must understand what it is they need to do, what
their role is in supporting the occupants’ activities within a dwelling, and how often they need to be maintained,
upgraded or adapted. If the wrong components are used, future adaptability and flexibility as well as performance
can be severely impaired. The approach described in this paper and those methodologies developed as part of
ManuBuild form a briefing process that enables this to happen.
The main strengths of ManuBuild are in the topics it covers and in its timing. The project not only looks at non-
material specific building systems and components that are capable of being customised and assembled in a
variety of ways, but is also developing detailed business processes, software and ICT support systems,
manufacturing processes, training packages and regulatory impacts, all pulling together to provide realistic
solutions to the problems now facing the housing industry across Europe.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

At present there is a great need to reduce carbon emissions from the residential sector across Europe, and to
develop or revive sustainable communities for the future. By taking a people-focussed approach at both
household and community level, both now and in the future instead of concentrating on housing products in
isolation, these goals can be met. With advances in technology over recent years, knowledge transfer between
industries and sectors and increased awareness of sustainability the timing for open building manufacturing
approaches such as ManuBuild could not be better. The needs for flexibility and adaptability, for high performance
dwellings and products, efficiency and continuity of supply in an expanding market have all come together to
create the demand for a change in approach. There are barriers to these approaches, including often inflexibility
of regulatory requirements and the image of manufactured housing left over from the 1960s. The purpose of
ManuBuild is to overcome these challenges, through the depth and broad nature of the subjects it considers.

8
Business Impacts

The ManuBuild approach means a step-change in design thinking to consider buildings over their lifecycle, the
need for flexibility and a people-focussed approach, and the integration of individual dwellings in the wider urban
context. The aim is to demonstrate to architects and designers the benefits of open building manufacturing and
mass customisation, and enable clients to purchase high quality homes using manufactured components that have
a high degree of flexibility both in initial design choices and future adaptability, making sure that the right
products and systems are available to facilitate the development of sustainable communities. This also gives
suppliers new opportunities for components and systems to be suitable for a larger market, by designing them to
be flexible in the first place.

Conclusions

An improved understanding of end-users and their needs, flexibility and multi-functional requirements through
consideration of activity spaces and integration with the public realm are key in developing sustainable homes and
communities. Using this understanding we can begin to develop performance criteria for open building
manufacturing systems, creating systems that are flexible to suit occupants’ needs and development context. The
idea of combining mass customisation, adaptable dwellings and end-user involvement may seem a utopian ideal.
Think again. All of these ideas are being used in the industry today, though not necessarily together. The task of
ManuBuild is to bring these together in a realistic way that can provide significant benefits for the future.

Key Lessons Learned

The key lessons learnt in the work covered in this paper are:

 Design for flexibility of use, both now and in the future

 The most sustainable method of dwelling and community design is a people-focussed, not product-focussed
approach, both on an individual and community level
 Consider components, systems and dwellings together with their context, not in isolation

References

WWF (2006) Living Planet Report 2006, WWF, Gland, Switzerland, ISBN: 2880852722.
Shorrock, L.D., and Utley, J.I. (2003) Domestic energy fact file 2003, BRE Press, ISBN: 1860816231.
Barker, K. (2006) Barker Review of Land Use Planning, HMSO, Norwich, ISBN-10:
0118404857.
Turner, J., (1974) The fits and misfits of people’s housing, RIBA Journal, February 1974, pp. 14-21.
Duany, A., Wright, W., and Sorlien, S., (2005) Smart Code & Manual, v 8.0, New Urban Publications Inc., ISBN:
0974502111.
Llewelyn-Davies, (2000), Urban Design Compendium, English Partnerships, England
CABE, (2005), What Home Buyers Want: Attitudes And Decision Making Among Consumers, CABE, London
Urban Task Force, (1999), Towards An Urban Renaissance, E & F Spon, London
Llewelyn-Davies, (2001), Better Places To Live By Design: A Companion Guide To PPG3, ISBN: 0727730371
CIB (1993), CIB master list of headings for the arrangement and presentation of information in technical
documents for design and construction, Rotterdam

9
Till, J., and Schneider, T. (2006) Flexible Housing : A Guide, The Bank of Ideas, ISBN:978095413625X.

Author’s Biography

Steve Thompson works as a Senior Architect for Corus. His background is from
private practice, working on and leading residential, commercial, education and
transport projects. Since joining Corus, Steve has diversified to work on the
development of off-site construction systems and their application across a range
of sectors, along with advising on building physics and sustainable construction. In
his current position, Steve strongly promotes best design practice across the
construction industry, and advises on the effective use of steel in buildings.

10
Industrial, Flexible and Demountable
(IFD) Construction and Virtual Networks
A contribution to the public domain?
J. Worst MBA M.Phil

Abstract

Industrial Flexible Demountable construction is especially in the Netherlands exposed as a medium to reinforce
the development, construction, and exploration of payable housing and facilities, and proofed partly to be a
success. Considering the Lisbon Agenda on improving competition in the EU using ICT as an accelerator for new
business paradigms. However, is the European construction industry ready to accept new technology to come to a
breakthrough in competition as induced by IFD construction in coherence with Internet technology.

Keywords: Networks, Virtual Enterprises, Industrial Flexible Demountable Construction.

Introduction

Since the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 Public Private Partnerships (PPP) and Private Financial Initiative (PFI) have
become a main driver to come to contracting in the public domain. Given the 3 % of GDP rate on budget deficits,
governments have to control their public spending. Cost cutting on sponsoring the building of social or payable
housing programmes was particularly realized in the Netherlands.

In March 2000 the European heads of governments (European Council) agreed upon the idea to make more
competitive to establish a competitive European market in 2010. Improvement through the adoption of
Information Technologies appears to be a critical factor. According to IST report of the EU (April 2004) worldwide
competition is forcing companies to cooperate in to reach for a critical mass to become more competitive. The
report points at new business paradigms involving new business structures, and network paradigms, which will
involve new social economic environments as well as a shift towards integration of Public Administration.

The construction industry based on three pillars: design & engineering, construction, and the supplying industry
affects network systems supporting collaboration and cooperation inducing concepts of contracts regarding the
building of payable or social housing. Governmental and construction industries’ use of the Internet as a medium
and adaptation of Internet technology is expected to lead to a transition of traditional business models into
entering the web and elaborate web-based e-Commerce and e-Business models supporting concepts of
construction.

In fact e-Business covers when referring to the report of the European Union both e-commerce and business
process reengineering to come to restructuring of businesses. Due to this definition e-Business will affect The
European economy and challenge roles of individuals in the labour process, forces of companies and consumers.
Use of e.g. e-Commerce is of relevance to point at the transition into e-Business models (Kalakotra 2001) in
particular looking at the rapidly changing current socio-economic environments. Integration of design,
engineering, construction and asset management to manufacture (build) products for real estate and property
markets induces a paradigm shift of the construction industry towards a paradigm of organizational markets
serving adjacent markets as the real estate and property markets.

1
The question is, if Industrial, Flexible, or Demountable Construction enabled by Virtual (networks) enterprises
contribute to the private domain?

What is a IFD?

By using concrete carriers and floors forming the skeleton [Vos, 200] with an open space the architect Van den
Broek designed in 1934 small houses, which offered an extreme opportunity to use space. Prof. J. Habraken
improved the idea of using carriers and open space as director of the SAR foundation.
STEW is a brand representing steel gantries carrying concrete floors, which made it possible to build vertically and
horizontally at the same time. The competitiveness of STEW was in the reduction of costs of labour, using
manufactured and known products for floors, walls, separation walls, facades, installations, and completion.
Customization could be fully explored due to the high flexibility. Every 20 years facades and interiors could be
changed and start a new life cycle. STEW was initiated by Prof. J. Westra [TUE, 1990] to enable the building of
technically perfect and payable houses. Since a 2000 the idea is proven true, because due to high cost of building
land, and increasing regulation the price of housing increases enormously and payable housing is far from reality.
SEV supported the IFD principle by initiating projects and demonstrating them in literature. However, it is
remarkable that IFD influences the construction technique poorly, because it uses the proven techniques.
Important is the influence on project and process organization. IFD induces a severe support for concurrent
engineering in teams.
The benefits of IFD are numerous and the advantage in the private domain is geared towards the following items:

 High involvement of future user through embedded customization.

 Partners are committed to one product, deliver in time, manufacture to measure.
 The private partners offer a housing facility for all levels of consumer needs.
 The private sector takes responsibility for housing programmes in particular city section renovation.
 Due to the flexibility the private sector could be committed to a long term obligation.
 Life cycle guaranties could reinforce payable housing programmes.

The advantage of the participants is based on unifying DBOT (design engineering build operate and transfer)
contracting forms with financial engineering.

IFD in European economic context

Growth and government expenditure

To come to an understanding of economic growth of the construction industry and especially when it concerns
West European countries as France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands the historical context is of
importance. Due to the reconstruction of Europe after World War II there was no doubt about continuous growth
till the moment, when the first oil crisis occurred in 1973, which was followed by a slow down of economic
growth. The 1980s marked a slowing down of economic growth and initiatives to invest in capital deepening
instead of labour. The 1980s marked a period of change or in other words a recovery of economies. When looking
at West European economies we can distinguish six periods1 and during these periods we are confronted with
regular patterns of expansion and contraction in economic activity:

1Interpretation of the theory provided by Prof Dr A. Miltenburg (“Construction Industry Macroeconomics”) in his research study
of the construction industry 1990 University Press Delft the Netherlands.

2
Matrix 1

The years 1950 – 1963 Fluctuations of the economic situation

The years 1964 – 1971 Economic growth
The years 1972 – 1983 Economic slow down
The years 1984 – 1990 Recovery
The years 1991 – 2001 Economic growth
The years 2002 – 2005 Slow down of economic growth

The economic fluctuations during the last five decades supported IFD construction particularly during the first
period of economic reconstruction in Western Europe. During the 1950s Croignet exploited next to France the
concrete elements for housing in the Netherlands through the Dutch intermediate DURA. Since the 1980s in
particular the demand for housing changed. Instead of quantity quality was the main determinant for demand.
Due to the increasing growth in the ICT sector demand for offices increased especially during the 1990s. IFD
construction of offices differs when it concerns the application of concrete or steel. Examples of combinations of
concrete and steel are found in the Kennedy tower (Eindhoven) and the building “La Fenetre” in the Hague
Netherlands. With regard to the construction industry the IFD concepts are often initiated by contractors and
developers, but not by the industry. Due to the fluctuating scale of production the concrete industry for building
elements is confronted it invested in intensifying the use of capacity and focused on selling to contractors instead
of selling complete products. Some initiators integrated production of elements to come to IFD concepts although
it stuck to small scope and small scale. However, when it comes to erect new housing legislation, regulation and
law are e.g. in the Netherlands, France and Germany items of government policy and political debate and lead to
increasing constraints. So I conclude that public private partnership in housing programmes are used insufficiently
in Western Europe due to the complexity of its institutionalised markets. The following graph points at a price
equilibrium regarding the previous complexity considering the housing market.

Graph 1

Price of housing

AB C

Complexity of the housing market

The complexity of the housing market is explained in graph 1 by the identification of equilibriums at different
moments A B C. In fact not the complexity of the technology determines the solutions to meet customers needs,
but the scarcity on housing due to the fact that it believed that creating quality of supply will be followed by
demand. For example not the construction of housing is an important determinant but the cost of land. A lag
between demand and supply occurs and is not solved due to the high price of housing.

3
Business cycles

According to the definition of Dornbusch at al. the business cycles of an economy is the more or lesser pattern of
expansion (recovery) and contraction (recession) in economic activity around the path of growth, which is the
trend path of GDP, that GDP would take if factors of production were fully employed. During the second half of
the nineties the “New economy” was generally point of discussion, however, when referring to the Lisbon agenda
competition did not change did not change and demands for new challenges, which were pointed by the Heads of
governments on e-business or equivalents. Considering the Lisbon topic to come to cooperation and build network
paradigms should be a challenge. This could be found in new business paradigm performed by virtual enterprises,
which are legal contracts between legally independent partners sharing the same economic sense and striving for
the same goal, project or concept and collaborating, cooperating, coordinating, and communicating enabled
through Information and Communication Technique. For a fragmented industry as the construction industry the
virtual enterprise as such could be a prelude for recovery. Kornelius & Wamelink (1998) initiated a case study on
the virtual corporation and what could be learned from the construction industry, or better organizing construction
projects. They concluded that network coordination is a key issue in construction, because independent
organizations have to align their independency; the one-component manufacturing industries have to elaborate
networks similar to those of the construction industry. However, they concluded on constraints due to complexity
of processes, conflicts of interest, and size of order projects. Virtual enterprises e.g. are based on legal contracts
between legal independent partners to serve a common objective surpassing time, organizational boundaries, and
place through documented cooperation, coordination and communication [Leimeister 2000].

When the IT revolution started at the early 19-nineties it was researched that ICT induced business models
(Henderson and Venkatraman 1993) combined with a virtual business model affect change of industrial
organization. In particular embedded in the construction industry it will in the near future influence growth,
productivity, and profitability of all its participants, which are not only the large-scale operating construction firms,
but also the small and medium sized companies. Industrial organization of the construction industry in this paper
is considered influenced by organization of supply and demand of construction capacity and behaviour of
participants pointed at application of information and communication technology to collaborate, co-operate, co-
ordinate, document, and communicate.

Business structure

The construction industry considered as a traditional organized industry could be an example for change in
particular when pointed at implementation and embedding of the virtual enterprise. The phenomenon of a virtual
enterprise when it concerns the construction industry is not to distinguish from its context of industrial
organization. In theory the virtual enterprise is a group of firms that interact through interdependent tasks guided
by a common purpose that works across space, time, and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by
web of communication technologies to cooperate and coordinate activities related to the purpose. Virtual
enterprises are complex and require a focus on their best practices on peoples’ experiences. A virtual enterprise
represents a team of non co-located and independent firms, who collaborate, cooperate, coordinate, document,
and communicate to specify a project and may even more work together again. When considering the old
paradigm of the construction industry companies entered virtual enterprises mainly to share risk, share capacity,
and financial resources focused on organizing building capacity, however, after completion of the project were
never working together again. The OSMOS project in Finland (Source: OSMOS: IST-1999-10491) was initiated to
add ICT to collaboration models of the construction industry. (IST = Information Society Technology)

4
Business settings

Nowadays assumptions about implementation and the use of ICT and especially Internet technology are made.
According to Kalakotra and Robinson (2003) e-Business models will determine the future of doing business. Such
a model is nearly met by the virtual enterprise, because business strategy is currently supported by an emerged
ICT strategy and structure. Not only the construction industry is confronted with change, but the ICT industry as
well. Both changes induce shifts supported by a strong focus on value networks and pointing at virtual teams.
The most important motive for virtualization is to find explanation for extended application of information
technology towards virtual networks. In particular embedded in the construction industry it will in the near future
influence growth, productivity, and profitability of all its participants, which are not only the large-scale operating
construction firms, but also the small and medium sized companies.

Internet

Due to the fact that organizing construction processes is a complex task it is of importance to understand why
especially participants and scientist in construction are focusing on identification of clients needs, identification of
design, identification of engineering, identification of technology and in the end at identification of contracts. Why
are contracts pointed at required spatial solutions on certain conditions not offered directly to the customer? Why
is tendering and its equivalents the pitfall for an whole industry and its market? Why is the construction market
primarily seen as a capacity driven market and not as a solution driven market? Has the life-cycle of the general
contractor ended and if so why? So what is really challenging change? Contracts based on identification of clients
needs and required technology? Or transition of current construction markets into organizational markets?
Questions that occur when rethinking the lectures and discussions of the congress. Another important issue was
the presence of thinking about embedding information and communication technology (ICT) based on an
emerged ICT strategy pointed at elaborating business strategies. The current problem situation is driven by the
emerged supportive ICT strategy towards business strategy and points at change of the construction markets.
Current situation: emerged ICT strategy enables change of the construction industry

1. Unstructured the problem points at the change of the construction industry, however, new business
models do not emerge. Regarding the increasing importance of implementation and application of
information technology inducing new business models and transition from e-Commerce into e-business
models is required on the medium term in particular when considering the locked up European and
domestic industrial organization.
2. To come to full application of ICT there are no boundaries, than economic and IT barriers to enter the
business (construction industry) and being a participant of a virtual enterprise are drivers for adapting
and implementing technology change. In particular when considering the fact that the most crucial factor
is that firms prefer to use their existing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) environment (black box), but
want to enter applications that connect different ERP environments. To meet that demand formats of
virtual networks and virtual enterprises are options. However, do virtual markets exist?
3. The root definition and perspective of virtual enterprises point at the importance of the virtual enterprise
and is expressed in the following definition:
“A virtual construction enterprise is defined as a legal form of collaboration and cooperation across
locations, time, and organizations of legally independent parties, that join forces of a common economic
objective to produce property, utility objects, and infra-structure by using the business-web”. For example
property considers housing, residential, and non-residential; Utility objects equal objects to serve as
housing for business and public services; Infrastructure regards roads, railways, energy-plants, and
harbours.

5
Why virtual networks?

Web-based business models are part of the paradigm shift in the ICT industry due to rapid technological change.
Integration of data and information exchange is confronted with three2 different concurrent trends opting for
structuring future client software. The first trend indicates a shift from PC based software applications to server-
based or web-based applications. A second trend is the shift to use of other devices than PC’s e.g. mobile phones,
iMode apparatus and extended notebook laptops. The third and most important trend is a shift from proprietary
software to submission of “open source” software. However, “open source” software is considered very vulnerable.
These three trends will influence industrial organization of the construction industry in the near future and will be
of dominance to establish change in corporate business strategy. Organizing production capabilities and capacity
to realize construction projects and control the processes requires skills and knowledge on different levels to
communicate, co-ordinate, and co-operate.
The web provides a mean to elaborate communication, co-operation, document, and co-ordination between
partners of alliances and in partnerships. Connectivity through the Internet offers the opportunity to deal with a
fragmented industry and make the construction business more transparent. Redesigning the construction industry
to come to conceptual frameworks of virtual enterprises will be of importance to all stakeholders involved in
organizing construction projects and processes. Dealing with a changing business environment and the
opportunities offered by information technology affects new ways to communicate, co-ordinate, and co-operate
when it concerns the position of the general contractor. For instance enterprise resource planning (ERP) software
as developed by SAP, which is also in that matter focusing on Internet applications offers an opportunity to deal
with anticipating the new paradigm. Considering the new technology provided by Microsoft’s Sharepoint Portal the
virtual enterprise enabled by ICT and in particular through use of the Internet will make it possible to exchange
information between different ERP environments.

The functionality of virtual driven IFD

The idea of ICT supported cooperation was researched over 108 firms in the West European construction industry.
These firms were researched through use of the Internet and data were gathered and ranked through 23
questions pointed at the four following not measured (latent) variables and explained by 12 variables by using
structural equation modelling and the LISREL 8.72 software. The research was pointed to find an answer on the
question pointed at the contribution to the public domain by virtual (networks) enterprises supporting private
financial initiatives. The following path diagram was designed indicating choice for web based platforms :

2“Sources of information value” 2004 by Joan E. Ricart-Costa; Brian Subirana, and Josep Valor – Sabatier PwC/IESE/EBcenter

6
 Adaptation of Planning
ICT enabled 1 Investments
change 2 Acquisition

ICT Strategy
The Internet is a
disruptive BPR Following trend
element 1 PC hosted SW
2 Shared SW

Culture IFD Information

Web- communication
based technology
Platform?

Operational
management: Capabilities
concurrent engineering + 1 Internet
business teams 2 WFMS/DBMS

Strong Performance Use of Internet

eCommerce; e- for
Business Brochure ware
position e-Business

Path diagram Format

The following CMatrix (covariance’s) was calculated (Lisrel 8.72) to come to analysis.

Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 Q.5 Q.6 Q.7 Q.13 Q.16 Q.17 Q.21 Q.22 Q.23
Q.2 0.48
1
Q.3 0.40 0.52
8 6
Q.4 0.23 0.29 0.78
8 2 2
Q.5 0.38 0.39 0.22 0.42
9 4 7 9
Q.6 0.18 0.13 0.40 0.26 1.61
3 9 8 4 8
Q.7 0.09 0.06 0.47 0.21 1.38 1.59
1 8 7 2 4 1
Q.1 0.52 0.50 0.63 0.51 0.96 0.86 1.79
3 3 2 4 1 0 1 9
Q.1 0.15 0.19 0.44 0.23 0.50 0.59 0.75 0.79
6 4 8 0 7 6 8 0 5
Q.1 0.03 0.01 0.36 0.06 0.49 0.63 0.42 0.47 0.60
7 7 3 1 2 4 7 2 0 6
Q.2 0.43 2.32 1.27 2.30 5.08 7.01 2.83 3.17 5.26 127.
1 5 3 0 0 4 2 9 2 1 2
Q.2 4.72 1.73 4.97 3.58 14.3 20.1 15.7 16.6 15.8 48.4 1747.
2 5 9 2 4 4 9 8 6 8 5 1
Q.2 11.7 6.10 9.11 8.71 9.67 10.8 17.5 18.4 12.1 25.2 756.5 857.6
3 0 3 1 1 1 9 3 0 6 5 8 9

7
The outcomes of the research pointing at correlation between the not observed variables are provided in the
following matrix relating the latent constructs .

Association Matrix
Constructs: Strategy Culture Technology Performance
Strategy 1
Culture 0.92 1
Technology 0.90 0.95 1
Performance 0.76 0.86 0.94 1

Considering culture and the quality of measurement the factor concurrent engineering and in particular concurrent
engineering enforced by business teams are still poorly integrated in the culture of the construction industry
despite the fact that most of the firms realize that they need a disruptive strategy for new business structures.
Regarding performance using the web for brochure ware and pushing information is generally accepted, however,
integration in an e-business model is poorly reached. The chosen indicators for performance proofed to be slightly
correct The following matrix points at the related factor loadings:

Explanatory matrix
Construct: Measured variable: Factor loading: (reliability)
Strategy Q2 ICT is an enabler 0.70 (0)
Q3 Internet induces 0.71 (0.03)
investments
Q4 Familiarity with Internet 0.81 (0,13)
solutions.
Culture Q5 Internet is disruptive for 0.69 (-)
process reengineering
Q6 Concurrent engineering is 1.21 (0.15)
applied.
Q7 Enforced concurrent 1.21 (0.13)
engineering is applied
Technology Q13 Hosted services are used 1.30 (0.13)
Q16 WFMS and DBMS are 0.88 (0)
used
Q17 XML standards, UDDI 0.80 (-)
and SOAP Interfaces are
known.
Performance Q21 Brochure ware Positive (100%)
Q22 e-Commerce Positive
Q23 e-Business Positive

8
Conclusions and recommendation for further research

Given the associations Internet technology is accepted, however, given the factor loadings only partly accepted
and integrated in the construction industry. In particular culture defined by individuals and their roles, business
structure, and operational management should be a topic to take into consideration as specified by Venkatraman
et al. in the MIT’90 model. Given the research question of this paper ICT enabled virtual enterprises are not
currently accepted and applied due to ill knowledge on technology. The IFD principle although a contribution to
society will exist in the current way, which means lack of scope and scale. It will take a severe crisis to come to
new business paradigms as far as it concerns full exploitation of IFD concepts on large scale. Further research on
the topic of application of XML, UDDI, WSDL, and SOAP Interface techniques and Internet technology is advised
in relation to concepts of integrated cooperation reinforcing IFD.

References

Strategy
Thompson & Strickland “Strategic Management concepts and cases” 11th edition McGraw-Hill International
editions management series 1999
Dr. R. Kalakotra and M. Robinson e-Business 2.0 Addison Wesley 2001
Bob de Wit & Ron Meyer “Strategy” an international perspective; Process, Content, Context 2nd edition Thomson
business press 2000
G. Johnson & K. Scholes Exploring corporate strategy 5th edition Prentice Hall Europe 1999
Julia Balogun & Veronica Hope Hailey with G. Johnson & K. Scholes “Exploring Strategic Change”. Prentice Hall
Financial Times 1999
K. Warren “Competitive strategic dynamics” Irwin McGraw Hill 2000
R. Koch “Strategy” 2nd edition Financial Times Prentice Hall 2000
M.E. Porter et al. “On Competition” Harvard Business School Press 1998

Industrial economics
Denise Dipasquale and William C. Wheaton. “Urban Economics and Real Estate Markets”. Prentice Hall 1996
A.P. Jacquemin & H.W. de Jong European Industrial Organization 1977 The Macmillan Press Ltd
D.G. Mayes editor “The European Challenge”. The impact of the 1992 program 1991 Harvester Wheatheaf
David Mercer “Industry scenarios: short-termism revealed”. Industrial Management & Data Systems 96/8 1996
page 23 - 27
Peter Montaguon ”European competition policy” edited Pinter Publishers London 1990
M.E. Porter “The competitive advantage of nations” The Macmillan Press Ltd 1990
William G. Shepherd “The economics of industrial organization” 3d edition 1990 Prentice Hall international editions
M.E. Porter “The competitive advantage of nations” The Macmillan Press Ltd 1990
P. de Wolf editor “Competition in Europe Essays in Honour of Henk W. de Jong” Kluwer Academic Publishers 1991
European economies a comparative study edited by drs. F.J.L. Simons Pitman 1991
Dr. Marc van Wegberg “Multi-Market competition theory a conceptual framework” Faculty of Economics &
Business Administration Maastricht 2000
W. Duncan Rukin Industrial economics 1989 Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd

Construction industry
Annual reports 1999 until 2004 of Morrison Construction Group Ltd, Balfour Beatty plc, Taylor Woodrow
Construction Ltd, Groupe Eiffage, Campenon Bernard SGE now VINCI, Heijmans N.V., BAM HBG N.V., Ballast
Nedam N.V., Royal Volker Wessels Stevin N.V., Hochtief AG, Walter Bau AG, and Bilfinger + Berger AG. The www

9
sites of these and other European companies (200) were reviewed too.
Balamuralikrishna et al. “The relevance of Concurrent engineering in Industrial Technology Programs”. Journal of
Industrial Technology 2000 number 3
Dr. Frens Pries Innovation in the construction industry 1995 EBURON Delft.
M. Wehtherill, Y. Rezgui, C. Lima, and A. Zarli “Itcon” July 2002 Knowledge Management for the construction
industry: the E-cognos project.
Report by the ING Bank on the construction industry 2002 Dutch edition
Information from the world wide web of the EIContractors (European Institute of contractors)
Ch. Finne “How the Internet is changing the role of construction information middlemen: the case of construction
information services. “Itcon” August 2003
O. Samuelson IT Barometer 2000 – The use of IT in the Nordic construction industry “Itcon” March 2002 (1)
Rethinking Construction. Report of the Construction Task Force 1998 to the deputy Prime Minister John Prescott
on the scope for improving the quality and efficiency of UK construction.
Prof. Dr. D. Jacobs et al. Report of SMO 1992 the economic power of the construction company.
Prof. Dr. W. Bakens Bouwen aan 2005 (Dutch edition) (Tutein Nolthenius 1985)
Future scenarios for the construction industry a study by the Dutch association VGBOUW 1998
Jim Smith & Peter E.D. Love “Adapting clients’ needs in construction a dialogue”. Facilities number ½ 2001
Peter E.D. Love & Gary D. Holt Construction Business performance management the SPM (Stakeholders
Perspective Measurement) alternative Business Process Management Journal Vol. 6 No. 5, 2000
SEV 2000 Van IFD Bouwen naar IFD denken
SEV 2002 IFD Bouwen demonstratieprojecten
J.T. Voordijk “Naar integrale logistiek in bedrijfsketens” Ontwikkelingen in de bouw Universitaire Pers Maastricht
1994

ICT and Networks

Information Society Technologies (IST) April 2004 “State of the Art of research on legal issues related to the
Information Society Technologies”
W. Brian Arthur “Positive feedbacks in the Economy”
James J. McAndrews “Network Pricing”
F. Bergeron, L. Raymond, S. Rivard Strategic alignment of information technology: performance outcomes in small
en medium sized firms June 2002 Departement de des Sciences de la Gestion et de l’Economie
Francis Bloch “Coalitions and Networks in Industrial Organizations” 30.8.2001
Erik Brynjolfsson and Brian Kahin editors “Understanding the Digital Economy” MIT Press 2002 paperback edition.
Eddie W.L. Cheng, Heng Li, Peter E.D. Love and Zahir Irani “Network communication in the construction industry”
J.W.J. Gijsen, N.B. Szirbik, G. Wagner “Agent technologies for Virtual Enetrprises. TUE 2001
Hans W. Gottinger “Network Economies for the Internet” 2002/2003 University of Maastricht26 November 1989
The Internet Economy Indicators
E-trends. The Economist 2001 in association with Profile Books
Henry C. Lucas jr. “Strategies for electronic commerce and the Internet”. The MIT Press 2002
Richard Haigh & Marjan Sarshar. “The SPICE Project: Managing Client Requirements” Paper Research Centre for
the Built and Human Environment University of Salford 2000
J. Katsanis and Colin H. Davidson “Network organizations in the A/E/C industry” University of Montreal
Kenichi Ohmae “The Invisible Continent” Harper Business 1999
Dragan Nikolik A Manager’s Primer on e-Networking Kluwer Academic Services 2003
Risk Management Research and Development Program Collaboration “Risk Management Maturity Level
Development” April 2002
Charles Grantham “The Future of Work” McGraw-Hill 2000
James Slevin “The Internet and Society” 2000 Polity Press

10
Christopher Sauer, Philip W. Yetton and associates Steps to the Future 1997 by Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Seev Neumann “Strategic Information Systems” 1994 Macmillan College Publishing Company
Electric Journal of Organizational Virtualness “Efficiency” of Virtual Organizations” the case of AGI by J.M.
Leimeister, Jorn Weigle and Helmut Krcmar
Gerd Schienstock “Towards regional network economies?” November 2000 University of Tampere Finland
Timothy J. Tardiff “Pricing Unbundled Network elements” National Economic Research Associates Cambridge USA
Research methods
Amos “Introduction to Structural Equation Modelling”. Academic Computing and Instructional Technology Services
UT Austin
Schumacker and Lomax “Structural Equation Modeling for Beginners” 2004
L. Blaxter, C. Hughes, and M. Tight How to research 2nd edition Open University Press 2001
MacLean and K. Gray “ Structural equation modelling in market research Journal of Australian Market Research
Society 1998
R. Murray “How to write a thesis” Open University press McGraw-Hill Education 2002
M. Saunders, P. Lewis and A. Thornhill Research Methods for business students 2nd edition Prentice Hall 2000

Matrix 1: determinants of economics.

Matrix Association between latent variables

Matrix Explanatory factor loadings

Graph 1 Equilibrium of price and complexity

Path diagram

Curriculum vitae

J. Worst born 1947. Education: MO degree in accounting and business economics; masters degree in business
administration Derby University; masters degree in Philosophy Maastricht school of Management. Doctoral
student in business administration Maastricht school of Management.

Professional career in auditing and financial controlling. Since 1990 chief executive of construction firm. Initiator
and executive of ConstrucNed Technologies BV. During 1993 until 2002 member of the board NVB; and during
1999 until 2003 of the executive board of GIW and Woningborg.

11
Digitally Fabricating
Non-Standardised Brick Walls
Tobias Bonwetsch (bonwetsch@arch.ethz.ch), Fabio Gramazio (gramazio@arch.ethz.ch),
Matthias Kohler (kohler@arch.ethz.ch), ETH Zurich

Abstract

This paper gives an insight into a current research project aiming at exploiting the potential of digital fabrication
techniques for the architectural design. A prototypical application of digitally designing and fabricating non-
standardised brick walls was developed and used as an example to explore design strategies that directly
incorporate the logic of the fabrication process. An emphasis is laid on not only mimicking existing fabrication
processes, but identifying possibilities of adding value to established building components. As a result a novel
architectural product emerged that could not be fabricated manually.

Keywords: digital fabrication, computer aided architectural design, robotic masonry system

Background

Industrial Context

Digital fabrication of building components by the means of computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines is of
high interest for architects and the building industry. At present, the building industry is facing numerous
structural problems. Its alarmingly low labour efficiency, high accident rate and poor product quality, accompanied
by the vanishing of skilled workforce, demand the adoption of new technologies. Modern CNC machines give the
possibility of producing complex and unique products. Yet, examples of their application to architecture and the
building industry are scarce and mostly limited to subtractive fabrication processes, such as laser cutting or milling
(Kolarevic, 2003). Alongside subtractive processes recent research has emphasised on the high potential of
applying additive fabrication processes on architecture (Soar, 2006, and Khoshnevis, 2004). Unlike subtractive
processes, where the design of a building component is limited to the definition of the surface, the additive
principle additionally allows a differentiated design of the cross section of a component during the build up
process. Furthermore it produces no waste as the material is deposited where it is needed.
One of the fundamental additive processes in construction work is the stacking of bricks. In the 1990’s there have
been several attempts to develop mobile bricklaying robots for construction on site, the most advanced of them
being the ROCCO and the BRONCO project (Andres, Bock and Gebhart, 1994 and Pritschow, Dalacker, Kurz and
Gaenssle, 1996). The motivation behind these researches was to improve the productivity and economy of
masonry construction, mainly by utilizing the machines ability for handling an increased payload in contrast to a
human being. Although already highly advanced these developments did not find access into the building industry.

Problem

In general, the building industry is very much reserved towards the application of new technologies. Despite the
fact that the digital revolution has opened new doors in our ability to generate descriptions of buildings and to
communicate this information to machines that will make components, our ability to construct has barely
advanced at all (Cook, 2004). We believe that it is insufficient to merely mimic existing construction processes in

1
order to have an impact on the building industry. The stimulus for innovation is not only efficiency and cost
effectiveness alone, but must result in novel building components - in their performance, as well as their aesthetic
appearance.
The main focus of both robotic masonry systems referred to above was set on improving productivity of standard
masonry construction. A further barrier proved to be the complex handling of dimension tolerances and
repositioning of the robot on the construction site. Also, for a machine, which is designed to perform only one
specific task - the layering of bricks, the investment costs of estimated 200.000-250.000 EUR is too high for small
and medium-sized companies, which make up 80% the industry (Steinmetzger, 2002).

Learning Objectives

 Handling information
 Developing design strategies for digital fabrication
 Connecting design tools with the fabrication process
 Adding value to established building components

Approach

In our research we focus on incorporating the knowledge of digital fabrication processes into the design process
of architecture. For an initial test arrangement we chose to digitally fabricate brick walls, one of the primary
elements in construction. In order to concentrate on developing novel architectural design strategies the hardware
setup of the fabrication facility was kept simple. Also, we concentrated on the design of facing masonry, which
only needs to support itself, in contrast to load-bearing brick walls.
As a fabrication tool we apply a six-axis industrial robot. The brick walls are prefabricated off-site avoiding the
difficulties arising with mobile units working on-site as described above. A two component epoxy adhesive acts as
bond between the bricks and is able to take on the considerable tractive forces acting on the prefabricated
elements during transportation. For the design of the brick walls we combine the commercially available 3d-
modelling software MAYA with custom written software. We develop software tools to handle the information of
the wall elements in the design stage, as well as for fabrication. Finally, we examined the commercial application
of the developed process by applying it to the digital design and fabrication of a 400 square meters brick façade.

Analysis

In the analysis we discuss the software strategies applied to inform the architectural design, the chosen
fabrication setup, as well as the prototype application of prefabricating façade elements.
Software Information Strategies
The main difference of a robotic masonry system compared to manual labour, apart from the fact that a robot can
handle a higher payload, is its ability to position every brick differently without an additional effort. To take
advantage of this capability the designer requires software tools in order to inform the bricks of their spatial
disposition. This can only hardly be done manually, as a two by three meters wall already consist of over 400
standard bricks.
Until now we applied two different information strategies on the design. The first strategy operates with a
predefined positioning of the single bricks. Spatial information can be mapped onto the wall, resulting in a
rotation of each brick around its centre point. This allows for an algorithmic patterning, as well as mapping
images onto the wall (figure 1). The second strategy has a more intuitive approach. The designer is able to create
and deform surfaces in a 3d-modelling environment. A script then maps bricks onto the geometry of these
surfaces, while incorporating simple static properties (figure 2).
The Design data of each wall is directly used to generate the control data for the robot, thus no additional

2
programming for fabrication is necessary. This is an important factor, as normally the planning effort scales
disproportional with an increasing number of parts. In this case it is irrelevant how many bricks make up a wall
element and how each single brick is positioned in space.

Figure 1+2, illustration and physical prototype, strategy 1 (top row), screenshot of 3d-modelling surrounding
(MAYA) and physical prototype, strategy 2 (bottom row).

Fabrication Setup

The setup of the fabrication facility is mainly composed of commercially available hardware. In particular it
consists of a six-axis industrial robot mounted on a linear axis resulting in a reach of three by three by eight
meters. The robot arm has a payload of 110kg, which is more than sufficient when working with standard bricks.
For handling the bricks the robot arm is equipped with a gripper tool. To ensure that each brick is picked up in a
centred position two roll conveyors (full bricks and half bricks) supply the facility with material in a predefined
position. The adhesive unit is build up out of a stationary installed pneumatic handgun, which is connected via a
bus-system with the robotic control centre. As a bonding material a two component epoxy adhesive is applied.
Load bearing tests revealed a high performance of the adhesive, withstanding an average of 8 kN/m² under
horizontal tension. This made no additional reinforcement of the prefabricated wall elements necessary, which
would be very complex to integrate into an automated fabrication process.
The described fabrication facility allows for a cycle time of 30 seconds per brick. Thereby, most time is taken up
by the application of the glue. Replacing the pneumatic handgun wit a professional metering system would reduce
the cycle time under 10 seconds per brick. Also, the current setup is in need of one person supplying bricks onto
the roll conveyors. Nevertheless, an automated depalletizing as already described for the BRONCO project could
easily be integrated.
In using ready available hardware we are able to build a highly flexible fabrication facility with the reliability of
approved components. As a mass product with its main domain in the automobile industry an industrial robot is
also cost-effective. The above described facility amounts up to estimated 150.000 EUR. Furthermore, the robot is
a universal tool, able to perform any action dependent on the given end-effector, the device that is connected to
the end of the robot arm, making it adaptable to completely different processes and future developments.

3
Figure 3+4, image of industrial robot, gripper tool, adhesive unit and brick supply (top row from left to right),
sequence of fabrication process, application of adhesive, and positioning of brick (bottom row from left to right).

Prototype application

In a prototype application we digitally designed and fabricated 400 square meters of brick façade for a functional
building of a winery. The requirements of the façade were to shelter the interior from direct sunlight and still
allow air to circulate. For the design we adopted the strategy described above, in which the single bricks are laid
out in a predefined grid and are merely rotate around their centre points. There is a gap of two centimetres
between each brick. The rotation of the stones allows us to control the width of these gaps, as well as applying a
pattern over the whole of the façade, which constantly changes in appearance under the influence of the sunlight
(figure 5).
The façade was divided into 72 elements of 3.33 meters and 4.75 meters of length and 1.48 meters of height.
Each element was built up on a concrete lintel for ease of transportation. Fabricating in a controlled environment
allowed for a just-in-time production, four elements were fabricated parallel each day and every second day eight
elements were transported to the construction site and put in place. This reduced the stock location needed to a
minimum.
The disposition of the single bricks is different for each element. The non-standardised design is made possible by
directly connecting the design data with the fabrication process. Additionally, this allowed us to work on the
design up to the last minute, without influencing the production schedule. Despite the fact, that the design of the
elements would not have allowed for a manual prefabrication the price of the prototype application (110 EUR/m²)
is already competitive to that of a standard manually prefabricated masonry wall (125 EUR/m²).

Figure 5, image of winery, façade detail, and interior view (from left to right)

4
Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

In applying a six-axis industrial robot as a fabrication tool we are able to fabricate non-standardised building
components. In order to fully exploit the possibilities of these new technologies, specialised software is required
to control the great amount of information that is being processed. In combining the knowledge of the fabrication
process with the architectural design, novel architectural products emerge, that could not be fabricated manually.
Through using a two component epoxy adhesive as bond between the bricks the automation of prefabricated
masonry walls could be simplified to a great extend, as no additional reinforcement is necessary. As a side effect
this bonding technique’s ability to withstand high tension while still maintaining a certain degree of elasticity
makes it extremely interesting regarding the earthquake safety guidelines for masonry.

Business Impacts

Although, the elements in our prototype application also fulfil functional properties, the added value of digital
fabrication is mostly of aesthetic nature. Nevertheless, this is seen as a stimulus for the building industry,
demonstrating the possibilities of new technologies. The layout of the fabrication facility described above also
allows for the fabrication of standard wall elements to a competitive price compared to manual prefabrication.
Even more, the facility can be used to fabricate totally different products apart from brick walls. Using ready
available hardware allows the industry to build up highly flexible fabrication facilities, which are cost-effective and
technical reliable.

Conclusions

Taking the example of already highly developed robotic masonry systems it was shown, that it is difficult to
establish new technologies in the building industry. Mimicking existing manual processes and making them more
efficient is not alone sufficient to effect a revision of common practise.
Information technology enables us to directly control the fabrication process. In order to utilise the potential that
lie within the fabrication tools, their abilities have to be incorporated already at the stage of the architectural
design. One of the main potentials of digital fabrication processes is the possibility to individually control a large
amount of elements. To handle this vast amount of information the designer is in need of novel software tools. In
this paper we describe software strategies to combine the design with the fabrication process of brick walls. The
potential of the design approach and the practicability of the developed fabrication process were demonstrated on
a prototype application.
In a further step we will work with different materials, mainly scaling the basic deposition element in size. Our
intention is to explore the possibilities of informing building components down to the level of their cross-section.

Key Lessons Learned

 Automated fabrication techniques in the building industry must result in an added value for the building
components
 To fully exploit the potential of digital fabrication techniques they must be incorporated into the architectural
design

5
Acknowledgements

Part of the research presented in this paper emerged out of a design studio at the chair of Architecture and
Digital Fabrication, ETH Zurich. The students were: M. Buehler, M. Knauss, L. Kocan, S. Oesterle, G. Manteigas
and D. Sigg. The authors would especially like to thank D. Kobel and M. Lyrenmann for supporting this research.
Also, our thanks go to Bearth & Deplazes Architects and Keller AG Ziegeleien for supporting the prototype
application.

References

Steinmetzger, R. (2002) Neue Baumaschinen-Generationen mit Einsatz modernster Kommunikationstechnik, Tag

des Baubetriebs 2002, Schriften der Professur Baubetrieb und Bauverfahren, No. 4, pp. 27-39.
Kolarevic, B. (2003) Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing, Spon Press, ISBN: 0415700833
Khoshnevis, B. (2004) Automated construction by contour crafting – related robotics and information
technologies, Journal of Automation in Construction, Vol. 13/1, pp. 5-19
Soar, R. (2006) Additive Manufacturing technologies for the Construction Industry, Rapid Manufacturing: An
Industrial Revolution for the Digital Age, Hopkins, N., Hague, R.J.M. and Dickens, P.M. (eds.), pp. 249-273
Pritschow, G., Dalacker, M., Kurz, J. and Gaenssle, M. (1996) Technological aspects in the development of a
mobile bricklaying robot, Automation in Construction, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 3-14
Andres, J., Bock, T. and Gebhart, F. (1994) First results of the development of the masonry robot system ROCCO,
Proceedings of the 11th ISARC International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction, Brighton,
England, 24-26 May, 1994, pp. 87-93
Cook, M. (2004) Digital Tectonics: Historical Perspective – Future Prospects, Digital Tectonics, Leach, N., Turnbull,
D. and Williams, C. (eds.), pp.40-49

6
A People-focussed, Sustainable Approach
To Design Using Open Building
Manufacturing
Steve Thompson RIBA, Senior Architect, CORUS, UK (Steve.Thompson@corusgroup.com)

Abstract

Dwellings are typically designed in either of two ways. The first is to design with the needs of a specific
household in mind. This means a detailed understanding of the needs and aspirations of the user. The second is
to design on a speculative basis, assuming a typical household that will live in the dwelling and with no direct
interface with the client at the design stage. The second method generally leads to a level of compromise by the
household that then occupies the finished product. Homes designed for the ‘average’ family are unlikely to meet
all the needs and aspirations of the individual end-user. In addition, buildings are often designed around the
capability of a given product, instead of around the end-user, leading to further compromise on the needs of the
occupant. The main objectives of this paper are: firstly, to demonstrate the need for flexibility by highlighting the
impacts of social and physical context, end-user needs and aspirations on the design of dwellings. Secondly, to
discuss how multi-functional buildings can adapt to meet changing requirements over time, and finally to illustrate
systems or methods that achieve levels of multi-function and flexibility. We will discuss how an open building
manufacturing approach can achieve this, and how it affects the design of such systems: Design for manufacture,
design for living.

Keywords: Building Concepts, Architectural & Spatial Typology, Flexibility, Sustainability, Multi-function

Background

Industrial Context

Today there is a greater awareness of the need to reduce carbon emissions than ever before. It is clear that this
is a global issue; both in terms of the reductions in emissions needed and the impact climate change will have on
our lives. There is significant evidence that climate change will not only have a severe impact on our environment,
but also on our society and economy on a global scale (Stern, 2006).
The residential sector has a significant impact on global emissions, and is influenced by a range of factors
including efficiency of energy supply, the design, flexibility, adaptability, supply and quality of construction of
dwellings.
One of the largest contributors to residential emissions is the impact of changing demographics (Shorrock and
Utley, 2003). The issues go far beyond a simple increase in overall population; they include considerations of
household numbers and the size of those households, what the age of individuals are, and how much space they
occupy and where they are located. For example, across Europe there is a growing trend towards smaller
household sizes (number of occupants), led predominantly by more people living alone (National Statistical
Institutes, 2006).

Altogether, the residential sector is a complex market with an ever-increasing range of household types. The
question is, are these households being accommodated in suitable dwellings, and are the homes now being
developed capable of adapting to their ever-changing requirements?

1
Problem

Unfortunately the answer to the previous question is often no. Standard housing layouts today are generally
unrelated to the people that will live in them, most of the decisions already being made by developers, suppliers
or regulatory bodies. This can, and does lead to obsolescence of housing, ineffective use of space and land,
expensive and often unnecessary demolition or reconstruction, and can lead to into run-down, unsustainable
communities and cities.

Recent estimates in the UK suggest that at the current rate of house-building new dwellings will need to last
approximately 1200 years to meet predicted demand, with an estimate of 100 years for the Netherlands (Till and
Schneider, 2006). Without designing and constructing dwellings with consideration of the end-user and their
requirements and the need for future adaptability, new houses are unlikely to meet the changing requirements of
households over time. The resultant obsolescence will further increase the demand for even more housing.

Learning Objectives

The reader of this paper can expect to learn:

 The need to design homes for people, at both individual and community levels

 How multi-functional dwellings can adapt to changing requirements over time

 How open building manufacturing can be used to create these flexible dwellings and allow for occupant

participation, and how this affects the design of such systems

Approach
The work covered in this paper is based on current best practice, projects, research, and developments within the
ManuBuild project relating to architectural typologies, building concepts and multi-function. It focuses on the
design of homes and environments with the needs of end-users and community as the main focus, then explores
how open building manufacturing systems are influenced by these requirements, along with other considerations
such as buildability, maintainability and adaptability.

Dwellings For Today And Tomorrow

‘All architecture is shelter; all great architecture is the design of space that contains, cuddles, exalts or stimulates
the persons in that space’ (Johnson)

Dwellings today are typically designed in either of two ways, the first of which is to design with the requirements
of one specific household in mind. This generally means an increased understanding of the needs and aspirations
of those occupants. The second is to design dwellings on a speculative basis, assuming a typical household that
will live in the dwelling and with no direct interface with the occupants at the design stage. The latter approach
generally leads to a level of compromise in some way by the occupants that then live in the finished product:
homes designed for the ‘average’ family are unlikely ever to meet all the needs and aspirations of the individual
end-user. Designing and constructing without their involvement or participation limits both choice and suitability of
dwellings, whereas designing for a specific household in isolation potentially limits output and integration with the
public realm.

In addition, both of these approaches to dwelling design typically consider the building as complete when handed
over to the client for occupation, partly due to procurement methods that change responsibilities for the dwelling
once constructed, but also because of a historic lack of awareness of the changing needs and efficiencies of a

2
home over time. The homes we design and live in should be seen as a long-term resource, not a short-term fix.
One of the most outstanding features of Victorian and Edwardian housing in the UK was its flexibility. This has
enabled the dwellings to be adapted up to the present day to suit changing tastes and ways of life, but also to
accommodate an increasingly diverse set of household types and sizes. One of the benefits of this adaptability in
terms of the public realm is that it has allowed whole areas of towns and cities to remain physically intact and
retain a sense of community. These homes are still being refurbished and adapted today; the issue however is the
ease with which this can be achieved, and at what cost. They were not designed to be adapted or upgraded in
terms of their built fabric; the technologies were not available at the time, neither was there the need to consider
flexibility to the same degree as is important today.

Till and Schneider (2006) argue that much of the new housing in the UK today not only ignores the need for
flexible, adaptable housing, but almost knowingly designs with inflexibility in mind. This creates obsolescence
which then leads to further alterations, ineffective use of space, or even to the households concerned dealing with
their own changing needs and aspirations by undertaking expensive modifications or ‘trading up’ and moving
home, thus further increasing the demand for new housing
.
To add to the problem, buildings (including manufactured buildings) are often designed around the capability of a
given product or system, instead of around the end-user, leading to further compromise by the occupant.
Although the standardisation of spaces in a dwelling may provide some benefits in terms of rationalizing supply
and creating efficiency in production through repetition, it does potentially cause difficulties in the design and use
of dwellings for households. The ManuBuild approach is not to standardise spaces, but to concentrate on creating
the place for activities and facilitating this through ManuBuild, instead of concentrating on the development of
product alone. Mass customisation instead of mass production.

With increasing pressure to maximise resource efficiency and to build dwellings to last, it is clear that we need
flexible, adaptable homes designed with a people, not a product focus. Flexibility is needed to allow a range of
households to occupy these homes, and adaptability to allow the dwellings to change as the households grow,
contract or relocate. This means designing for options without anticipating user functions to an extent which
begins to define the ‘average’ household, so as to avoid artificial value judgements about individual household
needs. As with any quality architecture, people should always come first. Designing quality homes is not all about
providing more efficient layouts; it is a case of understanding priorities. In developing solutions with the user,
community and lifestyle of the home considered, we can begin to develop sustainable dwellings and communities
that will adapt to meet changing needs and context over time. Think about the potential for matching people’s
changing needs and priorities with their changing economy and environment. Open building manufacturing
through ManuBuild aims to address the potential to customise with the added benefits of efficient and mass
production of components and systems across Europe.
Although it will be touched upon later, it is worth mentioning here the sense of ownership and well-being that is
important in achieving sustainable homes and communities. Research shows that occupants who have been
involved in the design of their homes are often much more satisfied and more likely to stay longer than those
with no involvement. Flexible housing allows this to be achieved on a wider scale, potentially giving the users a
sense that their home is not a fixed fait accompli, but something they can adapt over time to suit their needs. It
is important to note that dwellings that have been designed to allow for future adaptability should come with
some form of training or support (for example a user manual), to ensure that occupants are aware of the
possibilities and how these can be achieved. Otherwise the potential is often never realised.
The idea of combining mass customisation, adaptable dwellings and end-user involvement in the design process
may seem a utopian ideal. The fact is that all of these ideas are already being used in the industry, though not
necessarily together. This paper will suggest ways in which these ideas can be achieved in combination.

3
Homes For One And For All

‘An environment…is an environment only by virtue of the life that it surrounds…we do not talk about surroundings
without reference to the people surrounded, nor should we talk about housing as a thing of intrinsic value
separate from the people housed.’ (Turner 1974)

In designing homes or systems that are adaptable to meet the needs of both developing and diverse households,
we need to understand the differences between household types including their lifestyles, attitudes and
requirements. It is not possible or even necessary to understand every future occupant and their exact needs and
aspirations, but it is beneficial to appreciate key similarities and differences between households, and allow the
flexibility for choice and future adaptation of dwellings by all occupant types. By doing so we can integrate future
adaptability and flexibility into the technical development of systems and components for housing without
dictating the lifestyle of future occupants.
The primary functions of a dwelling don’t change; we eat, sleep and spend our private lives in them. As our
lifestyles, needs and aspirations change however, these primary functions may be supplemented by other
secondary functions. Some of us may wish to run a business from home, and as some grow old they may want to
look after their grandchildren. In designing a home, we should therefore aim to design and build housing to be
adaptable so that it can meet the needs of everybody, irrespective of the users’ ages, level of mobility, health or
lifecycle.

To explore the need for dwelling flexibility over time, Figure 1 demonstrates how household composition may
change for a specific family with three children, and shows that the household might consist over the whole
family cycle of one person for seven years, two people for sixteen years, of three people for ten years, of four
people for nine years and of five people for nine years.

Figure 1: Example household development chart

These charts will obviously vary from family to family, and significantly between household types due to changes
in demographic and lifestyles, but nevertheless the approach taken is still particularly relevant. The purpose of
these figures is to show how families expand and then contract over time. This means that at each stage the
needs to be met by the dwelling are different, corresponding to changes in the size of family, to different
demands on available space, and to varying patterns of life.
When designing for people, taking an activity-based approach, whilst not necessarily providing user participation,
allows us to develop spaces and inter-relations in a more sensitive way than designing room-by-room, much more

4
in-tune with the needs of the occupant. It relies on understanding in detail how activities are undertaken, and
how these relate to other tasks, but also when tasks are likely to be undertaken in isolation or in groups. The
focus is not purely on space dimensions, it includes a greater understanding of the qualitative requirements and
comfort aspired to for different activities.

‘The right approach to the design of a space is, first define what activities are likely to take place in it, then to
assess the furniture and equipment necessary for these activities, and design around these needs, plus others no
less important such as aspect, prospect and communication with other parts of the home.’
(Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 1961)

It is important to differentiate between designing activity spaces and designing rooms. An activity space is the
space and support systems required to undertake an activity, which potentially may be in a completely open
environment. A room however is an enclosed space, which may successfully support activities or may be created
with no real consideration of what will occur in that space. Using an activity approach certainly does not mean
that we should be designing tight, inflexible spaces based around those activities. In fact, the complete opposite
is the case; we should use them to help us understand what our dwellings need to support both now and in the
future. There is a difference between useable space and effective useable space: space that is readily available
and accessible for comfortable use by the dwelling occupants

When designing a home for people using an activity approach, a good starting point is to understand the
processes and activities that people want or need to carry out. What do they need and want from a dwelling?
What activities do they carry out in living their lives, and how can their homes facilitate these? We also need to
look at these activities in terms of frequency, timing and importance in terms of community, household and
individual lives, but also what is needed to carry out these activities in a comfortable and reasonable way. Parker
Morris (Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 1961) described the activity approach as being indirect. The
arrangement of rooms and spaces should be the results, not the starting point of a design. The layout needs to
grow from the inter-relations of activities: an appreciation of which activities can be carried out simultaneously or
together, and which need to be separated. In this way, spaces develop from the needs of the occupants and
evolve as a consequence of thought, not from bringing out the same standard (and often inappropriate) solutions
used before.

The Ministry of Housing and Local Government (1968) used diurnal cycles of a household to point out how
activities coincide in the home at different times of the day, and in different locations. These suggest movement
around the home, and where activities separate out or bring together members of the household. Figure 2 (an
extract from Thompson, 2007a) demonstrates this approach for the family illustrated in Figure 1, at a stage where
there is one toddler and two young school children. As the activities and timings will change between households,
these specific illustrations should not be seen as a definitive answer, but as a demonstration of the methodology.

Figure 2: Example of time and place of daily activities for a family with three children

5
Used in isolation, the activity space approach tends to be most beneficial when designing for a specific household
or a specific point in time. However, basic principles can be drawn from the approach to allow suitability for a
range of households and situations. To get the most out of this approach it is important to consider the timeline
of a dwelling. How will the dwelling adapt to changes (growth and contraction) of a household over its lifecycle,
and how can it adapt to suit different households? By combining the activity and timeline approach it allows us to
consider the level of flexibility that is aspired to in the dwellings that we design, manufacture and assemble. The
multi-function of space that is needed, and the flexibility in component and connection design.

Flexibility does not only come down to accommodating the aspirations of households occupying these homes, but
also to the wider social and physical context. We live in a rapidly changing world, and in many neighbourhoods
the external environment changes at a greater rate than that in the home. It is therefore important to consider
the impact the external environment may have in terms of requirements of dwelling design. Creating Places:
Sustainable Communities Using An Open Building Manufacturing Approach (Thompson, 2007b) describes the
correlation between component and dwelling design with the wider context, and development or regeneration of
sustainable communities.

Flexibility And Multi-function

It is highly unlikely that all activities that will be undertaken in a dwelling will be considered at the design stage,
and this is where multi-functional space becomes useful. It can come in a number of forms: neutral space that is
capable of supporting a number of general activities (for example general living space), multi-functional activity
space (where specific activities can be catered for at different times, such as a dining room / office where
furniture remains in place, but the space needed to carry out activities overlap in such a way that activities can
not be carried out simultaneously), or even re-configurable space (where a space may adapt from one use to
another, for example by moving furniture to suit different activities). Daily changes can be dealt with by re-
configurable space (such as Optibo (2006) and Maisons Loucheur (Le Corbusier, 1928/29)), which is a very direct
approach. In many ways this method dictates the way occupants will live, but can be a useful approach where
floor space is limited.

Where possible however, the flexibility and multi-function of a dwelling should be as unobtrusive as possible.
Therefore, in developing an open building system we need to consider and define the level of user intervention:
what or how can they change and adapt their environment as their circumstances change? Timing and ease of
adaptability are key issues to consider. For example, if the internal configuration of a dwelling can be changed by
one or two reasonably competent occupants, including safely lifting, moving and connecting elements including
services over a short period of time (for example a weekend), then it is much more likely to occur in an effective
and timely manner than if builders, electricians, plumbers or other professionals are required to carry out the
same work. It may be that changes are desirable to allow different daily activities to take place, or to open up
spaces to entertain guests. Allowing this level of flexibility can also facilitate seasonal changes in dwellings for
improved comfort and efficiency, for example providing the option to change between a relatively cellular
arrangement in the cold winters and an open, airy arrangement in the summer. If it is not easy for occupants to
change their environment to suit their needs, they may not change it at all and either continue to live in an
unsuitable environment (in some ways with their environment dictating they way they live their lives), or they
may move. The consequences and suitability of different forms of multi-functional space are a key part of
ManuBuild and residential developments in general.

Using Open Building Manufacturing

With the advent of MMC [Modern Methods of Construction] there is a perfect opportunity to reconsider the way
that our housing is put together, and with it to build-in flexibility at no greater cost. (Till and Schneider, 2006)

6
In the design of a successful, quality dwelling a range of factors need to be considered simultaneously. The
design of an individual component affects the ability of other elements and the development as a whole to meet
its goals. Taking a holistic approach allows the quality and integrity of a dwelling to be displayed through each
component, and the significance of each component to be clearly understood. In designing both space and
product, the end-user and other stakeholders should be the focus, and in considering these wider issues greater
flexibility is achieved, which improves the ability for customisation, thus improving the suitability of a design to an
increased range of situations.

Open building manufacturing meets these needs by combining the option for flexible, adaptable solutions and
products with repetition in manufacturing through the standardisation of methodology and coordination, not
standardisation of products. A key aspect of open building manufacturing systems is dimensional coordination to
allow flexibility in forms of construction, and the capacity to deal with differences in dimensions and tolerances.
Any building should be capable of being designed and built using the ManuBuild approach; ManuBuild should
facilitate great architecture, not define it.

Before considering individual components or systems we first must understand what it is they need to do, what
their role is in supporting the occupants’ activities within a dwelling, and how often they need to be maintained,
upgraded or adapted. If the wrong components are used, future adaptability and flexibility as well as performance
can be severely impaired.

One method of safeguarding future accessibility and maintenance of elements is to design in layers. Brand (1994),
developed a layering approach based on the following simple layers: -

1. Structure – The most durable layer, and likely to last over 100 years. It includes structure as well as long-
term provision for services.
2. Skin – External envelope, which is less permanent than structure, with a lifespan of between 30 to 60
years.
3. Services – These are likely to have a shorter lifespan, and certainly need to be separate from structure.
4. Space-plan – This relates to internal partitions, which may be relocated or adapted on a 10-30 year cycle.
5. ‘Stuff’ – This is the interior fit-out, finishes and furniture.

The key to this approach is to minimise the need to disrupt elements or layers that do not need to be touched.
For example, to re-wire a dwelling constructed in traditional form may require extensive invasive work such as
stripping back finishes or cutting into masonry to access and replace cabling. If a layering system were adopted
the services layer can be accessed without the need to interfere with the structure or skin. Layering systems also
allow the user to become involved in the layers to different degrees, from having little or no involvement with the
Structure to having full control over the ‘Stuff’. This again improves user interaction and flexibility.
Previous attempts at open building systems have not always been successfully adopted because of outside
influences such as regulatory requirements, development costs and scepticism that all of the aims of open
building are achievable. The main strengths of ManuBuild are in the topics it covers and in its timing. The project
not only looks at non-material specific building systems and components that are capable of being customised
and assembled in a variety of ways, but is also developing detailed business processes, software and ICT support
systems, manufacturing processes, training packages and regulatory impacts, all pulling together to provide
realistic solutions to the problems now facing the housing industry across Europe.

7
Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

At present there is a great need to reduce carbon emissions from the residential sector across Europe, and to
develop or revive sustainable communities for the future. By taking a people-focussed approach at both
household and community level, both now and in the future instead of concentrating on housing products in
isolation, these goals can be met. With advances in technology over recent years, knowledge transfer between
industries and sectors and increased awareness of sustainability the timing for open building manufacturing
approaches such as ManuBuild could not be better. The needs for flexibility and adaptability, for high performance
dwellings and products, efficiency and continuity of supply in an expanding market have all come together to
create the demand for a change in approach. There are barriers to these approaches, including often inflexibility
of regulatory requirements and the image of manufactured housing left over from the 1960s. The purpose of
ManuBuild is to overcome these challenges, through the depth and broad nature of the subjects it considers.

Business Impacts

The ManuBuild approach means a step-change in design thinking to consider buildings over their lifecycle, the
need for flexibility and a people-focussed approach. The aim is to demonstrating to architects and designers the
benefits of open building manufacturing and mass customisation, and enable clients to purchase high quality
homes using manufactured components that have a high degree of flexibility both in initial design choices and
future adaptability. This gives suppliers new opportunities for components and systems to be suitable for a larger
market, by designing them to be flexible in the first place.

Conclusions

An improved understanding of end-users and their needs, flexibility and multi-functional requirements through
consideration of activity spaces and integration with the public realm are key in developing sustainable homes and
communities. Using this understanding we can begin to develop performance criteria for open building
manufacturing systems, creating systems that are flexible to suit occupants’ needs. The idea of combining mass
customisation, adaptable dwellings and end-user involvement may seem a utopian ideal. Think again. All of these
ideas are being used in the industry today, though not necessarily together. The task of ManuBuild is to bring
these together in a realistic way that can provide significant benefits for the future.

Key Lessons Learned

The key lessons learnt in the work covered in this paper are:
Design for flexibility of use, both now and in the future
 The most sustainable method of dwelling design is a people-focussed, not product-focussed approach, both on

an individual and community level

 Consider components, systems and dwellings together in their context, not in isolation

8
Paper one

The transition of the concrete precast

paving industry from a manual labour
intensive industry, to a fully automated
operation
John T Dean j.dean@tees.ac.uk
Nash Dawood n.n.dawood@tees.ac.uk

Abstract

The paper deals with the cultural and technological changes involved in the conversion of the operational procedures
from manual high safety risk operations to full automation, where the risk of accidents is virtually eliminated. The
process of change starts with the study of very flexible and agile manual operations, evaluates the wastes involved
and describes the processes introduced to eliminate them.

Automated systems that use the latest technology are introduced in an innovative manner to ensure that the
automation is capable of changing product type in a lean, flexible and agile way. Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) technology is implemented to initiate changes in robotic operations, equipment changeovers and ASi safety
networks (electromechanical interface for data transfer) are used to ensure that the human machine interface
activities are safe. Device networks are introduced as an integral part of the system control and data acquisition
(SCADA) system which produces key performance indicators direct from the production line. Potentially high levels
of downtime associated with the introduction of high technology devices is dealt with by the use of low voltage
“plug-in” and “screw-in” sensors to de-skill maintenance operations.

The paper outlines how a major reduction in manpower is achieved by removing virtually all manual processes from
concrete paving production. The transition to automation is outlined and consideration is given to the social factors
involved as a result of introducing car industry production methodology. Cost reductions from the research enabled
a major precast producer in the UK to compete successfully in a global market.

Keywords: Lean, Flexible, Automation, RFID, SCADA

Background
After many years of producing wet cast concrete products using mainly manual production technology with some
mechanisation, it was obvious that urgent action was required to reduce an unacceptable accident rate associated
with manual processes and to reduce production costs to enable the company to compete in the global economy
where sales were being lost to cheap far eastern competition. New and innovative enabling technology was required
in order to cope with the variety of product shapes and types involved in the process. Variety was added in the
process at five stages of manufacture – Mixing, Filling, De-moulding, Labelling, Packaging.

The pictures shown below in Figure 1 illustrate some elements of the outmoded manual methodology that needed
to be replaced in a cost effective manner.

1
Problem
The challenge was to remove the ergonomic risks from the process and match the agile nature of the manual
production techniques (operator changes product instinctively) with new innovative automation in a cost effective
and productive manner. The achievement of the required objectives included the management of major societal and
cultural changes within the whole of the manufacturing organisation. The key challenge was how to achieve such
changes without any major disruption to service levels and maintaining a high level of morale amongst the workforce
during the change process. To compete in a global market the company had to reduce its’ costs significantly without
changing the variety in the extensive product portfolio. Retraining and workforce reduction issues alongside the
technological challenge of inventing new methods and bringing them into operation and at the same time mitigating
the high risks involved contributed to the problem to be solved.

Lifting Off – Filled Mould Putting On – Empty Mould

De-moulding product from mould Filling – Empty Mould

Figure 1 – Outmoded Manual Methodology

Learning Objectives:
 How to develop a structured approach in transforming a traditional industry into a modern ‘high tech’
World Class operation to compete effectively in a global market.
 Selection of the appropriate techniques for the analysis of the issues involved.
 Process mapping and studying the existing process including an ergonomic study as a forerunner to using
brainstorming and single minute exchange of die (SMED) techniques to invent new methods and
processes to automate virtually all of the processes.
 Dealing with the cultural and societal changes involved.

2
Approach

The approach used, was to analyse the existing processes in detail including a video study in slow motion, process
mapping and SMED in conjunction with an ergonomic study to discover the processes to be automated to overcome
major health and safety issues in the workforce. After the study process, a strategy was developed to overcome
the expected societal and cultural issues associated with a major transformation project which involved full
consultation and communication of the changes involved with the workforce and the trade union representatives.
After the study where the prime wastes were identified, brainstorming sessions were organised to invent a new
method of de-moulding paving units which was critical to the success of the project. The wastes identified in the
existing processes were eliminated by the careful selection of the appropriate automation techniques and the use
of RFID as the product changeover enabling technology and the source of information for the production metrics
and real time analysis of the metrics for performance management.

Analysis
1. Changeovers and Variety

A process mapping exercise using Microsoft Visio® was carried out map the range of processes of processes
involved in detail and the following analysis outlines the outputs from process mapping.

To reduce response time to a production requirements change, the product variety funnel principle of adding variety
as late as possible in the supply chain was utilised. The usefulness of this process is outlined in the book “The Lean
Toolbox” (Bicheno., 2000). The variety adding process in the Concrete Products Industry is described in table 1
which follows. The analysis showed that an average day produced a total of 32 changes. However, when patio circle
packs (multiple shapes) or full patio project packs were produced with a range of plan shapes the sequence of
changeover meant that 36 or more plan size changes occurred over a period of 3-5 minutes, very demanding for
automation, requiring a new invention and a novel approach.

Table 1: Variety in the process

Variety induces changeover time and waste since it involves non-value adding activity in changing over from a one
size to another or from one colour to another. Koskela defined Non Value-adding Activity as “activity that takes time,
resources or space but does not add value”. This definition was further refined to a more process relevant definition
of waste by Formosa et al, where they defined Waste as “any losses produced by activities that generate direct or
indirect costs but do not add any value to the product from the point of view of the client”(Formosa et al.1999). The
challenge for the industry was how to embrace variety, whilst at the same time minimising or eliminating waste

3
where possible. Figure 2 shows the wastes in terms of productive time lost in the production process due to
changeovers. It identifies the wastes resulting from the variety in the process prior to automation. These wastes
were obtained from the analysis of a partially mechanised process and were virtually eliminated by the introduction
of automation involving the innovative use of RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), vision enabled Robots plus
automated: package strapping machinery, shrink wrapping machinery and Labelling machines. The use of SCADA
incorporating Asi Safe network systems and device network systems alongside extensive messaging and component
level fault identification systems combined to reduce downtime waste.

C h a n g e o v e r T im e M in s

16

14

12

10
i

8 T im e M in s
M

0
S iz e Label S t r a p p in g S h r in k P a lle t M o v e to a n d
C hange D e- C hange P ro d u c t W r a p p in g L a b e llin g f r o m C u r in g -
m o u ld p ro d u c t O p e r a t io n O p e r a t io n F o r k lif t
C h a n g e O p e r a tio n

Figure 2: Changeover waste in the process

Major savings could be achieved by the automatic changeover of the de-mould frame, the label reel change plus
motion savings achieved by removing operators from: putting-on, lifting off, de-moulding, manual shrink wrapping
with a gas gun and manual pallet strapping (figure 1). A process of transformational change, utilising emerging
innovative technology alongside a cultural/societal change strategy was required to achieve the desired outcome.
The sections that follow illustrate the change process involved, including the resolution of the major issue (de-
moulding rough edge natural type paving units with undercut moulds).

2. Ergonomic Study

Three major methodologies were used for the postural analysis and ergonomic study: a survey method developed
for the investigation of work related upper limb disorders by Lynn McAtamney and E Nigel Corbett at the Institute
of for Occupational Ergonomics at the University of Nottingham (England) known as Rapid Upper Limb Assessment
(RULA) described in Applied Ergonomics (McAtamney, L., Corbett, E.N., 1993), Rapid Entire Body Assessment
(REBA) also outlined in Applied Ergonomics (Hignett, S., McAtamney, 2000) and Borg’s Rating of Perceived Exertion
(Borg, G., 1985). The survey carried out by Lynn McAtamney and her team found that virtually all of the manual
operations involved carried a high risk of causing muscular/skeletal disorders. The challenge became much clearer
and it was how to find a means of automating the whole process. Only one operation, filling, was assessed as being
of relatively low risk. Filling included a hand mixing process which produced a degree of randomness to the final
colour appearance of the premium “natural” paving units being manufactured. This natural appearance was a key
unique selling point (USP) for the product. To remove the risk from the filling process a job rotation regime was
introduced alongside stricter control of the mixing process. Until automation could be installed a high cost safety
strategy was introduced in 2001. This included warm up exercise periods, more frequent breaks, return to work
programmes and the introduction of ergonomic coaches.

4
3 Societal Changes

The core of operators had long service and until the late nineties the absence levels were relatively low at 3% or
less. Analysis indicated that the workforce was ageing with more than 50% over the age of 45. As could be
expected there was evidence of muscular/skeletal disorders. Until 2000 most of the workforce did not work beyond
the time range of 06.00 to 18.00 until high product demand and seasonality factors required the introduction of a
fixed night shift in 2000. The introduction of a night shift with new personnel resulted in a very high rate of
accidents being recorded (110 accidents in year) and absence levels exceeded 8%. The employment level varied
depending on season and peaked at 140 in spring 2000 by the employment of a large number of temporary workers.
This compared with a core level of 80 brought about by a peak month demand more than five times the average
month demand. The accident rate continued to increase until the ergonomic strategy started to be effective. The
Management team spent an excessive amount of time investigating accidents and a reducing trend was established.
However, more effective action in the form of automation was urgently required. Despite the health and safety
issues the core workforce remained highly motivated and the pay rates for the physically demanding work were 20%
higher than the best offered by other local employers. The vast majority of the workforce had only ever worked
dayshift and had only been involved in manual operations. A small maintenance team of 6 engineers were only
familiar with maintaining mechanised plant. It was clear that considerable re-training would be required for those
remaining to operate a fully automated plant.

4 Strategy for dealing with the cultural and societal changes

As a result of introducing the ergonomic improvement strategy in 2001 productivity dropped significantly and labour
costs increased. Competing with imports from low wage cost countries where the workforce was not regulated to
the same extent as in the UK was difficult. Automation was urgently required but it needed to be accomplished
without any major disruption to customer service or the morale of the workforce as far as was possible. A
societal/cultural change strategy was adopted and the major elements are shown in table 3 which follows. Maximum
emphasis was placed on communication and everyone in the workforce was aware of the automation programme
which started in 2001. The likely effect on their jobs was understood and the policy approach was agreed with the
trade union representatives at all stages. The strategy covered three areas: working hour changes, Re-training, and
the manpower plan or recruitment plan. Training requirements were split into groups: management, engineers and
plant operators.

5
Table 3: Working hours, Retraining & Recruitment strategy

5 Innovation introduced

The likely effects on their jobs and all changes introduced were discussed and agreed with the trade union
representatives. The automation was planned in two phases: Phase 1 (2003)-prototype technology introduced
costing £500K, Phase 2 (2005)-full automation introduced costing £1.25M following a learning process from the first
phase. Before the automation could be considered it was necessary to achieve a major breakthrough to automate
the de-moulding process illustrated in figure 1. A slow motion video study of the process and a detailed process
mapping exercise was required prior to brainstorming sessions that were organised for a development team
including engineers, process operators and managers. Before the actual sessions took place the team was trained
in the principles of single minute exchange of dies or SMED methodology as utilised by Shigeo Shingo (Shingo, S.,
1989) to improve the Toyota car plant. This structured approach was invaluable in the process of developing the
tooling, however, the actual breakthrough came from close observation of the manual process in slow motion. The
outcome of the final brainstorming session is shown in figure 3. A flowchart was developed for the automation and
a prototype was developed as the engine for renewal as observed by Kent Bowen in the Harvard Business review.
(Bowen, H.K., 1984)

6
Figure 3: Outcome of final brainstorming sessions

The prototype was tested under rigorous conditions – paving units with rough edges and undercut moulds that had
matured for six weeks in the mould, were successfully de-moulded in less than five seconds. This would have
represented a major challenge for manual de-moulding. When units that were 24 hours old (the normal maturity
period) and when all air operated push rods were operated together (see figure 4), the de-mould process took less
than a second. A breakthrough was achieved and the requirement for the development team was to convert the
prototype into a practical operating system.

Figure 4: Prototype de-moulder

The prototype in Figure 4 utilises a fixed stripping frame (no variation in geometry) for testing purposes only, in the
finished version a linear motion device was used to produce a variable geometry stripping frame with the geometry
changes initiated by product unique bar codes in phase 1 of the automation and by RFID tags in phase 2.

7
The variable geometry stripping frame required the use of a linear motion device working synchronously with a
Robot vacuum gripper. Figure 5 shows the de-moulding process capable of a size change in a second in the final
form alongside the automation of pallet building using a vision enabled robot to correctly orientate the paving units
prior to stacking them on to a pallet.

Figure 5: Pallet Building Robot – Vision enabled De-moulding Robot RFID enabled

The whole process device network was monitored using SCADA and entry to guards and the conveyor / robot cells
was controlled using ASi safe to ensure safety at human machine interface points. The main overview SCADA screen
is shown in Figure 6 below alongside the RFID tag mounted on the mould carrier where care was taken to use a
plastic mounting bracket to ensure there was no interference with the radio frequency signal. The RFID tag was
used both as a unique product identifier and for obtaining information for performance metrics and other control
purposes.

Figure 6: SCADA Overview Screen RFID tag mounted on mould carrier

To reduce the extensive skill levels required for operating sophisticated automated equipment, automatic component
level fault identification/diagnostic technology was introduced to locate faults. Low voltage plug in and screw in
photocells, switches and other monitoring components were used where possible to enable trained process
operators to replace components when a fault was identified via the SCADA diagnostics system. The key
performance indicators were obtained in real time from remote access computers to avoid any need for manual
computation and the associated time lags. Any undesirable trends were identified early to enable rectification action
required to be taken at an early stage. Being able to monitor performance in real time offered a major improvement.

8
Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

The key findings are summarised as follows: accident rate was reduced to zero for automated processes, productivity
improvements valued at £750K per annum in the form of a reduction in the wage bill were achieved for phase 2 for
an investment in new equipment of £1.25M producing a simple payback of less than two years, world class
performance was achieved after one year of operation when all personnel had been fully trained, redundancy levels
were minimised and variable annual hours in the form of a 24 hour shift system were introduced to counteract
seasonality in sales demand, the global threat was minimised and profitability was returned to acceptable levels.
The whole process involved in manufacturing ‘wetcast’ paving units was transformed from outmoded manual
methodology to a ‘high tech’ process environment.

The use of 3D drawings and virtual reality images linked to Microsoft Project® of the processes and automation to
be installed during the planning and rehearsal stages of the project would have avoided the majority of the resource
and space clashes that occurred during the project execution. The use of 4D technology (3D + time) is advocated
for future projects of this nature. The project was completed within the cost budget allocated following the
negotiation of a fixed price contract with the principal supplier but was three months late in completion (12 months
duration expected). Further benefits would have been obtained from the use of simulation technology to model the
cycle times associated with the processes, prior to implementation, to ensure that the overall cycle time specification
was achievable. Some modification and improvement was required to the equipment components during
commissioning, which took longer than was expected to achieve the specified cycle time.

Business Impacts

The key business impact was the mitigation of a major business risk from the onset of global competition. Whilst
the business benefited from the a reduction of the wage bill of £750K, other significant value stream impacts
included lower stocks and holding costs, lower transportation costs following the avoidance of re-deliveries as a
result of stock availability issues. Safety costs were reduced because the accident rate was reduced to virtually zero
where automated processes were used. Employment was maintained for a smaller workforce in a much changed
market environment subject to global competition.

Conclusions

The transformation took place over a period of four years following a strategy developed in 2001. Extensive risk
analysis took place and risk mitigation strategies were used which included prototype development and a lower cost
first phase project to test the innovation involved. Issues expected from societal changes were overcome by a high
emphasis on involvement, communication and consultation. Further emerging issues have been identified in other
precasting operations where little automation is applied e.g. walling, building sections, drainage systems, and bridge
sections. Detailed process mapping and simulation of the processes may provide a route forward to improve and
transform these processes.

9
 Key Lessons Learned:
 Importance of developing an agreed strategy for automation.
 Use of a slow motion video study, process mapping of existing processes and SMED techniques can
promote innovation.
 RFID can be used as a key enabling technology for automation.
 Rigorous prototype testing can mitigate innovation risks.

References

Bertelson, S. and Koskela, L., (2002), Managing the Three Aspects of Production in Construction. Proceedings of the
10th Conference of the International group for Lean Construction (IGLC) p.p.13-22

Bechino, J., 2000, The Lean Toolbox, Picsie Books, Buckingham, ISBN 0 9513 829 93, p.88

Borg, G., (1985), An Introduction to Borg’s RPE scale, New York, Ithica

Bowen, H.K., (1994), “Development Projects: The Engine of Renewal”. Harvard Business Review, September –
October, p.p. 110-120

Formoso, C.T., Issato, E.L. and Hirota, E.H., “Method for Waste Control in the Building Industry”. Proceedings of
the7thConference of the International Group for Lean Construction, p.p. 221-222

McAtamney, L. and Corbett, E.N., (1993) “RULA: a survey for the investigation of work related upper limb disorders”.
Ergonomics Vol. 2, p.p. 91-99

Hignett, S. and McAtamney, L., (2000), “Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA)”, Applied

Ergonomics Vol. 21, p.p. 1-26

Shingo, S., (1989), A study of the Toyota Production Systems from an Industrial Engineering

Viewpoint, Productivity Press, Cambridge, M.A.

Authors’ Biographies

J T Dean an Electrical Engineer with over thirty years experience including ten at Board
level in operations management associated with process industries. Specialising in
change management and business process reengineering over eight years prior to 2006
and currently engaged in developing IT projects and supervising research students at the
University of Teesside. Member-Institute of Operations Management. Member-Chartered
Management Institute. With an MSc in Operations Management

Nashwan Dawood is a Professor of construction management and IT. Currently director

of CCIR at Teesside and have spent many years as an academic and researcher within
the field of project and construction management and the application of IT in the
construction and precast processes. This has ranged across a number of research topics
including Information Technologies and Systems (4D,VR,Integrated databases), risk
management, intelligent decision support systems, cost forecasting and control and
business processes. This has resulted in over 140 published papers in refereed
international journal and conferences, and research grants totalling about £1,800,000 in
cash and £600,000 in kind.

10
Paper two

Energetic evaluation in real conditions of

use of housing
E. Giancola, S. Soutullo, R. Olmedo, Mª R. Heras

Unidad de Eficiencia Energética en Edificación – CIEMAT. Avda. Complutense, 22. 28040 Madrid.

Email: emanuela.giancola@ciemat.es

Abstract

In this paper is analysed and evaluated the thermal condition of two blocks of flats, a rehabilitated one and a new
work, taking advantage of the bioclimatic technologies and using renewable sources of energy. Both buildings have
been constructed by the Empresa Municipal de la Vivienda y Suelo (EMVS) in the neighborhood of San Cristobal de
los Angeles (Madrid) within the activities programmed in the “Regen Link” Project, approved by the 5th Framework
Program for Technological Research and development (R&D) sponsored by the T.R.E.N. General Department of the
European commission..

The energetic evaluation in real conditions of use is known as Monitoring. This methodology implies the
accomplishment of campaigns of measures of the wished variables, as well as later analyses of the registered
results.

The results will be compared with ones obtained by building simulation programs (i.e.: trnsys).

For the attainment of a final mission of the investigation, this study also proposes the analysis and further
improvement proposals of the used materials, by means of the experimental test of closings in the cells of the
L.E.C.E.(Laboratorio de Ensayos Energéticos para componentes de la Edificación), (Power Research laboratory for
components of the Construction).

The results obtained in the rehabilitated houses will be compared with those of a previous campaign of measures,
carried out before the rehabilitation (June 2002) and simultaneously will be compared with the measures obtained
in the news one.

Keywords: Thermal Conditioning Building Energetic Evaluation

Background

Industrial Context

Every time with major frequency grows the necessity of energy efficient buildings, adapted to their environment,
which consume and contaminate as least as possible.

So, in the construction one essential thing is to study all the process of the construction, in such a way to rationalize
the energetic consumption, following the entire productive die: from the waste for the material production, to their
carriage and fitting.

1
So, selected and intelligent choices would suggest directing us towards new materials and technologies,
manufactured buildings that allow us to reduce significantly the consumption of energy.

Problem

In this investigation we analyze and evalue the thermal condition of two blocks of flats, a rehabilited one and a new
one.

We must consider two things.

In case of rehabilitation, minimum intervention entails actions which only affect the exterior layer and metal
structural and woodwork carpentry of the building, without changing the existing openings on the facades and
maintaining the location of common areas. In the case of new buildings, minimum intervention includes a proposal
for reusing demolition materials and regarding formal retaining and design material.

Technical innovation comes together with sustainability in the design for collection and protective elements made
partly with recycled materials, leaving aside materials which require large amounts of energy for their manufacture.

We must not forget the need to balance solar energy gains for wintertime, avoiding excessive heating during the
summer, since in Madrid, there are more days of discomfort due the heat than cold. Therefore the elements designed
are adjusted to the high yield that the irradiance conditions of the zone permit.

Learning Objectives:
 Energy Efficient Building
 Minimum Intervention in rehabilitation
 Saving Energy, high level of comfort

Approach

Although, following the most recent research respect to the analysis methodologies it is possible to obtain the
thermal characteristics associated with the construction characteristics of the building. For this proposal good results
from experimental measures are necessary recorded with the aim to obtain the technical results waited and not only
a quality comparison of the thermal evolution.

The Monitoring consists in to install several thermal sensors in different places for each house, following to measure
and to record data and finally to carry out an energetic balances in order to know the energetic performance of this
building.

Thermal evaluation of buildings must not be only simple evidence about the evolution of the indoor temperature. It
ought to contain the following steps:

 Analysis of the climatic variables during monitoring period. The behaviour of these variables is a
conditioner of the thermal performance of the building. In order to know if the monitoring period the
climatic conditions are normal or not, they must be compared with meteorological data of reference
during a period of 10 years at least.

2
  Calculating the heating and cooling degree days, for the monitoring period, to bases 18 and 24ºC
respectively. The severity of a climate can be characterised concisely in terms of degree-day. They provide
us estimations about the amounts of energy that must be added to or extracted to maintain thermal
comfort.

 Typical day selection from the monitoring period and to carry out an exhaustive analysis the thermal
behaviour of each building during these representative days.

 Characterisation a posterior of each building, his thermal evolution description could be a complementary
way to the traditional simulations in building design phase, which provides us the dynamic thermal
evolution of a real building under normal using conditions. For these proposes, we need real
measurements (monitoring) of the main variables that take part in this system such as: meteorological
data, indoor temperature and energy gains (heating-cooling systems and casual gains).

The characterisation of this system can be made by two ways:

– Static: It consists in defining the system by some parameters that don’t depend of the time as useful
solar gains coefficient and overall U-values. The method is based on carrying out in an adjusting by
minimum squared of the weekly averages during a large period. It is a powerful tool to determine these
coefficients but it does not provide us information about the thermal inertia of the system.

– Dynamic: This method consists in calculating transfer functions between the time series that contribute to
the evolution of the indoor temperature. In this way, the courtyard is taken as a system whose inputs are
variables such as solar radiation, energy gains (heating-cooling systems and casual gains) and adjacent
areas temperature which has a response (the indoor temperature). In order to calculate these transfer
functions, it is necessary to carry out different process such as: time series analysis (into time and
spectral domains), identification system and parametric estimation. This method gives an extensive
information about the evolution of the indoor temperature: response time, delays respect to each input
variable, as well as the coefficients obtained with the static method.

With this period the method proposal for data analysis should be the dynamic characterisation.

On the other hand, with these results will be compare the energetic performance of two building and to study the
saving energy, the energetic performance and the different level comfort for the building before y after retrofitting.

Analysis

The houses monitored in this project are located in the district of San Cristóbal of Los Angeles, which is located to
the south of the city of Madrid.

Description of the blocks.

The buildings implied in the project have rectangular form and its maxima length is oriented in the North- South
direction. They present a symmetrical distribution of two houses by plant and vestibule consists of five heights with
six vestibules.

From the structural point of view, a supported system with unidirectional forged load in three lines of walls (the
facades and the central wall), constituted by 1 perforated brick.

3
Figure 1. Block before the rehabilitation Figure 2. Block alter the rehabilitation

1 Closure

Block for rehabilitation.

Table 1. Block for rehabilitation – Comparison of closures’ description.

New Block

In the new block have two type of closure

Table 2. Closures description.

4
2. Climatology of Madrid

The city of Madrid is located in the South Meseta, in centre of the Iberian Peninsula, reason why its climate can be
described like continental; temperatures are cold in winter and very warm in summer. The temperatures in spring
and autumn are quite smooth, being these the times with greater number of rainy days, although the annual
precipitation level is low. The humidity degree is enough low.

3. Campaign of measures

In order to be able to analyze the existing thermal situation in the houses, an experimental campaign of measures
was carried out before and after the rehabilitation.

The variables measured were:

1. Inner Temperature of the houses. Procedure: obtaining with taking of data during 3 weeks. Equipment:
Sensor and multi-channel recorder HOBO.
2. Outer Temperature. The outer temperature is moderate according to the direction East and West.

In table 3 are located all the used sensors, in each monitored room.

Table 3. Location of sensors in the monitoring houses.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

The period of monitoring corresponds to the months of summer, in particular, to the days between the 18 of June
and 8 of Julio.

In order to be able to analyze the thermal situation of the houses, the degree of thermal comfort that reach at
this time of the year, the existence or not of overheats, etc. we represent the temperatures reached inside each
house compared with the measures in the outside, according to a given direction, analyzing the averages and the
thermal difference.

It is advisable to observe the thermal evolution of the rooms throughout the day, repairing in the produced tips
and in which moment they take place. For it the daily average temperature of every day monitoring as opposed to
the 24 hours of the day imagines.

5
 Figures 3 and 4 show that the thermal
evolution inside 4 rooms (here we choice
the most significant between the 8
monitored rooms ) of the blocks monitored
in this project is very similar, for a direction
as for the other, since they present a
minimum thermal difference among them.

In these figures it is observed, that the

outer temperatures of the two campaigns of
measures present different abrupt thermal
Figure 3. Daily Avarage of block 35 flat 3D changes in different periods, so we can only
observe that the inner temperatures of the
campaigns before the rehabilitation are more
constant to the outer temperature variation
and are more constant inside the comfort
band.

Figure 4. Daily Avarage of block 39 flat 4D

All that show an improvement of the inner temperatures during this period, even if we think it could be improved.

Business Impacts

Considering the great importance that assumes the construction in the topic of the energetic saving, is important
the application of this type of study since it would carry to the creation of. Manufactured buildings, new materials
and technologies and smart components having a high degree of design flexibility and at low cost compared to
today.

Conclusions

The energy performance of a building attracts a lot of attention. To support the claimed benefits whole building
monitoring and simulation program should be use to predict the energy performance.

At the moment only the rehabilitated block has been monitored and in this paper we had reported only the results
compared with the campaign of measures of year 2002. For a trustworthy analytical study it is very advisable that
at least one of the houses to analyze is vacated, before the impossibility to know all the loads numerically produced,
avoiding in this way, the errors due to the use of the occupants (who are considerable); that is one of the problems
we find during the work.

The results (fig. 3, 4) show that the variation of external temperature of the campaign of 2002 varies between a
minimum of 21.43ºC and a maximum of 31.07ºC, while the inner one oscillates between 24.43ºC and the 30.23ºC,

6
remaining, so a few outside the comfort band. The outer temperature in the campaign of 2006 varied between
22.49ºC and 33.03ºC, it means one variation of the maximum temperature of approximately 2ºC plus regarding that
one of 2002; the inner one oscillates between 25.06ºC y 28.72ºC remaining inside the comfort band in a way more
constant regarding the campaign of 2002. in fact it notices one reduction of the maximum temperature from 30.23ºC
to 28.72ºC, it means 2ºCin less.

Key Lessons Learned:

 Analysis of the Climatic Variables
 Heating and Cooling Degree Days
 Typical Day Selection

References

G. Zannis; M. Santamouris. “Detailed Common Monitoring Protocol. Guidelines & Reporting Format for the
Assessment of the Energy Saving Technologies” European Commission Fifth Framework Programme.
Athens 2001.

Mª.R. Heras; M.ªJ. San Isidro; L. Zarzalejo; Mª.J. Jimenez. “Monitorización de viviendas de la EMV de alta
eficiencia energética en el oeste de San Fermín. Madrid: Estudios previos” CIEMAT. Madrid 2001.

Mª.R. Heras; M.ªJ. San Isidro; L. Zarzalejo; Mª.J. Jiménez; S. Soutullo. “Medidas experimentales llevadas
a cabo previas a la evaluación térmica de las viviendas a ser rehabilitadas por la EMV en San Cristóbal de
los Ángeles(Madrid). Poyecto Regen Link” CIEMAT. Madrid 2002.

Mª.R. Heras; R. Bosqued. “Plan de monitorización de viviendas de alta eficiencia energética promovidas por la
EMV en el Ensanche de Vallecas. Madrid. Poyecto Sunrise” CIEMAT. Madrid 2004.

Mª.R. Heras; Mª.J. Jiménez; M.ªJ. San Isidro; L. Zarzalejo; M. Pérez “Energetic análisis of a passive solar
design, incorporated in a courtyard alter refurbishment, using an innovative cover component based in a
sawtooth roof concept” Solar Energy Vol.78, Nº 1. 2005.

Varios Autores. “Energía Solar en la Edificación” Serie de ponencias. Editorial Ciemat. 2005.

S. Soutullo; R. Olmedo; Mª.R. Heras; R. Bosqued; Mª.J. Jiménez. “Diseño de la monitorización de los
sistemas “Árboles de Aire” del bulevar bioclimático del proyecto “Eco-Valle Mediterranean Verandahways”
(programa Life-UE) situados en el Nuevo Ensanche de Vallecas. Madrid” CIEMAT. Madrid 2005.

7
Authors’ Biographies

Emanuela Giancola Graduated in Building-Architecture Engineering in the Polytechnic of

Marche, Ancona (Italy). Currently carrying out PhD search in the Energy Efficiency of
Building R&D Unit – CIEMAT ( Research Center for energy, Environments and Technology
of the Spanish Education and Science Ministry), Madrid, Spain.
Searches in course: energetic simulation of the buildings to estimate the energetic
consumptions for heating and cooling; interrelations between comfort thermal and
energetic consumptions.

Silvia Soutullo Graduated in physics by the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain.

Diploma in Physics (Solar Renewable Energy) by Universidad Complutense de Madrid,
Spain. Master in Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in Building organized by EOI,
CIEMAT and IDAE. Currently working at Energy Efficiency of Building R&D Unit, CIEMAT (
Research Center for energy, Environments and Technology of the Spanish Education and
Science Ministry), Madrid, Spain.

Rafael Olmedo Industrial Technical Engineer, specialist in Industrial Electronics by the

Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain. Master in Prevention of Risk, specialist in Security
by ECA- Industry Ministry. Currently working at Energy Efficiency of Building R&D Unit,
CIEMAT ( Research Center for energy, Environments and Technology of the Spanish
Education and Science Ministry), Madrid, Spain.

Mª. Rosario Heras Graduated in physics by the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain.
PhD in physic by the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Currently working as the
coordinator at Energy Efficiency of Building R&D Unit, CIEMAT ( Research Center for
energy, Environments and Technology of the Spanish Education and Science Ministry),
Madrid, Spain.

8
Paper three

The Management of Complex Design &

Engineering Processes
Mick Eekhout, Professor of Product Development, Faculty of Architecture, TU Delft
Director of Octatube Space Structures, m.eekhout@octatube.nl

Abstract

The last few decades, structural designers have been confronted with spatial architectural schemes that greatly
benefited from the aid of computer-operated design and modelling programs like Maya, Rhino and 3D-Studio Max.
These architectural designs are referred to as ‘Fluid or Liquid Designs’ or ‘Blob Designs’. They contain sculptural
building forms in an arbitrary geometrical form that cannot be generated or developed mathematically easily, even
with computers. These building forms do not have a recognisable repetitive structure, either. At first, the gap
between architects and structural engineers seems to open wide in each project. An even larger gap appears
between architects, technical designers on the one hand and co-engineers, producers, co-makers, sub-contractors
and builders. This will definitely transform ‘production’ into ‘co-engineering & production’. The introduction of this
new view on architecture is more or less a revolution in the world of structural design.

Keywords: Free-form Architecture, Blob Design, Design & Build, Experimental Engineering, Complex Design
Processing

Figure 1. From left to right: City Hall Alphen a/d Rijn, architect EEA Architects; Design proposal for the
Mediatheque in Pau, Zaha Hadid, Yitzhak Rabin Center Tel Aviv, Moshe Safdie Architects, Hydra Pier
Haarlemmermeer, Asymptote Architects

Background

Industrial Context

The second half of the 20th century has witnessed the development of a number of spatial and systemised
lightweight structures: shell structures, space frames, tensile structures, cable net structures, pneumatic
structures, folded plate structures and ‘tensegrity’ structures. Most of these structures were developed by
dedicated pioneers in the 1950-ies who designed, analysed and built impressive amounts of new concepts: Felix
Candela, Frei Otto, Max Mengeringhausen, Richard Buckminster Fuller, Zygmunt Makowski, Walter Bird, Peter Rice
et all (Eekhout 1989). The basic idea was to minimize the amount of material consumed. In order to attain this,
extensive intellectual investments in man hours were necessary. Computer analysis software provided the accurate
analysis of complex geometries of the components in these three-dimensional though – in our current view –
highly regular 3D-structures. Thanks to the further development of accurate analysis programmes based on non-

1
linear structural behaviour these 3D-structures can now be designed by structural engineers all over the world.
They reached a status of accepted and mature technology. R.F.R introduced the intricate use of structural glass in
buildings in the 1980-ies, based on regularity and systemization of the Serres of La Vilette, Paris in 1986 (Rice et
al. 1995).

In the meantime the material/labour ratio shifted dramatically. For cost-effective structures the minimal amount of
material is no longer a crucial factor, but the minimal amount of totally invested manpower. The post-war adage
of ‘minimal material’ only became an intellectual goal for architects and structural engineers. It is not an issue for
the building industry and clients. This greatly influenced the choice of building technologies over the last decades.
Of course this differs from country to country. With increasing wealth, buildings were also realised in a fashion
more elaborate than the very minimalist results of the early Modern Movement. Local colouring on an
international scale could not be suppressed.

The development of architecture appeared to be more capricious. The Modern Movement with her world-wide
innovation of concrete technology over local building technologies was caught up by other approaches of later
generations of architects. The subsequent changes in architectural sub-styles from the 60-ies onwards, following
‘Modernism’, like ‘Structuralism’ and ‘Post-modernism’ could in a certain way be regarded as variations on the
Modern Movement. Style is not only a way of building but also a total cultural embedment in all arts and in the
whole of society. It is too early to predict that the current computer generation with its introduction of fast
moving images derived from flashing videos, zapping of television programs and computer games will lead to an
inherent different behaviour of the young generation of architects that grew up with this.

Figure 2. Les Serres of La Vilette, Paris, R.F.R

Building means freezing dynamic processes in fixed and immobile materials. Fact is that the growing complexity in
society gets its expression in buildings as well. This starts with Archigram and its flexibility in built forms
generated by mobility in function (Cook 1999). ‘Deconstructivism’ has a philosophical different approach to life. It
will be continued in ‘Free-form architecture’. Will it develop itself as a style or just as a variation on the ‘Mother of
all Contemporary Architecture’: Modernity? The way of designing free-form buildings is much more dynamic and
does not follow the rules of the previous generation any more. Classical proportions in building design are
completely forgotten. The discussion about good and bad designs will inevitably come up when the amazement of
the visual ‘Liquid Design’ presentations is brought back to a normal level.

2
The growing complexity of the building process and buildings as achieved results showed a diminishing concern
amongst architects for regular 3D-structures, putting an end to the pioneering era of lightweight structures. The
traditional tensile structures, pneumatic structures, shell structures, space frames, dome structures, trusses and
tensegrity structures will have to be mixed in their structural action in order to result in structural forms as desired
by fluid designing architects. All existing (sleeping or active) knowledge on 3D-structural systems has to be
combined. There are several causes for this rupture in development:

 Higher building budgets in the last decades (compared with the post-war era);
 The conversion from a producer- to a consumer-dominated building industry;
 The generation of young digitised architects seeking their own identity.
 Development from industrialisation/standardisation via systematisation to individualisation/specialisation in
design and engineering, accelerated by powerful 3D-computer programs.

In the 1980-ies computers initially were used to assist standardisation in design and production in collections of
standardised components. Later a certain degree of systematisation with pre-design for the system and post-
design for the application was introduced. The last step was a high degree of special and spatial designs without
repetition of pre-designed components: leading to highly individualized building designs having its influence from
the composing components to the entire artefact of the building.

Architects got bored with regular systemised structures and building components, being designed and developed
not by themselves, and having too clear a mark of the developing structural designers. They now try to develop
their own building technical design concepts, specific elements, components and details, fitting in the totality of
the building design at hand. By lack of design experience in this field these technical designs are usually governed
or overwhelmed by purely aesthetical considerations.

Meanwhile, as a result of the decreasing popularity of regular and systemised 3D structures as ready-made
system products and marketable structural systems, producers of 3D-structures left their standard and system
assortments of structural products to become highly specialised contractors for spatial structures, in the last
decade quite often with lots of structural glass. They became contractors instead of producers, involved in a more
flexible engineering and production machine potential than ever before. They changed discipline and fixed
organisational routing for project based co-design and engineering and adaptable machine productions available
in a wide network of sub-contractors each being specialised in another niche.

In the newest trend the forms of digital baroque buildings are non-rectilinear, non-repetitive and in their
conceptual stage only derived as clay-modelled sculptures. Computer rendering programs like Maya nowadays are
able to juggle and generate all kinds of geometric forms, including the ones without any regularity in its
geometric patterns. In the conceptual design stage, architects usually do not look for geometrical repetitive forms
and systemised structural schemes or behaviour, but design like artists a totally new building.

Structural engineers are initially paralysed when they have to develop a load bearing structure in the contours of
these geometrical forms in order to materialise the structural concept of the building’s envelope. The same is valid
for building technical engineers working these designs out more elaborately onto the level of shop drawings. The
question is how to reconciliate this ‘Computer Supported Sculpturalism’ with sound structural design and industrial
prefabrication principles in a proper balance that revitalises the excellent and extensive experiences of 20th
century 3D-lightweight structures. This should happen already in the conceptual stage, so that both existing
know-how and experience are activated and the cost prices of these buildings are less of a surprise. The relation
between pre-design principle and post-design application is at stake here. Principles were conquered and gained
by pioneers and scientists later, while architects, acting as composers, but sometimes with the elitarism of prima
ballerinas, do as they like in both surprising and pleasing society at the same time. It raises the question of
relationship between principles and applications.

3
Figure 3. Rise and Fall of Space Structures

Approach

Higher degree of co-operation: collaboration

A free-form geometry involving all building parts of the building design leads automatically to a very accurate co-
operation, rather collaboration between the building team partners, much higher and more intense than ever
experienced before. It takes for most of the concerned architects a number of projects to agree with this and to
change their usual distance to the production & building phase and work towards an integrated approach of all
building team parties concerned. The building team is to be defined as the sum of all participating architects,
designers, advisors, main contractor, building managers, component designers, sub-contractors and producers
involved in the project.

One could define four major stages:

 Design of the building and its components

 Engineering of the building parts (elements, components and site parts)
 Productions of elements and assembly to components
 Building on site and installation of prefab components

Each of the 4 stages has its own characteristics of design considerations ands assuring quality of the building as
the end product being a composition of the different building parts, installed on the building site by different
building team partners. The phase of design of the building and its components will be the global domain of the
architect and his advisors. In ‘Liquid Designs’ the tendency is for standard products to become systemized and for
building systems to become special project systems. The need for special components will increase because of the
special geometry of the building, influencing the form and position of each composing element/component. The
tendency towards individualisation can be described as: Industrialisation in lots of one.

The design phase has to result in a 3D-CAD mother model of the building, drawn by the architect. He has to

4
integrate in his model the principal element and component sizes and their principal connections, as from this
model the different building team members will start their own co-engineering. The architect has to incorporate in
his 3D CAD mother model all relevant data of all different components of the different building parts, each
building part to be worked out later by the different co-engineering members of the building team. The
information contained in this virtual model has to go very far. The 3D-mother model will not be used for tendering
purposes, as it is not readable for other people than engineers, like quantity surveyors. Drawings still will remain
the information carriers at the tendering process.

Co-engineering, production and installation

Different building team parties are involved to engineer their own production. These engineering activities all have
to be based on the central 3D-mother CAD model. This model is the basis for the engineering of the total
building. The keeper of this model is indispensable in the office and will become a crucial factor in each co-
engineering company. Despite computers, in-house logistics will be depending on one master-engineer only!

For the co-ordination and integration of the different co-engineering parties in the building team two clearly
distinct modus operandi can be followed:

Separate Model: Every party works on his own program, taking the basic data from the mother model.
Subsequently the problem will be how to check the quality of these separate computer drawings and outputs and
how to relate them to the common details. Where two or more building parts are joined, each to be worked out
by a separate building party. In the Netherlands the steel construction engineers work with Strucad or X-steel,
while façade engineers work with Autocad 2000 based software. These two software packages are not
compatible. Installation engineers make use of yeat another software package. Checking the different results is
extremely difficult and mistakes only come out on the building site. The architect does not check any drawing for
its dimensions. This traditional pattern is not satisfactory at all.

Collaborative Model: Each party works on the 3D-CAD mother model successively as it is allowed ‘slot-time’
(like aeroplane traffic coordination). During the start the situation is fixed and detailing and modifications of
elements and components can be fed in. The whole is to be worked through. The end situation will be fixed and
communicated to all building parties. After the proper closing off of the slot-time of one party, check and
certification by the model keeper, the next is allowed his slot time. Simultaneous work on the 3D model by more
than one engineering sub-contractor is not allowed, as it will lead to confusion and possible legal problems. Gehry
enforces the use of Catia in his projects. But now different teams in the engineering department of one producing
company could be working with different programs. This will lead to mistakes and confusion. So a plea is made
towards the development of an universal 3D-computer program to be used by all corresponding building team
members, capable of handling the conceptual design, the presentations, the overall building design drawings, the
statical analysis, the engineering co-ordination drawings, the shop drawings up to the quantity lists.

After each of the building-directed engineering contributions of all participants, regular geometrical checking has
to be done. Neglect of this will lead to large problems in the integration and co-ordination of the engineering, in
production and installation and hence, much effort has to be spent here. Liability is also at stake here. Four
building parties are able to execute this: the architect, the building technical engineer, the building contractor and
the geodetic surveyor. Each option has its advantages and disadvantages. Each proposed party has to realise
assort of forward or backward integration.

The data from the overall 3D-mother model or from the individual overall CAD model or drawings will have to
result in the drawing of individual element drawings, in the form of shop- or production drawings. They are made
to feed the production. This will be done either direct in CAD/CAM for cutting, drilling, punching and machining
operations, depending upon the development of each trade. It could be done direct or indirect via manual

5
machine activities like welding and bending operations, casting of steel nodal pieces and assembly of elements to
components, hot dip galvanisation and painting or coating afterwards and protection for transport to the building
site.

The engineering part of site activities are the installation or assembly/erection drawings which indicate the
identification of the transported components and their location by XYZ co-ordinates of the prominent click points.
These click points will have to be established on basis of the characteristic geometric points of the 3D-CAD
mother model. The fixation of these click points during the progress on site is a service provided by the main
contractor. Because of the complexity of the geometry and the absence of straight and orthogonal lines that can
easily be fixed by craftsmen (water level, plummet and the mechanical refinements thereof) in Liquid Design
Architecture this new service of geodetic surveyor is an absolute necessity to build these buildings. The surveyor
makes pre- and post checks of the positioning of the components on the site.

After completion of the work of an earlier contractor the surveyor will examine the click points on site with the
theoretical ones and their tolerances. This is done in order to prepare and inform the next contractor who has to
build starting from these data. This subcontractor is only able to compensate certain tolerances as his production
is already completed when he will start on the building site. The discipline of prefabrication and industrialisation
and the installation of subsequent trades on the site will have to go over in the near future into a discipline of
industrialised complex building geometries. Many times the building process of ‘Liquid Designs’ is approached with
the same attitude as traditional building. In those cases most of the building parts are produced on the building
site and the mistakes of earlier labour are expected to be corrected by later labour. But dealing with fluent
architecture in the traditional way leads to longer juridical struggles than the building time itself, disappointments
and bankruptcy of the weaker parties. Tendering documents should contain the most effective modus operandi
and respective procedures and relationships followed, but they seldom do.

Conclusions

The last decade ‘Liquid Design’ buildings have become possible because of the increased accuracy and complex
3D geometries of computer hardware and software. The design & engineering is the core of the operation and
within this process the design decisions are most important. Complex issues can be dealt with by an analytical
engineering approach. There is not a problem that cannot be solved. The most advanced technology has to be
developed further in order to meet the new geometrical demands, which places buildings at the same level of
complexity as yachts, but at a lower economical level. Cold bending and twisting of glass panels, even laminated
and insulated panels mix low cost prices with complex form results.

The new generation of ‘Liquid Design’ buildings with their computer designed arbitrary and non-rectilinear form,
are mainly generated out of sculptural considerations by architects. All lessons from the past decades where
systemized spatial structures and economical building industrialisation with the most sophisticated products were
developed and their salutary regularities, do’s and don’ts were developed, seem to have to go in a higher gear.
The structural glass components of these buildings require an enormous effort in collaborative design and
engineering. One would recommend that at least in the design phase the concept of the building technical
composition would be developed simultaneously with the architectural concept. Both in the design & engineering
phase as well as in the productions & realisation phase an extremely high degree of collaboration between all able
building parties concerned, is an absolute necessity to reach the goal of successful ‘Fluent Design’ Architecture,
that is successful for all parties. Frameless glass structures contribute to that higher level of technology in Modern
Architecture.

6
Key Lessons Learned:
After involvement of the author and Octatube in six projects with ‘Liquid Design’ buildings, there are several
lessons to be learned concerning the management of complex design & engineering. They are worthwhile
discussing in a broader professional audience and involve different aspects of the ‘Liquid Design‘ Architecture
processes. I have composed the lessons for these special design & engineering processes, involving the
introduction and development of innovations in Blob architecture as follows in 18 hypotheses:

1. Realizing a Blob design is an extremely experimental process of

design, engineering, productions and building on site. The
experimental character of the process has to be recognized and
dealt with.

2. In our time of prefabrications the engineering of ‘Blobs’ is the

absolute basis of all productions. Productions are organized on the
basis of theoretical drawings of a perfect engineering perfectly
coordinated and integrated with the other sub-contractors on the
site. “Measuring on the building site in order to check dimensions”
as sometimes mentioned to allow architects to blame the
contractors for errors in drawings or co-ordinations, has become
an anachronism.

3. Coordination and integration of the engineering of all concerned

co-makers and sub-contractors in the total engineering of the
building is essential.

4. Detailing of elements and components will have to allow for

accurate 3D-measuring. Click points to be positioned accurately as
the reference points both in the engineering as well as in the site
surveys.

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5. The architect has a choice between two forms of collaboration:

 Hierarchic: develop the design with the advisors, tender and

have the design further developed by the engineers of the
contractors
 Building team: by composing a team of advisors and
engineering
co-makers that develops the design and complete
engineering of the building, after which the final tendering
and realization takes place.

6. The architect has three choices for the engineering:

 Only to make the design concept and the presentation

drawings
 The conceptual design and presentation drawings and the
initial 3D-model
 The conceptual design, the presentation drawings, the 3D-
CAD mother model and the integration and coordination of all
engineering contributions from the co-makers.

7. The coordination of the engineering of the 3D CAD mother model

has to be rewarded by the client by allowing a higher fee. The
Blob architect should underline this item at the presentation of the
design itself. If a higher fee is not agreed, these costs are likely to
be fixed as coordination costs in the building process and
disappear out of sight, but have to be paid in the investment
costs of the building.

8. The total costs of design & engineering of all parties of a Blob

design will amount to 20-40% of the total building costs (incl. fee
of architects, advisers and co-engineers) Liquid design buildings
are more expensive in their engineering than orthogonal buildings.

8
9. Ever sophisticated computer hardware and software has not
resulted more standardised and more economical preparation and
building processes, but on the contrary in more complex and
surprising buildings.

10. Tender packages should be clustered in lots for each sub

contractor/co-maker in stead of the current arrangement of
collections of identical elements and components.

11. Co-engineers need to incorporate excellent engineering

departments able to dimension, detail and communicate in full
experience with buildings in complex geometries.

12. The different co-producers ought to get slot times to integrate

their prefabricated engineering into the 3D CAD mother model
subsequently, only one engineering input at the time. Between
each engineering input the architect has to check and certify the
additions.

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13. The ISO 9001 quality system will be applicable in future on all
designing and engineering parties, on all producing and all
building parties, none excepted.

14. Trust between the different parties will have to be the base. If
not, concurrent engineering and collaborative engineering will end
in contra-engineering.

15. 3D-site surveys will have to be continuously connected to the

computer in the 3D mother model, so that frequent checks of
theoretical and practical click points can be compared. The site
surveyor will become an indispensable service of the main
contractor.

16. Only after a few years of experience a new brand of Blob ‘cluster’
contractors will arise, taking over the co-ordination and integration
of complete building parts under the umbrella of a main
contractor.

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 17. The choices of elements and components of the building inclusive
their detailing will have to be able to neutralize tolerances of
production and positioning.

7. If Blob designs are underestimated in their complexity, there could

be different victims:

 The client, who is ill-advised and has to pay the excessive

costs of the realization compared to the estimations of the
architect/quantity surveyor
 The architect who sees his design aborted if it turns out to be
too expensive
 The main contractor looses money and time
 The building manager does not understand this technology
driven design and engineering process and will be confronted
with increasing costs and a longer planning
 The sub-contractors choke in their naïve cost estimates and
do not want a second adventure or go bankrupt.

References

Cook, P (1999) Archigram, Revised Edition, Princeton Architectural Press, New York

Eekhout, M (1989) Architecture in Space Structures, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam

Rice, P & Dutton, H. (1995) Structural Glass, E&FN Spon, London

Authors’ Biography

From 1968 to 1973 Mick Eekhout studied Architectural Engineering in Delft. After his
graduation (with honours) - supervised by professor Oosterhof and professor Weeber - he
worked in an architectural office for two years, before founding his own architectural office
where he realised several buildings in eight years time. In 1982 he founded the company
Octatube Space Structures, specialized in three dimensional constructions and structures
for the building industry. For over 20 years Octatube has realised many design & build
projects, both in the Netherlands and overseas. In 1989 he got his PhD degree (with
honours) - supervised by professor Oosterhof and professor Zwarts - with his thesis
‘Architecture in Space Structures’. Since 1992 Eekhout is professor of Product
Development at the Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture. In 2003 he was
the first designer since 1856 that was accepted to the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie
van Wetenschappen (Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences).

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Paper four

The application of dynamic materials in

adaptable architecture

Charlotte Lelieveld, PhD candidate Delft University of Technology (C.M.J.L.Lelieveld@tudelft.nl)

Liek Voorbij, Assistant Professor Delft University of Technology (A.I.M.Voorbij@tudelft.nl)
Wim Poelman, Associate Professor Delft University of Technology (W.A.Poelman@tudelft.nl)

Abstract
This paper represents the first phase of a PhD-project on the application of dynamic materials in adaptable
architecture. Due to rapid changes on technological and electronic level, our life and perception of the world has
changed dramatically. This has led to a significant discrepancy between housing and mind. As the world is still
changing rapidly, and users change houses and their idea on living, it is time to develop an architecture that
anticipates on this. An investigation will be carried out on the changes in architecture and the answer to the
problem. This research could be considered a next step in the Open Building concept, in which a flexible floor
plan plays a crucial role. In this project the concept idea of an interior is presented that can dynamically adapt to
the users needs. Instant adaptable architecture that is based on surroundings which can physically change
according the users needs, might be the ideal solution. With the developments in material research new
possibilities are created in the application of materials. As the materials used today are static and inflexible, a
search is done for new dynamic materials. The focus in this research is especially on materials used outside
architecture, with the possible use in an architectural prototypic installation. This prototypic installation will be
used to practically found the theory of the realization of a dynamic adaptable architecture.

Keywords: adaptable architecture, new technologies, materials and systems, parametric engineering.

Background
Industrial Context
Review of the current building practice shows that architecture is lagging behind on other global developments,
such as electronics and material technology. History seems to repeat itself as in 1923 Le Corbusier wrote an
urbanist manifesto in which he criticized the contemporary building environment for its reticence about using new
techniques and materials. In this manifesto Le Corbusier introduced his esthetical and technical theories on the
world and its developments in that time. In “Le plan libre”, Le Corbusier pled for the pure form of functionalism
and the use of new techniques and materials, such as prefabrication and mass production with the use of
concrete and steel(le Corbusier, 1923).

Le Corbusier remarked that it is not possible to precisely determine a function or the use of a building, as the
users and their behavior are constantly changing. The use of a building becomes visible on the very moment a
building is being used, and even then the users and behaviors will change over time. In this context we can see
“Le plan libre” as a step towards a flexible floor plan, in which the floor plan is divided into spaces with non
structural walls. Of course the Open Building strategy goes further by incorporating the users in the total design
process and acts on the constant change of the build environment.

1
Nowadays, we can again notice a considerable gap between material innovation and the building industry. While
other industries, like automotive, aerospace and ship industry, seem to adapt easily to new developments and
innovations, innovation in the building industry always seems to develop slowly. There might be a relation with
the expanded lifetime and production time of houses, but it seems that the problem is also related to
communication. Designers, material specialists, material producers and users should seek for more cooperation to
solve these problems.

In this paper adaptable architecture is studied as the answer on the massive changes. For the building industry
adaptable architecture means a total new concept of building. In this concept the building industry has to work
closely together with, amongst others, material engineers, electronic engineers and research institutes. The
process of building houses will need to become more sophisticated, as electronic devices are fragile. Houses are
indeed becoming machines more than shelters (le Corbusier, 1923). This will result in a totally different relation
between users and building.

Problem
New technologies and techniques are evolving every day and brought us the computer, telephone, television and
other electronic devices. These devices must be renewed every other year to keep up with the latest
developments and can be totally customized by its user. Even though nowadays era could be seen as the
electronic era, the implementation of this knowledge in the building environment is negligible. It is hard to
understand the requests for super fast internet and the newest advanced electronic products while the
redecoration of a house still takes weeks of dust and madness. Because the most contemporary houses are still
very inflexible and static, the discrepancy between the way we live in our house and the way we think remains. It
will be interesting to seek an answer to the question on how to implement technological knowledge in the design
of our houses and therewith resolve the discrepancy in our lives.

Discrepancy between knowledge and living environment

Again we are confronted with the problem Le Corbusier pointed out in 1923 “Our external world has been
enormously transformed in its outward appearance, and in the use made of it, by reason of machine. We have
gained a new perspective and a new social life, but we have not yet adapted the house thereto.” Even though
mass-production and prefabrication, that were causing the gap at that time, found their way into architecture
decades ago, a similar gap between technical developments and our living environment recently arose. Digitally
and electronically our surrounding products have developed in such a way that it changed our every-day life. In
the building environment we find little evidence of this. Therefore we tend to hide in the virtual world of the
Internet and computer games.

This research concentrates on the possibility of introducing new materials in the building environment that can be
controlled by their dynamic behavior. The aim is to link these materials to a computer system in order to control
them in such a way that the building can adapt to its environment. This paper represents the beginning of a
promotion track

Learning Objectives:
 Future prospects of dynamic materials in architecture
 Possibilities of parametric computerization of architectonic spaces
 Possibilities of changing parameters in advanced dynamic environments.

2
Approach

In this research three aspects are brought together: adaptable architecture, parametric engineering and dynamic
materials. For this paper research is performed in these three fields and relevant aspects are combined to found
the project.

Analysis

Introduction
As concluded previously a significant discrepancy is found between the way our environment is shaped and reacts
and our state of mind and knowledge. Humans can adapt to fast changes very rapidly, but they seem to have
problems with the acceptance of a changing living environment. This results in the question whether this is
caused by the fact that they don’t know better or that they don’t want better. According to Le Corbusier, people
have been “attached to their lairs in such degree that they have established the cult of the home, which hasn’t
changed for centuries”. Le Corbusier compared this with religion, which created dogmas and held on to those so
strongly even though every connection with present day life was gone. They held on to something, which was not
valuable anymore, which no longer existed. “Man who practices a religion and does not believe in it is a poor
wretch, he is to be pitied”. It is interesting to see that Le Corbusier mentioned this in 1923, and nothing has
changed much, according to the way we are living today.

Open Building
As Open Building is a reaction to the constant change of users of a building and the change of functions of
buildings. Open Building stands for the creation of subsystems in which interference with other systems is
minimized. This makes it possible to flexibly change the floor plan of a building, without demolishing the whole
building. As the idea of Open Building is that the users can decide when en how to change their houses, without
giving problems for the neighboring houses, a very clear in-fill and fit-out should be designed.

Even though the idea of Open Building makes it a lot easier to adapt the living environment to the users needs,
with most systems it still takes time and effort to redesign and construct the interior to the wishes of the users
(Dekker, 1998). The solution might be a built environment, which could change instantly. It might be time to take
the next step in Open Building and bring adaptation to a higher level.

Interactive Adaptation
The answer to the request of constant change could be found in the realization of an architecture that could
constantly react to the environment and its users. An environment that does not need redecoration or renovation,
but redecorates and renovates ‘itself’ whenever the user, consciously or unconsciously, wants. The physical
appearance of the environment we live in should be able to change constantly. At this point the perfect solution
would be an interactive environment that could learn from the past, the circumstances and the orders given by
the user. The system has to get acquainted with the user and the environment and must be allowed to make
mistakes, which then the user can correct. In this project the different aspects of the realization of such an
environment is analyzed.

For studying the possibilities for realization of such an environment, a search on the appropriate materials and
systems is needed. In this project the focal point will be the characteristics of the materials or a combination of
materials. This will mean that mechanical solutions or installations will not be studied. In this material research
the focus point will lie on dynamic materials to fulfill the search on an adaptable architecture.

3
Another aspect in the realization of a prototype is the control system. This system consists of an input device,
control device and output device (Figure 1). This system will determine to what commands the prototype will
react and how the prototype will react.

Figure 1 Adaptable architecture with the realisation aspects

Additionally, it is necessary to take notice of the fact that the reaction of the user to installation and the
perception the user has of it is relevant to finalize such a system. However this is not part of the focal points of
the project, an inventory of the ideas and needs of the users will take place. The project will concentrate on the
realization and materialization of a prototypic installation that reacts to user behavior.

Control system

Parametric design
In the last decades the computer began to play an important role in the design and realization of buildings.
Although the computer is mainly used as a tool for representation and visualization of designs, a small group of
designers is using the computer for model generation. In this case the design is calculated by a computer on the
basis of parameters given by the designers. These designers can set rules for the shape finding, and the
computer can generate an infinitive number of possibilities, which the designer could choose to use. We are
moving from “form making” to “form finding” (Kolarevic, 1998), as a designer defines the parameters and not the
shape. The designer can set different values to the parameters, and connect specific parameters. The parameters
could be performance-based criteria, such as light, wind, load and/or usage. As not one setting in the world is
stable, the parameters are constantly changing. This causes dynamic behavior as the calculated outcomes of
running programs are based on changing values. The designer can choose to set an average of all the given
parameters, which will give a maximum of shape options, or run the script and choose the most valuable shape of
the dynamic model. In both cases the result will be a static building.

The critique on this method is that the outcome is always very subjective. It is either a compromise of all different
parameter settings, or an almost randomly chosen shape. In both cases, this will mean that the realized building
won’t be optimal for any situation. Still, this method is one step forward in the realization of an optimal building.
In combination with the computerized manufacturing tools it is possible to very precisely realize a building directly
out of a computer; this is called “file to factory”. An example of a project that is realized in this way is the
Hessing Cockpit design by ONL (www.oosterhuis.nl).

The realization of a dynamic model could be considered to be the next step in this line of developments. In such
a model the data of the parameters would be real-time given by sensors. The ideal model would be a full-scale
dynamic model that adapts slowly to its environment and to the behavior of the users. Araya and Bdeir (2006)

4
mentioned; “High speed calculations lead toward the emergence of complex geometrical modellers first, then the
spread of animation and recently the appearance of parametric environments”. When a dynamic model is realized,
the next step would be the realization of intelligent and adaptable environments.

It is crucial that this model has a free floor plan. This floor plan should not only change with radical
environmental alterations such as new users moving into the building, but could even change during the day. This
will draw people back from the virtual world, in which they tend to spend most of their time. A dynamic model is
expected to provide a link between the technological state of our mind and knowledge and our everyday
surroundings. The design of a building with such a technique would be considered adaptable architecture. In
Figure 2 an overview of different types in of visualizations in architecture is presented.

Figure 2 Division of different visualizations in architecture; adaptable architecture is accentuated with grey.

Control
As mentioned before and shown in figure 1 the control of an installation is consists of 3 aspects: the input, the
system and the output. The input of the system could be provided by sensors or by interfaces. The interface or
sensor of an installation makes it possible for the user to interact with the installation. Sensors can be activated
by different means, for example by direct human actions. In this case the input leads to a direct output which
results in a certain activity (on/off key for example). Another example of a sensor is a tracing sensor; this sensor
will get activated on certain input, but receives the input by autonomously tracing activation. Here the example
can be given for motion tracking. The sensor gets activated by motion, and has one certain output (alarm goes
off), but is not necessarily activated by direct human action. The next example is a smart sensor; this sensor will
track different input and connects this to different output reactions. Voice recognition is an example for this kind
of sensor. The sensor can recognize different voices and orders.

For the first prototype in the research computer input-devices will be used for interface. This is necessary to make
the interaction with the installation easier and more controllable on this point in research. For the first prototype
only the theory of a dynamic installation will be proved, not yet the interaction with the users.

The software that will be used is Virtools. This is a game-scripting program, with a clear way of scripting and a
proper visualization mode (Figure 3). By running the script the program will visualize what will happen virtually.
This program provides ready-to-use building blocks that do not need to be programmed. Additionally, the
possibilities for connecting input and output devices to the program are a useful feature. By scripting the
parameters, for example what output will be given to what input, the prototypic installation can be controlled by
attaching an output device to the computer. This output device can control the dynamic materials. With this total
set-up it becomes possible to control materials

5
Figure 3 Virtools interface, top left; model, below; script

Materials
Since 1981 IBM made it possible to observe molecules very accurate with the Scanning Tunnel Microscope, fast
developments can be found in the material research. In 1990 two researchers of IBM succeeded in arranging the
IBM logo out of 35 Xenon atoms with a Scanning Probe Microscope. This microscope can pick up atoms and place
them anywhere. This development opened the door to controlling atoms on nanoscale, and created new
possibilities for the field of material science (Ten Wolde, 1998).

For this project the focus will lay on phase changing materials, also called dynamic materials. These materials can
change their physical appearance or characteristic under the influence of certain stimuli. This input could be an
electric current, temperature, pH change, light, etc. etc. Under the influence of this input, the atomic structure of
the materials will change in such a way that the physical appearance or behavior changes.

Memory materials play an important role in this group of materials. Memory material can be characterized by its
ability to always “remember” its original shape. The material can be manually forced to bend or stretch, changing
the shape of the material. Because all the molecules are linked in a crystalline structure, the bonds between the
molecules will only stretch and not break under the influence of strain, in that way storing the energy of the
deformation. When the material is heated (or cooled depending on the material) the stored energy is released
and the bonds between the molecules will stretch back to their original position. As a result the material changes
back to its original shape.

Another group of phase changing materials are the materials that can change their transparency or color under
the influence of certain input. These materials are called chromic materials. Different input ranges can set
different colors or transparencies (Table 1). These materials can be used on a lot of surfaces, which makes these
materials interesting for buildings. It would offer the possibility to change the colors of walls with electricity,
instead of having to paint them.

6
Table 1 Different stimuli for chromic materials

Human can see color because objects with a certain color reflect, absorb and spread light in a specific way. Color
changing materials change their optical appearance, which results in the color changing effect. When the material
is exposed to the input energy or stimulus it causes a reaction of the negative electrodes of the material, this
changes the molecule structure and surface of the material. This reaction is reversible, if the input energy is taken
away, the material will go back to its original structure.

Figure 4 Schematic drawing of an electro chromic window. Left: all the molecules are aligned, light can
pass through. Right: under the influence of an electric current all the molecules take a random
position, light will bounce back

Future developments
In this project the focus will be with the realization of a prototypic installation to practically found the theory of an
adaptable architecture. For this installation it is necessary to study the different materials that might be suitable
for this application first. The next step that is performed in close relation with the findings and conclusions of the
material part is the creative process that will lead to the design of the installation (Figure 5). This process is
clearly different from the conventional architectural design process, as in such a process the creativeness of the
process is more important than the material usage. It is expected that by investigating different materials first,
more input for the creative process will be provided. It is likely that unexpected results and outcomes will follow
out of this process and in this case it will give new ideas for accomplishing an adaptable installation.

7
Figure 5 Scheme of different design processes, on top the conventional design method, below the method
used for this project

By combining different materials with different characteristics, it could become possible to create an installation
that changes following the needs of the users. Because of the experimental character of this project the first
challenge will be to develop an installation that is capable of changing to one position and back to its original
position (see Figure 6). This prototype will probably not act interactively from the start, but just actively. Because
of the experimental nature of the study it is decided that a methodology with several improvement sessions of
prototype building will work best. This means that as soon as the first prototype is build, the building of the next
one will start incorporating all new insights and knowledge to realize almost continuos improvement. This will
increase the possibility that the evolving of the end prototype of this study is optimal. However, it is requested
that the contingencies of dynamic materials be investigated first.

Figure 6 Maya visualization of prototype

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings
Hopefully the conclusion of this research will show the possibility in the realization of an adaptable environment
with the use of dynamic materials. Various projects in this field are known, but the step to realization is still far
away. The problems addressed in this project will be the use of materials on a bigger scale, the use of the
materials outside their current field of purpose and the connection of these materials to a computer device. It will
be defiant to solve these problems and realize a prototype. However, the prototype can only be made after an
analysis of the suitable materials.

8
Business Impacts
The outcome of the research on the different materials could be used for the industry to broaden the scope of the
use of the studied materials. If the prototype works as hypothesized, a new step is made toward the realization
of an adaptable environment. This could lead to the future steps of developing a completely interactive system.
As this study gathers different fields of profession, this project will hopefully stimulate others to unite their
knowledge. Adaptable architecture is especially interesting for buildings such as hotels, which face often-changing
inhabitants or users.

Conclusions

What could be concluded from this paper is that, compared to other industries, technology in architecture is
lagging behind. As we can already find this critique in the old manifestos of Le Corbusier, this seems a reoccurring
or even a continuous problem. The solution to this problem could be a flexible and adaptable architecture, which
could adapt to the constant changes in the environment. Adaptable architecture could be the higher dimension
solution for open building. With adaptable architecture the answer will not be restricted to a flexible floor plan and
subsystems but extended to an adaptable house, which can change to the users needs instantly. This will cohere
with the ongoing electronic developments that are entering our house.

To fulfil this adaptable architecture, cooperation with different professions is essential. Once the communication is
started, material specialists, researchers and designers can learn from each other and new possibilities and
developments might find their way. It is important for all experts to broaden their field of interest and
communicate with other researchers. It does not need explanation that materials can have different applications
in different fields of application.

To found the theory of an adaptable installation working with prototypes is crucial. The best methodology is to
make several different models to be able to evolve step by step into a total installation. It will be a long way to a
total dynamic and adaptable environment, but now is the time to start.

Key Lessons Learned:

 Open Building has to move to an higher dimension by taking the step to a dynamic adaptable architecture
 Interdisciplinary cooperation between different specialists and fields will lead to more interesting findings
and developments
 Prototypic installations should be used to found the theory of an adaptable architecture.

9
References
Le Corbusier (1923) Vers Une Architecture, Paris
Kolarevic, B. (1998) Architecture in the digital age, Design and Manufacturing, ISBN: 0415278201
Araya, S., Bdeir, A. (2006) KINET-Towards Animated Architecture Through Responsive Modular Walls, Game Set
and Match II, On Computer Games, Advanced Geometries and Digital Technologies, pp 371, ISBN:
9059730364
Wolde, A. ten, (1998) Nanotechnology, ISBN: 908044961X
Dekker, K. (1998) Research Information, Open Building Systems: a case study, Building Research & Information,
Vol. 26, No. 5, pp 311-318
Website ONL: www.oosterhuis.nl (date accessed 23 March 2007)

Author’s Biography

Charlotte Lelieveld graduated in 2005 at the Hyperbody Research group of Professor Kas
Oosterhuis. During her graduation project her interest in the use of innovative materials
in architecture grew. In 2006 she organised the symposium MaterialZ at the TU Delft in
which the cooperation between designers, material specialists and researchers was the
main focus. From 2007 she will continue her research with a PhD-project on “The use of
dynamic materials in the realization of adaptable architecture”.

10
Paper one

Interorganizational cooperation in
innovation: the role of systems
integrators
Maarten E.J. Rutten, University of Twente, (m.e.j.rutten@utwente.nl)

André G. Dorée, University of Twente, (a.g.dorée@utwente.nl)

Johannes I.M. Halman, University of Twente, (j.i.m.halman@utwente.nl)

Abstract

In literature on industries producing complex product systems, such as construction industry, the concept of
systems integrator has been introduced. It refers to the leadership role which is performed by firms in
interorganizational production and innovation processes. Scholars argue that systems integrators have a crucial
role in innovation in such industries.

This paper reviews the literature on the concept of systems integrator, and reconciles it with other relevant fields
of literature. From this a list of factors is derived, which seem to be important for systems integrators to achieve
innovation success.

Furthermore, findings of a series of expert interviews show that in construction industry, the role of systems
integrator can be found in particular within the category of firms that provide both design and construction and
seek to create competitive advantage by developing a unique product concept. With regard to success factors,
customer involvement is perceived to be a crucial factor for systems integrators to take into account during the
development of new product concepts.

Keywords: CoPS, systems integrator, innovation, interorganizational cooperation

Introduction

The construction industry is characterized by its highly fragmented supply chain. Knowledge, materials,
components, information and skills are dispersed among many different organizations. Many studies have
highlighted that construction industry’s fragmentation in combination with poor interorganizational cooperation is
hampering productivity and innovation (Barlow, 2000; Dulaimi et al., 2002; Egan, 1998; Latham, 1994). Ambitions
to improve this situation have led to industry reform initiatives in various countries in the past few years (Ang et
al., 2004; Doree, 2004; Flanagan et al., 2001).

Literature provides important insights with regard to innovation in construction industry. In construction
management literature, scholars have argued that it is interorganizational cooperation across project boundaries in
general, that is important for innovation in construction industry (Dewick & Miozzo, 2004; Doreé & Holmen, 2004;
Holmen et al., 2005; Miozzo & Dewick, 2004). Researchers suggest that close and stable relations between the
various organizations involved in the construction process, such as contractors, architects, engineers, suppliers,

1
clients, research institutes and government bodies, contribute to the development and adoption of innovations. It
is argued that close and stable relations facilitate sharing of knowledge and risks.
Furthermore, in literature on complex product systems, scholars focus on a specific organizational role within
production and innovation processes. Various researchers state that construction industry can be characterized as
a complex product systems industry (Barlow, 2000; Gann & Salter, 2000; Hobday, 1996; Winch, 1998). Complex
product systems (CoPS) are products that are highly customized, made up of many components, based on
multiple technologies and produced in one-off projects or in small batches. Examples include internet and
telecommunications equipment, flight simulators, military systems, aircraft engines, chemical plants, buildings,
and business information networks (see figure 1). In CoPS literature, it is argued that the role of systems
integrator in particular is crucial in innovation in CoPS industries (Brusoni et al., 2001; Hobday et al., 2005; Miller
et al., 1995; Prencipe et al., 2003). The concept of systems integrator refers to firms that perform a leadership
role in interorganizational cooperation. Systems integrators add value through systems integration: they integrate
components, technologies, skills and knowledge from various organizations into a unified product or product
family that meets specific customer needs. To do so, systems integrators set up a strategic network of
organizations and coordinate the process of integrating dispersed resources of the network members.

Figure 1. Examples of complex product systems (CoPS)

Following literature, the role of systems integrators seems important in innovation in construction industry.
However, so far, literature does not yet provide in-depth insight into the mechanisms at play. Important questions
remain unanswered. What types of organizations in construction industry perform the role of systems integrator?
How do systems integrators successfully set up and coordinate interorganizational networks? What factors are
critical? To what extent do the actions of systems integrators affect innovation success?

Learning Objectives:
The purpose of this paper is to create more insight into the concept of systems integrator by:
 describing the role and characteristics of systems integrators in CoPS industries and construction industry
in particular;
 providing an overview of factors that we expect to play an important role for systems integrators in
realising innovation success.

Approach

A research project has been set up to answer the questions raised in the introduction. The research project
started in February 2006. It lasts for four years and comprises multiple phases. Subsequently a literature review,
expert interviews and a multiple case study will be conducted to develop grounded theory about the role of
systems integrators in construction industry. After this, a survey will be conducted to assess the validity of the
developed theory more widely.

This paper presents the results from the literature review (next two sections) and preliminary findings of the
expert interviews (subsequent section). Besides literature addressing the concept of systems integrator, also other
relevant fields of literature were identified and analyzed. To reflect and build further upon the extensive literature

2
review, a series of fourteen semi-structured expert interviews is being conducted. To locate experts, innovation
cases have been selected in which several organizations jointly developed a new product or product family for the
market. The firm that brought together the various organizations and coordinated the process of cooperation is
interviewed.

The role and characteristics of systems integrators

In CoPS literature, researchers have been using the concept of systems integrator when describing producers of
CoPS: producers of flight simulators (Miller et al., 1995), aircraft engines (Brusoni & Prencipe, 2001; Prencipe,
1997), buildings (Winch, 1998), aircraft engine control systems (Brusoni et al., 2001), chemical plants (Brusoni &
Prencipe, 2001), and military systems (Hobday et al., 2005). In these industries both physical and human
resources, such as subsystems, components, technologies, skills, information and knowledge are dispersed among
various organizations. Therefore, the primary task of CoPS producers is systems integration. Positioned at the
interface between customer and a network of suppliers, they add value by bringing together dispersed resources
and integrating them into a unified product which fits customer needs.

The twofold role of systems integrators

According to scholars the role of systems integrator comprises two tasks (Hobday et al., 2005; Prencipe, 2003):

 Firstly, systems integrators set up a network of various organizations. From a strategic viewpoint, they
configure the interorganizational network in terms of members, relationships and division of work. They
also define the specific contractual terms - formal or informal - to be adopted in the relationships.
 Secondly, systems integrators coordinate the work of the organizations involved in the network. By
orchestrating the activities of the network members, such as R&D, design or manufacturing, systems
integrators guarantee the coherence of the network output.

Two analytical levels of systems integration

Besides two types of tasks, several researchers argue that also two different analytical levels of systems
integration can be distinguished. The first analytical level concerns the level of production. In CoPS literature, this
level of systems integration has been labeled variously: static systems integration (Brusoni et al., 2001),
synchronic systems integration (Prencipe, 2003) and intrageneration systems integration (Hobday et al., 2005). It
refers to the role of prime contractors that set up and coordinate a network of organizations for the production of
a complex product system within a predefined time period and financial budget. Systems integration in production
networks is aimed at achieving technological and organizational synchronization. Technological synchronization
refers to the assembly of components and is related to the overall consistency and functioning of the complex
product system. Organizational synchronization refers to the organization of the production process and is related
to the efficiency of the supply chain.

The second analytical level of systems integration takes a more long-term view on the cooperative relationships.
Besides production, systems integration is also considered on the level of innovation. It concerns the creation of
incremental or radical innovations to meet evolving customer requirements or changing regulatory requirements.
In literature, this level of systems integration is labeled, respectively, dynamic systems integration (Brusoni et al.,
2001), diachronic systems integration (Prencipe, 2003) and intergeneration systems integration (Hobday et al.,
2005). It refers to CoPS producers that develop new product concepts or product families in cooperation with
various organizations, such as suppliers, trade contractors, consultants and clients. Following Miller et al (1995)
and Winch (1998), such CoPS producers are at the interface between innovation superstructure and innovation
infrastructure (see figure 2). The innovation superstructure consists of clients, regulators and professional
institutions. The innovation infrastructure comprises component suppliers, trade contractors and specialist
consultants.

3
Figure 2. Innovation structure in CoPS (adapted from Miller et al (1995) and Winch (1998))

Factors affecting systems integrators’ innovation success

Researchers have described the concept of systems integrator by discussing its characteristics. However, to
understand how systems integrators achieve innovation success we need theory. The description in CoPS
literature of the twofold role of systems integrators can be used as a starting point in developing a conceptual
model. Conceptual models are the visual representations of theory. They consist of a dependent variable (also
referred to as effect), factors (also referred to as causes or independent variables) and causal relationships
between the factors and dependent variable. As mentioned before, systems integrators’ behavior comprises two
main activities: systems integrators set up the organizational network and coordinate the work of the network.
This distinction can be used for categorizing factors that affect innovation success. Figure 3 shows the conceptual
model that follows from systems integrators’ twofold role. The systems integrator is the actor whose behavior
influences the factors’ values.

Factors Dependent variable

Network setup fa ctors

Innovation success

Coordination factors

Figure 3. The conceptual model derived from CoPS literature

4
Success factors derived from other fields of literature

A literature study showed that besides CoPS literature, four different but related fields of literature provide useful
insights with regard to the conceptual model:

 literature on new product development (Brown & Eisenhardt, 1995; Cooper & Kleinschmidt, 1995; Griffin
& Page, 1996; Henard & Szymanski, 2001; Montoyaweiss & Calantone, 1994; Song & Parry, 1997);
 literature on strategic networks and alliances (Ahuja, 2000; Das & Teng, 2000; Dhanaraj & Parkhe, 2006;
Dyer & Singh, 1998; Gerwin, 2004; Gulati, 1998; Gulati et al., 2000; Lavie, 2006; Lorenzoni & Badenfuller,
1995; Powell et al., 1996; Thorelli, 1986; Zollo et al., 2002);
 literature on open innovation (Chesbrough, 2003; Chesbrough & Crowther, 2006; Dodgson et al., 2006;
Fetterhoff & Voelkel, 2006; Laursen & Salter, 2006).
 literature on innovation in construction industry (Blayse & Manley, 2004; Blindenbach-Driessen & van den
Ende, 2006; Bossink, 2002, 2004; Dewick & Miozzo, 2004; Doreé & Holmen, 2004; Dubois & Gadde,
2002; Hartmann, 2006; Holmen et al., 2005; Kulatunga et al., 2006; Miozzo & Dewick, 2004; Nam &
Tatum, 1997; Pries & Doreé, 2005; Pries & Janszen, 1995; Veenstra et al., 2006; Xiao & David, 2002).

The four related fields of literature provide information about factors, operationalization and causal relationships.
Firstly, literature on new product development provides insight in factors that are critical for the success of new
product development within single organizations (Brown & Eisenhardt, 1995; Montoyaweiss & Calantone, 1994).
The dependent variable in this field of literature is similar to the one in this conceptual model: innovation success.
The difference is that I focus on the development of a new product concept by a network of several organizations
led by a systems integrator, instead of new product development within a single organization.
Secondly, literature on strategic networks and alliances provides insight in the factors that are critical for the
performance of networks of cooperating organizations. However, the organizational networks that are being
studied in this stream of research are not necessarily aimed at the deliberate creation of innovations (Gulati,
1998). Only part of the literature in this field is solely concerned with innovation networks. In this subset of
literature, scholars argue we know little about how new product development is successfully coordinated in
strategic networks and alliances (Dhanaraj & Parkhe, 2006; Gerwin, 2004).
Literature on open innovation can be regarded as complementary to the literature focusing on innovation
in strategic networks and alliances. Scholars argue that firms in various industries are currently shifting to an
‘open innovation’ model, a more open strategy towards innovation (Chesbrough, 2003; Laursen & Salter, 2006).
Firms try to create customer value through active search for new technologies and ideas outside of the firm, but
also through cooperation with suppliers and competitors. Literature on open innovation is of interest because it
provides insight in the process of interorganizational cooperation in innovation.
Lastly, in literature on innovation in construction industry researchers describe the characteristics of the
process of innovation in construction industry and discuss how specific industry characteristics affect this process
(Blayse & Manley, 2004). These insights are helpful for understanding the context in which systems integrators
operate. Furthermore researchers discuss factors that are critical for innovation.

Table 1 shows an overview of dependent variables and accompanying critical factors, as reported in the four
related fields of literature (sources are papers providing an extensive literature review or papers presenting
findings from empirical research). The factors have been assigned to one of the categories from the conceptual
model in figure 3: network setup factors versus coordination factors. Besides the dependent variables also the
performance indicators are mentioned which are used to measure the various dependent variables. As the
dependent variables in the other fields of literature are closely related to the dependent variable in the conceptual
model, the factors are also expected to play an important role for systems integrators to achieve innovation
success. Further research is needed to validate this.

5
6
Preliminary findings from expert interviews

To gain insight into the role of systems integrators in innovation in construction industry, a series of expert
interviews is currently being conducted. To find experts, cases are selected in which a single firm has been acting
as a systems integrator in the field of innovation. This firm is then interviewed about its role in the development
of the new product or product family. For example, Hodes Building Systems, a Dutch company that provides
modular buildings on turn key basis (especially schools and office buildings), performed the role of systems
integrator in the development of a new modular building system. To develop the building system Hodes Building
Systems set up a team of organizations, consisting of two suppliers, a trade contractor and a consultancy
company. Coordinated by Hodes Building Systems, the team jointly developed the new modular building system
including new key components. Currently, seven out of fourteen expert interviews have been conducted. This
section presents preliminary findings.

Resources, risks and revenues

In all cases the initiative for the interorganizational innovation project started with a company having an idea for a
new product concept, but lacking the complete range of resources which was needed to develop the idea into a
real product. This company then started acting as a systems integrator. It searched for organizations such as
component suppliers, trade contractors and specialist consultants which occupied the necessary resources. In all
cases this concerned at least design skills and production facilities concerning key components. In two cases,
systems integrators also involved an organization which supplied knowledge about managing product
development processes. With regard to the sharing of risks and revenues, there was no clear correspondence
among the various cases. In some cases, the participating organizations weren’t paid for their input in the
development of the product concept, but an agreement was made concerning their participation in
commercializing the product concept. In other cases participating organizations were paid by the systems
integrator on the basis of their input in the development process.

Correspondence of competitive strategy

From the expert interviews, one aspect could be derived which characterized almost all firms which had been
acting as a systems integrator. When asking about the underlying reasons behind the initiative to develop a new
product concept in cooperation with other organizations, it became clear that the competitive strategies
underlying the various initiatives were quite similar. The main goal was to sustain or improve financial
performance (market share, revenue, profit) by developing a unique product concept which constitutes the core
of a family of products offering more value to customers than competitors’ products. Following Porter’s generic
strategies (1980), the systems integrators’ competitive strategies were more close to the strategies ‘differentiation’
and ‘focus’ than ‘cost leadership’.

Insights concerning critical factors

The factors mentioned in table 1 don’t necessarily need to be critical for systems integrators to achieve innovation
success, because none of the literature underlying the table is specifically focused on the role of systems
integrators. Therefore, during the expert interviews questions were asked about lessons learned and drivers of
success or failure, to find out what factors are perceived to be critical by systems integrators to achieve
innovation success (innovation success was operationalized by the respondents in terms of profit, revenue,
adoption in construction projects and impact on reputation). In order not to bias the answers, the factors from
table 1 weren’t mentioned in the questions of the interviewer.
During the various interviews one factor was remarkably often mentioned by the respondents: customer
involvement. Various explanations were given of how customer involvement affects innovation success.

7
By asking lead customers to provide feedback during the development process about the fit between the new
product concept and their needs:

1. the product concept can be better adjusted to the needs of customers;

2. future customers for the product concept can be identified (for example for a first pilot project);
3. the reputation of the systems integrator firm as a innovative company can be enhanced.

A remark by one of the respondents was that customer involvement doesn’t necessarily need to have a positive
impact. By involving customers during the development process, expectations among customers are created about
the new product concept. If these expectations aren’t met, this can harm the success.

Another factor raised during the expert interviews concerned the selection of organizations which possess the
resources that are needed to develop the product concept. Two selection criteria were frequently mentioned.
Firstly, systems integrators only cooperated with organizations of which they expected not to behave
opportunistically. Secondly, partners with an innovative attitude were selected: organizations which were expected
to be able to deal with the uncertainties and creative aspects of innovation processes.

Furthermore the expert interviews showed that systems integrators acted as facilitators of creativity during the
development process. During joint meetings the systems integrator tried to create an atmosphere in which ideas
and questions could be shared openly.

Business Impacts

To study the role of systems integrators in the construction industry is especially relevant due to the current
situation in construction industry. In many countries industry reform programs have been set up to improve
construction industry’s performance. One of the goals of these reform programs is to enhance innovation. The
literature review showed that systems integrators play an important role in innovation in CoPS industries. Since
construction industry can be categorized as a CoPS industry, it is important to understand how firms which act as
a systems integrator in construction industry achieve innovation success. This paper is especially valuable for
those firms in construction industry who seek to create competitive advantage through the development of a new
product concept in collaboration with other organizations; i.e. firms which act as systems integrator on the level
of innovation.

Conclusions

According to Schumpeter (1934) innovations can be regarded as ‘new combinations’. This definition of innovation
seems particularly appropriate for the role of systems integrators in CoPS industries. Systems integrators setup
and coordinate organizational networks to realize ‘new combinations’. Based on a literature review and a series of
expert interviews, this paper describes the role and characteristics of systems integrators and provides insight into
the factors which are likely to be critical for systems integrators in construction industry to achieve innovation
success. So far, most important factors seem to be: customer involvement, creative atmosphere, and selection of
cooperating organizations on the basis of innovative attitude and expected opportunistic behavior. To further
develop the theory about the role and impact of systems integrators, more empirical research is needed.

8
 Key Lessons Learned:
 In industries providing complex product systems (CoPS), such as construction industry, systems
integrators play an important role in innovation.
 Systems integrators add value through systems integration: they integrate components, technologies,
skills and knowledge from various organizations into a product or product concept that meets customer
needs.
 In construction industry the role of systems integrator can be found in particular within the category of
firms that provide both design and construction and seek to create competitive advantage by developing
a unique product concept in cooperation with other organizations.
 This paper provides an overview of factors, derived from various fields of literature, which are expected to
be important for systems integrators to achieve innovation success (table 1).

 Furthermore, expert interviews showed that:

 customer involvement is perceived to be an important success factor;
 besides complementary resources, partners are selected on the basis of expected opportunistic behaviour
and innovative attitude;
 systems integrators act as facilitators of creativity during the product development process

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Authors’ Biographies

Maarten E.J. Rutten is a Ph.D. student at the University of Twente in the Department of
Construction Management & Engineering. He received his M.Sc. in Architecture,
Building and Planning from Eindhoven University of Technology. The focus of his Ph.D.
research is on the role of systems integrators in innovation processes.

Dr. André G. Dorée is professor at the University of Twente in the Department of

Construction Management & Engineering. He studied industrial engineering and
management at the University of Twente. He obtained his Ph.D. on the subject of
public procurement from the University of Twente. Current research interests include
public procurement methods, project delivery methods and management of innovation
processes. He is engaged in teaching and conducting research in these areas. He has
published several articles in the fields of procurement and innovation management.

Dr. Johannes I.M. Halman is professor at the University of Twente in the department of
Construction Management and Engineering. He earned his M.Sc. in construction
engineering from Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands; an M.B.A. (cum
laude) from Rotterdam School of Management at Erasmus University in the
Netherlands; and a Ph.D. in technology management from Eindhoven University of
Technology in the Netherlands. His research interest are in the field of innovation
management with primary focus on program and project management of innovation
processes, new product platform development, and high-tech start ups.

12
Paper two

InPro - integrated project within the 6th

Framework Programme
Johann Jaeger, P3-Digital Services GmbH, Johann.Jaeger@p3-gmbh.de

Abstract

In a first part, this paper introduces the research project InPro. InPro addresses the early design phase of a
building’s life cycle. The structures in the construction industry can be characterised as traditional. After
illustrating the current situation and the resulting challenges, objectives and approach of InPro are presented: To
design buildings with improved lifecycle performance, the early design phase needs to be transformed. The main
result will be the InPro Open Information Environment, an innovative Information and Communications
Technology concept connecting all stakeholders of a construction project. This environment will enhance
collaboration along the construction value chain, improve lifecycle design and give decision support in the early
phases. A European consortium of 19 partners has been established to strive for industrial transformation.

The second part of the paper discusses a comparative analysis of best practices carried out in the InPro scope.
Partners from Aircraft Manufacturing, Shipbuilding and Plan Engineering are been invited to participate in this
benchmark focused on collaboration and model based working in the early design phase. The paper illustrates
approach and first results of this benchmark.

Keywords: InPro, ICT, Early Design, Benchmarking

Industrial Context

The European construction industry has maintained traditional processes and communication structures. The
industry is dominated by SMEs. In 2005, 97% of the registered companies in Germany had less than 50 staff
(HDB 2005). Projects are carried out by ever changing consortiums. These unsettled surroundings ask for flexible
project organisations and communication structures, which can easily be set up with any partner involved. The
traditional processes and communication structures have been able to cope with such situations. Nevertheless, the
traditional structure is responsible for generating considerable amounts of waste in a building’s life cycle.

Designers have to rework plans due to miscommunication, the construction site is slowed by events that could
have been foreseen in design and avoided, and life cycle costs are higher than estimated.
R&D activities to improve the situation are pursued by major players in the industry. SME resources are often
focused on the daily business. Research results can only be deployed industry wide if all partners of a consortium
are able and willing to apply the new methods.

Problem

While productivity has gained significantly in production and services industry, construction has not shown a major
improvement over the last 20 years. This leeway in productivity is endangering the competitiveness of the
industry in a globalised market. It can be assumed that one reason for this situation is that ICT usage in the
construction industry has not kept up with the use in the manufacturing industry. Nevertheless, Information and

1
Communication Technology (ICT) is one of the key enablers for productivity growth in modern economies (Reding
2005).

ICT has proved to be a key enabler in product design. Large scale, complex engineering projects as the
development of the Airbus A380 Aircraft are only feasible by using simultaneous and concurrent engineering
interwoven with suitable 3D design toolkits. Shipbuilding and plant engineering are other examples showing the
success of model based working in complex engineering projects.

Yet in the European construction industry, model based working is only used in isolated applications with limited
scope. A holistic ICT approach linking all stakeholders of the construction value chain needs to be established.

Learning Objectives:
 The InPro Open Information Environment will improve the early design phase of a building project
 The success factors of an information environment are determined in a benchmark

The InPro Project

To tackle the challenge of improving the tools supporting the building process, five major European construction
companies decided to bundle their efforts and initiated the InPro research project. InPro will transform the design
phase of building projects. Immediate and efficient collaboration between all stakeholders of the construction
value chain up to the client shall be made possible by an innovative approach.
InPro stands for “Information” and “Processes” which links the name to the focus of the research work. The
project is funded by the EU framework program for research and development. 20 European partners
representing both industry and research are integrated into InPro. The consortium embraces the whole
construction value chain from building owners and architects, to construction companies and facility managers. It
also includes a number of European research organisations in the field of construction, industrial processes and IT
as well as leading software developers. Having started September 1st, 2006, InPro will run for 4 years until
August 31st, 2010.

InPro focuses on the early design phase of a building project. Decisions taken during early design strongly
determine the building’s performance during the life cycle. Yet, these decisions are often taken with limited
transparency towards the consequences of a decision.

The InPro Open Information Environment will be the main achievement of the project. Based on existing as well
as innovative Information and Communications Technology (ICT) applications, an advanced system of integrated
design and analysis processes and decision-support will radically improve collaboration all actors (Figure 1).

2
 1 Business 2 Technology
pull push

A Open B Lifecycle
collaboration design

InPro
Information
Environment

C Decision D Early
support planning

3 Industrial
transformation

Figure 1: InPro Open Information Environment

The InPro environment will bring improvement to four aspects of the building process:

A) Open collaboration between all stakeholders of the construction value chain

All relevant parties of the construction value chain - from client to architect, engineer, contractor, and facility
manager - collaborate openly and flexibly on a common web-based information platform, independent of specific
ICT software. Business concepts provide incentives for stakeholders to jointly develop the best design solution by
cooperating and complementing each other’s competence.

B) Design from a life cycle perspective

Buildings are designed taking into account a life cycle perspective, e.g. the future needs of the user, energy
efficiency, use of high-performance materials, efficient design/build/operation, future upgrading and renovation,
decommissioning, and much more. Thereby, the building brings added value to all main stakeholders.

C) Smart decision support

Smart and model-based multiple-criteria decision support, makes it possible to prioritise between a great variety
of often conflicting decision alternatives, and to make “informed choices” based on explicit knowledge of each
decision’s consequences on the building’s life cycle.

D) Early planning of the realisation and operation processes

Computer-enabled simulations of smart digital prototypes enables the parties of the building value chain to plan
and predict the build and operation processes already in the early design phase. This is crucial for the
industrialisation of building processes and efficiency of downstream activities.
Putting the outlined benefits into reality will contribute greatly to the overall productivity of the construction value
chain, resulting in better products and less resource waste. Consequently, the implementation of the InPro
environment will radically transform the early design phase in the European construction industry.
InPro targets the business aspect of the early design phase as well as the technology aspect. The work package
reflects this structure of the project (Figure 2):

Work Package 1 (WP1) “Business Concepts” focuses on establishing new forms of collaboration for project
partners. Focus areas are analysis existing concepts in other industries, development of innovative business
concepts and meaningful performance indicators for the construction industry, and strategies for industry wide
deployment.

3
WP2 “Early design processes” establishes ways of working that take into account all stakeholders of a construction
project in a life cycle perspective. The “Use Case” method is used to detail the InPro scope. Processes for better
collaboration and customer focused, sustainable product design are developed. Those two WPs embrace the
business view of the project.

Business pull ⇒ ⇐ Technology push

WP1 WP2 WP3 WP4

Business concepts Early design processes ICT processes ICT platform

WP10 Project management

WP5 Integration

InPro Information environment

WP6 Demonstrations

WP7 WP8 WP9

Training & education Dissemination & standards Exploitation

Industrial transformation

Figure 2: InPro work package structure

The technology side of the project is reflected in the work packages 3 & 4. WP3 “ICT processes” is end user
oriented and focuses on data handling and data management applications as well as the integration of different
applications into an integrated environment. WP4 “ICT Platform” focuses the “under the hood” part of the InPro
Open Information Environment and implements a neutral backbone for applications.
The business and technology view aspects are merged into the InPro Open Information Environment in WP5. The
construction industry partners of the consortium will demonstrate the InPro Environment in five real life projects
(WP6).
A threefold approach is pursued to ensure an industry wide transformation of the early design phase in the
building industry. WP7 focuses on trainings for students, users and managers; WP8 coordinates the press relations
and links the project to the national and international standardisation bodies and WP9 develops an exploitation
strategy for the InPro results.
All project management activities of the project are pooled in work package 10.
The need for the InPro project has been motivated by outlining the current status of the European Construction
industry with a special focus on the ICT aspects. Objectives and structure of InPro have been described. After
illustrating the InPro approach, the focus now moves to the business process aspects of InPro.

Comparative Analysis of Best Practice

The comparison with other European industry sectors shows examples of more advanced ICT use in design
processes. The head start of the manufacturing industry can teach valuable lessons of do´s and don’t´s in taking
up new ways of working. A comparative analysis of best practices for early design is a valuable baseline for the
elaboration of new business concepts.
To develop viable business concepts, the key success factors for the InPro Open Information environment need to
be identified. Analysis of working processes and tools gives information about focus and ambition level of the
InPro environment. It is equally important to decide which processes shall be supported, how the processes shall
be supported and to what detail level this support can be beneficial. Benchmarks with companies from other
sectors are one of the initial activities of the InPro project, running from September 2006 to March 2007.
Three industry branches are chosen as the most promising partner industries to analyse: Aircraft manufacturing,
plant engineering and shipbuilding are approached as benchmarking partners of the InPro project.

4
These industries base their product design process on 3D tools. They face similar challenges in product
development like the construction industry: Complex products which are designed in line with customer requests.
Limited timeframes for design and realisation necessitating parallel design and manufacturing activities paired with
small series or unique part production, limiting the ability to spread the cost of design on multiple units.
In the following, the benchmarking approach and first results are described. The final comparative analysis of best
practice is not available at the time of creation of this paper.

Benchmarking

Benchmarking describes the comparison of production process, management practice and products or services.
This term is similar to the comparison of effort. Hence, benchmarking is a process which compares certain objects
with each other.

The InPro benchmarking is following a five-step approach (Figure 3) according to (Siebert 1998). Definition of
scope and objective initiates the benchmark. The processes in focus and parameters to measure the process
performance need to be established. Based on these process parameters, questionnaires can be developed to
collect the wanted knowledge in a comparable way. The knowledge can come from within an organisation
(internal data) and by discussing with external partners.

Comparison and
Process, Collection of assessment of
Composition of Deduction of
parameter model internal and excellences
questionnaire measures
partner data and gaps

Figure 3: InPro benchmarking steps

Differences between industries become evident by comparing the results and excellences and gaps can be
assessed. Measures for transfer of excellences and closure of gaps can be deducted.

The described methodology has been applied to the InPro project, as described in the following paragraphs:

Process and Parameter Model

The InPro benchmark is focused on early design. The InPro Early design start is defined as the first contact
between the client and the participants of the construction process. Early design concludes as soon as all
discipline oriented concepts are integrated into a total concept design.

The vision of the InPro Open Information Environment is the guideline for defining the benchmarking focus:

 How can open collaboration, life cycle design, smart decision support and early planning be supported by
attractive business concepts and innovative ICT infrastructure?
 How is the integration of business processes and ICT realised in the manufacturing industries?
 Which role do 3D models play in the early design process?

The benchmarking seeks for answers and ideas and discusses their applicability in the construction value chain.
Valid results are depending on comparable data, which has been collected in a process and parameter model
applicable for all benchmarking partners. Consequently, early design processes in construction and partner
industries need to be mapped to a generic process model. To establish this generic model, the VDI methodology
“Systematic approach to the development and design of technical systems and products” (VDI 2221) is used to

5
establish a generic process model for early design phases. Using this generic process model, the company specific
early design is analysed to determine benchmarking points of comparable product maturity. A high level process
model is created for each benchmarking partner.

Early
design

Generic
Internal

Construction

Aviation
External

Plant
engineering

Ship-
building

Comparable maturity
(schematic)

Figure 4: Mapping of early design processes

Parameters are selected to make the process performance measurable. These parameters are selected in respect
to the core benchmarking questions and focus on the topics brought up by these.
 Early design processes and scope of early design
 Requirements management
 Project management
 Use of models in the Early design process

Questions dealing with classification of the partners’ business environment and the typical client relations in these
environments precede the a.m. questions to facilitate classification of the partners.

Questionnaire
The processes in focus are complex product development processes with high numbers of actors and
stakeholders. For each situation, different constraints, e.g. special market position of a benchmarking partner,
have to be taken into account.
The complex environments can not be captured in a questionnaire only. The closed questions of a questionnaire
could not reflect the variety of answers possible. A twofold approach is required to extract the information
required. Benchmarking data is gathered by combination of a questionnaire and a benchmarking workshop at
each partner. The questionnaire gives an overview of business structure and model use at the benchmarking
partner. The questionnaire is provided to and returned by the benchmarking partners prior to the workshops.
Using this information for preparation, the partner workshop preparation can be focused on the most promising
subjects.

6
Data collection
The phase of data collection is performed in two steps. First, a common view of the European construction
industry needs to be created. The benchmarking questionnaire was distributed to all InPro project partners of the
construction industry and workshops were conducted with each partner. These results are being consolidated to a
single view. This view - although not claiming to represent the European construction industry as a whole – is the
basis of comparison to benchmark the construction industry with external partners.

For each external partner industry, a high level process model was established by discussion with industry
experts. With each external benchmarking partner, process model and questionnaire is reviewed prior to the
workshop, either by face-to-face or by telephone meeting.

Each industrial partner is visited for a benchmarking workshop together with representatives of the construction
industry partners. At the time of writing, these workshops are ongoing. Final results will be presented during the
conference.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings
With the data collection ongoing, preliminary conclusions can be drawn:

An information environment has to reflect it’s sectors surroundings:

Design processes in the industries discussed are strongly influenced by ways of working in each industry. The
prevailing market situation, client relations, product characteristics and contract types determine which
information in which quality is available at project start. Quantity and quality of the information available
characterise the approach to a project and the linked design process. Each information environment reflects the
ways of working in its sector.

The benefit of an information environment needs to be shared between the contributors:

Early design process organisations are furthermore strongly depending on the number of actors involved and their
relation. Commercially independent actors lead to a segmented design process with similarly segmented results,
while actors who are commercially linked or under the same commercial umbrella seem to be able to handle a
more interconnected process. This results in a better-integrated product at an earlier stage of the process.
Partnering models need to be found to bring all stakeholders of the construction value chain under one umbrella.

Integrated design is the key to better products:

Life cycle design requires qualified decisions in the early phases of the building design process. Such decisions can
be taken if alternatives and their consequences on product are transparent. Bundling the expertise of actors of
the key trades already in the early design phase is the key to product design with guaranteed life cycle
performance. Applied to the building design process, integrated design asks for integrated project teams, from
architect to contractor and facility manager, at the earliest possible stage.

Conclusions

The ambition level of the InPro project is the transformation of the early design phase in the construction
industry. The project approach composed of business pull, technology push, implementation and demonstration,
and the industrial transformation has been introduced.
Special focus was then laid upon the business pull, where one key task is a comparative analysis of best practices
in model-based working. The results of this task will influence the further proceeding of the project by shaping
requirements for business concepts and providing input for the ICT development.

7
 Key Lessons Learned:
The InPro project addresses the business and the technology view of the construction value chain. Both views
will be integrated into the InPro Open Information Environment, a platform managing all data of a building
project.
A comparative benchmarking study analyses the use of 3D models in aviation, plant engineering and
shipbuilding. Leading practices and key success factors will be adapted to the construction industry within the
InPro project.

References

Reding, V. (2005) Speech ”i2010: The European Commission’s new programme to boost competitiveness in the
ICT sector”
http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/05/61&format=PDF&aged=1&language=
EN&guiLanguage=en
(date accessed: 05 February. 2007)
Siebert, G. and Kempf, S. (1998) Benchmarking: Leitfaden für die Praxis, Carl Hanser Verlag München Wien, 3-
446-19342-1
VDI 2221 (1993) Systematic approach to the development and design of technical systems and products, Beuth
Verlag GmbH
HBV (2005), German construction industry association, annual statistics

Authors’ Biographies

Dr. Stefan Siegler graduated in Mechanical Engineering and holds a Ph.D. from
Fraunhofer Institute for Production Technology IPT, Aachen. He is working for P3
since 1996 as a consultant in several industries such as Plant Engineering,
Telecommunication, Aerospace. His expertises are project management, process and
quality management. Since the formation in 2002, he is managing director of P3 –
Digital Services as a subsidiary of P3 – Ingenieurgesellschaft für Management und
Organisation.

Dipl.-Ing. Johann Jaeger graduated in 2004 from Aachen University of Technology and
holds a degree in Mechanical Engineering. Subsequently, he joined “P3 -
Ingenieurgesellschaft für Management und Organisation”. He is coordinating the of P3
– Digital Services involvement in the InPro project.

8
Paper three

A framework for open building

manufacturing systems in South Africa
Llewellyn van Wyk, CSIR, lvwyk@csir.co.za

Abstract

The paper provides an overview of the South African construction sector with specific regard to its performance
and structure. The study seeks to determine, on the basis of relevant literature, whether a relationship exists
between economic growth, technology development and construction sector transformation. The study examines
relevant R&D&I strategies in South Africa with particular regard to Advanced Manufacturing Strategies while also
taking cognisance of the European Construction Technology Platform and the ManuBuild initiative. The paper finds
that a relationship can be found between economic growth, technology development and construction sector
transformation. A framework for the development of an Open Building Manufacturing System appropriate to
developing countries is then generated to serve as a basis for further research and intervention identification.

Keywords: Beneficiation, transformation, technology development, construction capability, corporate social

responsibility

Background

Industrial Context
Generally the outlook for growth in the South African economy remains positive. Real fixed investment growth in
2006 accelerated to just short of 12 per cent after decades of under-investment. The coming year holds similar
promises though the composition of the growth may change. Residential building investment, long the leader in
the construction sector, is likely to slow somewhat while non-residential building investment and construction
investment are both still accelerating making the most of the peak growth conditions. Since 2002 real fixed
investment spending has expanded much faster than the broader economy with growth averaging +4 per cent
faster than household consumption growth and +6 per cent faster than real GDP growth. The fixed investment
ratio to GDP reached an estimated 19 per cent by late 2006, up over 4 per cent since the 14.7 per cent cyclical
low of early 2002 (Bruggemans 2007:2).

Residential and non-residential buildings, categorised together as ‘building investment activity’, is currently 20.5
per cent of total fixed investment. Residential building activity was still growing at 15 per cent during 2006 while
non-residential building grew by 12.5 per cent during the same period. Construction fixed investment grew by 15
per cent annualised in 2006 with year-on-year growth of 11.5 per cent. With the construction pace increasing and
the rate of project announcement seemingly increasing, construction fixed investment growth could reach 17-18
per cent in 2007. Statistics South Africa provides statistics on subsidised low-cost housing based on data derived
from provincial governments and co-ordinated by the National Department of Housing. The data show the value
of subsidised low-cost housing in South Africa (not captured in the standard building statistics) for the 2005/06
financial year amounted to €396.4 million1 (Statistics SA 2006:ii). In addition, it is estimated that the urban
backlog is about 1.8 million units, with an additional 200 000 new units required every year (CETA 2005:8).
1
Figure based on a R/€ exchange rate of 9.3.

1
Manufacturing, long a major contributor to economic growth in South Africa, maintained its total fixed investment
spending during 2002-2006 at nearly 21 per cent. Private sector fixed investment averaged a steady 73 per cent
of total fixed investment throughout the 2002-2006 period while the public sector maintained its share of total
fixed investment during the same period at some 27 per cent. National governments expenditure is likely to
continue increasing at about 11 per cent per annum over the medium term with increased spending on economic
infrastructure as well as social and economic services.

Problem

South Africa remains primarily an exporter of un-beneficiated or partly processed materials and a net importer of
manufactured goods despite it having a considerable portion of the world’s known reserves of mineral and metal
resources. There is thus a significant opportunity to increase beneficiation to a more finished product that has a
higher value. To do this existing sources of competitive advantage in the country and the tools and necessary
strategies needed to achieve these goals in the shortest period of time, with the least wastage and with the
greatest socio-economic benefit possible, must to be identified.

Unfortunately greater dynamism and technological progress is less visible in the construction sector. This will have
to change in the face of three emerging pressures: the first is increased competition, especially from foreign
construction enterprises, the second is the growing demand from owners for immovable assets to demonstrate
higher rates of efficiency, and the third is the growing scarcity in raw materials. Enterprise performance is
generally underpinned by firms developing competitive capabilities across skills, technology, design and delivery
dimensions. Construction sector enterprises in South Africa are however significantly impacted upon by at least
four cross-cutting issues: input costs, skills, technology, and market access.

The market power of basic raw material manufacturers and the distance of South Africa from other industrial
economies mean that local enterprises can be charged much higher prices than in other countries, despite South
Africa having among the lowest production costs in the world for basic materials (dti 2005:50) thus placing a
fundamental block in the value chain between capital-intensive upstream production and the more labour-
intensive downstream production. In a similar vane South Africa is facing a shortage of both steel and cement –
commodities crucial to the performance of the industry – and the supply of both lie outside the control of the
industry.

Skills shortages and scarcities remain significant threats to sustained economic growth in South Africa: given the
world-wide employment trend away from agriculture to services, creating stable jobs and attractive working
environments is crucial to the survival of the non-service sectors. In recognition of this the global construction
industry is making a concerted effort to shift the industry away from a product-led to a process-led and
knowledge-driven industry.

Improving enterprises technological capabilities is fundamental to increasing the competitiveness of the South
African construction sector, particularly the downstream sectors. Due to exceptionally low research and
development (R&D) investment by the construction sector (cidb 2004:35) together with a lack of a co-ordinated
industry-wide R&D programme, most construction enterprises have resorted to product adaptation and not new
product development, particularly in the downstream sectors.

Finally, given the distorted distribution of construction capability in South Africa, the undesirable corporate
practices including the unethical employment practices, high levels of corruption, enormous natural resource
consumption, poor product quality, low skills and productivity, and unpromising transformation opportunities, there
is a genuine need and opportunity for a step-change in the South African construction sector.

2
 Learning Objectives:
 The identification of enablers and barriers to the transformation of the construction sector in South Africa
 The identification of the technology interventions that can increase beneficiation, competitiveness, export
potential, and investments (including R&D&I) as well as employment and equity within the South African
construction sector
 The identification of the contribution open building manufacturing systems can make to transformation in
developing economies
 The identification of the issues requiring attention for such transformation to be successful

Approach

This research study, based on an extensive literature review, focused on investigating the relationship and clearly
defining the links between technology and construction performance on the one hand, and the extent to which an
open building manufacturing system in construction could lead to construction performance enhancements and
contribute to economic growth on the other hand.
Broadly speaking this research study analysis the South African economy and the construction sectors role in
economic growth, identifies enablers and barriers to transformation, reviews national R&D strategies and takes
cognisance of similar European Union initiatives (European Construction Technology Platform and ManuBuild) to
arrive at a set of conclusions regarding the development of an open building manufacturing system applicable and
appropriate to the South African construction sector.

Analysis

Main Challenges facing the South African Construction Sector

The White Paper “Creating an Enabling Environment for Reconstruction, Growth and Development in the
Construction Industry” (DPW 1999:7) posits as a vision “a construction industry policy and strategy that promotes
stability, fosters economic growth and international competitiveness, creates sustainable employment and
addresses historic imbalances as it generates new industry capacity”. In response to this vision, the principle goals
of industry development are (cidb 2004:8) to ensure a total capability in South Africa to meet the built
environment needs for development of a whole society; to ensure that the construction industry in its broadest
definition offers access into the mainstream economy for those sectors of society disadvantaged by the policies of
apartheid and the force of colonialism; and to ensure a competitive construction industry that meets global
standards of performance in terms of quality, productivity, safety, health and the environment.

Capacity
In its list of scarce and critical skills, CETA identifies 49 construction occupations as “scarce” (including masonry,
carpentry, painting, plastering, plumbing, and tiling artisans) and 4 occupations as “critical”, mainly in the
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and Project Management Fields (CETA 2006:5). In addition,
the majority of the craft and related workers are in the 30-59 age groups with only 13 per cent of the total under
the age of 29. This means that the supply pipeline is hopelessly inadequate to meet the demands of a growing
economy. This circumstance is compounded by the fundamental changes influencing career decisions, including
issues such as remuneration, access to and cost of tertiary education, disconnected youth, enabling environments,
working conditions, gender, and career ladders (van Wyk 2006:13).
The capacity of the construction industry is further constrained by the profile of its participants. As Table 1 below
indicates, the contractor sub-sector is constituted predominantly by small, medium and micro enterprises (SMEs):

3
according to the cidb Register of Contractors almost 77 per cent of registered contractors are only capable of
undertaking contracts with a maximum value of €21 505 (cidb 2006:28). On the other hand, 8 listed South
African construction companies accounted for about 23 per cent of the South African construction industry’s total
output (cidb 2004:23). More critically, the ability of government to deliver health and education facilities is likely
to be severely constrained in the medium term: approximately 0.3 per cent of registered contractors are able to
undertake the construction of a Level 1 hospital of 100 beds while approximately 0.8 per cent of registered
contractors can build a primary school for 600 pupils2.

Table 1: Contractor capacity profile

2
Based on established ratios of pupils/sq.m. and beds/sq.m.

Source: cidb December 2006

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) of an enterprise is indicated by, among other things, its accounting
standards, environmental practices, and human rights practices. In neither of these indicators is construction a
leading light. The construction sector faces significant pressure from associated stakeholders within the financing
and manufacturing sectors: indeed it could be argued that the industry’s inability to make substantial
transformation progress has resulted in external stakeholders taking up the cudgels. As Oliver Balch from Ethical
Corporation (2006) put it “several decades of huffing and puffing by environmentalists is now forcing builders to
think green”. The attention is well founded: construction is a major consumer of raw materials and a massive
contributor to waste. In a study combining National Footprint Accounts provided by the GFN with monetary input-
output analyses to disaggregate existing national footprint estimates by economic sector, final demand category,
sub-national area, and socio-economic groups, the results show that among the 76 industrial sectors, household
consumption and capital investment represent the final demand categories with the highest EF (3.84 gha/cap and
0.69 gha/cap respectively). Of the five highest investment categories, dwellings and real estate rate first and
second (Science for Environmental Policy, 2006).

Within the human rights practices arena, construction leaves much to be desired: even in a developed economy
such as the United States of America, an average of 9 000 workers sustain disabling injuries on the job every day
and about 153 die as a result of either injury or work-related diseases (Ethical Corp, 2004).

4
Surveys also confirm that corruption in the construction industry is higher than in any other sector (Transparency
International, 2003).

Performance
The overall performance of the construction industry is globally recognized as “below par” with some
commentators going so far as querying whether the construction industry warrants the title “industry”
(Woudhuysen and Abley 2004:3). Customer satisfaction is an important indicator of industry performance and,
assessing the responses to the cidbs perception survey (2004:21), the performance of the construction industry in
South Africa is no better. Only 70 per cent of construction contracts are completed within the proposed budget
and a similar percentage completed within time (cidb 2006:49). Worse still, in only slightly more than 60 per cent
of contracts was the product relatively defect-free or better. Consequently clients had a high level of satisfaction
with the process and outcome of the project and the service received in just fewer than 60 per cent of contracts.
The perception study found that delays in the design process were common in cases where a traditional
procurement process was used, and a single point of responsibility not defined (cidb 2004:22). On the other
hand, turnkey procurement processes where the contractor took single point of responsibility for the entire
process and project, delays in design and delivery were far less evident. It is apparent from the perception survey
results that definite process improvement is achieved when partnering, teamwork and concurrent engineering
methods are implemented.

Productivity
Even though growth in real output per worker in the formal non-agricultural sectors of the South African economy
was more pronounced at an average annual rate of 3.8 per cent in 2005 compared with 2.5 per cent in 2004
(SARB 2006:20), when measured over periods of four quarters, labour productivity growth waned considerably in
the closing months of 2005 and the opening months of 2006 when employment numbers rose briskly (SARB
2006:20). According to the cidb Status Report of 2004, there was little evidence of process or productivity
improvement and very little attention paid to systematic performance improvement activities (2004:26). The
report notes that even the most advanced companies in terms of performance improvement did not take their
activities beyond formal monitoring and control measures. Quality improvement was also not been seen as a
priority.

Technological adaptation
From surveys of the global construction sector it is clear that technology/adoption issues in general appear to be
the most significant because of the perceived potential to unlock productivity and performance benefits. What
seems absent is a key business issue for the industry, namely how to value technology as an investment. The
global construction industry in general appears to be adopting three different approaches to technology
adaptation: one, to move/adjust itself to accommodate existing mainstream technologies/applications; two, to
develop an in-house capability/technology; and three, to develop shared-use technologies/capabilities which may
in time become mainstream technologies. Regrettably, and disturbingly, the South African construction sector, in
the main, is nowhere near adopting similar approaches. Solid 230mm un-insulated masonry walls, un-insulated
concrete floor slabs, timber roof structures with clay roof tiles, 4mm thick glazing in steel or aluminium frames
with no thermal breaks, almost all of which are cut to fit on site, remains the technology norm.

Black Economic Empowerment

One of the challenges facing South Africa is to broaden ownership of previously disadvantaged persons in the
economy: this Government policy is called Black Economic Empowerment (BEE). Data obtained from the cidb
Register of Contractors indicates that black ownership of contracting enterprises is still largely concentrated at
Grade 4 and lower. Similarly, women ownership is largely concentrated at Grade 3 and lower. The distribution of
black ownership per class of works also shows that black ownership is skewed towards general building and civil

5
engineering, with lesser black ownership in electrical engineering. Mechanical engineering and special works
shows limited black ownership concentrated at the Grade 1 level with maximum contract values of €21 505 (cidb
2006:50).

National R&D Strategies in South Africa

South Africa’s National R&D Strategy (DST 2002:16) recognizes that to promote economic and social development
it is critical to support innovation through the funding of technology missions. Importantly, two technology
platforms are recognized: technology for advanced manufacturing, and technology to leverage knowledge and
technology from, and add value to, our natural resource sectors (mobilizing the power of existing sectors). With
regard to advanced manufacturing technology, the strategy notes the value to be derived from establishing
integrated value chains, particularly technological integration such as in design, quality control and inventory
management.

The Integrated Manufacturing Strategy (IMS) recognizes that South Africa’s future competitiveness depends on
the capacity of the manufacturing sector to master advanced technology domains and to innovate in order to
meet the precise needs of customers. The strategy notes that enterprises of all types and sizes will have to
become adaptive, innovative and internationally competitive.

The Advanced Manufacturing Technology Strategy (AMTS) is an acknowledgement of the importance of

manufacturing to the South African economy. The strategy notes that high-technology manufacturing industries
offer the greatest advantage for growth. Included in its objectives is the stimulating of technological upgrading in
industry. Although construction is not identified as one of the targeted industry sectors, the AMTS technology
focus areas of the strategy, namely advanced materials, product and production technologies, logistics, cleaner
production technologies, ICT in manufacturing and SME development are all shared fundamentals of an open
building manufacturing system.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings
The paper finds that the continuing strength of the economy and the growth in fixed capital formation, supported
by government capital expenditure, creates an enabling investment environment not experienced in South Africa
since the 1980s. In addition, since much of the real value added to fixed capital formation is by the construction
sector, and that the main contributor to the increased financial performance of the construction sector is the
construction of buildings (of which residential buildings formed the largest part), conditions for the development
of an open building manufacturing system are optimal. This finding is further supported by the existing urban
backlog and the growing annual demand for housing units.

The various R&D strategies of the South African Government are distinctly supportive of integrated value chains,
particularly with regard to advanced manufacturing technology and technology to leveraging resource-based
industries and developing new knowledge-based industries from them. Open building manufacturing system
development is further supported by its ability to create new and sustainable permanent jobs – unlike the current
casual employment practices of conventional construction. The existence of established statutory and voluntary
organisations in a well-structured sector further is a further enabler.

However, there are distinct and significant barriers in the construction sector which need to be overcome.
Fortunately the development of an open building manufacturing system can contribute positively to resolving
these barriers. The lack of downstream beneficiation is a serious impediment within the South African
manufacturing sector as is the inadequate attention given to product design and R&D. The availability and pricing

6
of basic raw materials presents distinct challenges in terms of the competitiveness of manufacturing building to
export. Current rates of raw material consumption, particularly from the extractive industries are unsustainable in
the longer term. Skills shortages and scarcities together with an inadequate skill pipeline will continue to create
capacity constraints. At the same time, the “hostile” working environments of conventional construction will
increasingly put off young people from entering into the sector placing it under further threat from the services
sector. The preference for product adaptation rather than product development within the construction sector
further undermines the sector’s ability to attract bright young people and to enhance construction product
performance. Without a resolution to these issues the legacy of poor construction performance will continue.

Business Impacts

The development of an open building manufacturing system could contribute positively to the developmental
agenda of a developing country. The strong contribution of the residential building sector to total construction
industry activity and income is stated above. This contribution is not unusual, although it is often overlooked: the
Sacramento Regional Research Institute notes that “new housing construction as a stand alone industry ranks in
the top five in terms of economic output and accounts for nearly 3 per cent of California’s total output” (SRRI
2006:iii). Thus any delivery system that will increase output is going to make a significant contribution to
economic growth.
Procurement policies and enterprise development are two instruments that can increase beneficiation and
downstream industry growth: they are also two interventions that enhance SME development, BEE and women in
construction. There are however, a number of issues regarding the implementation of the process that need to be
noted and taken cognizance of in order to ensure the future vibrancy of the construction industry broadly and to
ensure future demand opportunities are captured. They are:

Supplier development – the dti argues that there is a general misunderstanding of what BEE encompasses
and requires (2005:59). While clear equity targets have been set for the construction sector enterprises, there is
little to assist the efforts of firms in the downstream sector particularly with regard to beneficiation. The dti
correctly argues that BEE should be linked to a supplier development management programme (2005:59).

Local manufacturing content – at present, fulfilling BEE requirements is primarily based on the equity
composition of the holders of the enterprise concerned (dti 2005:59). There is, in the opinion of dti, no “degree
of local manufacturing content” in the fulfillment of BEE obligations (2005:59). It is therefore imperative, dti
argues, that BEE procurement legislation encompasses a “local content” dimension in addition to being equity
focused if the future of the industry is to be maintained and broadened.

Family-owned construction enterprises – many of the smaller construction enterprises are family-owned and
are generally reluctant to sell equity due to the specificity of their localized operations. Many of these enterprises
have been built on the back of personal resources, both financial and skill. Given the risks they have undergone,
such companies are seldom prepared to take on BEE partners unless they can add value to the operations. Open
building manufacturing systems open new value-add opportunities through extending the supply chain in these
circumstances.

Improved accounting standards, environmental practices and human rights practices should be a logical outcome
of open building manufacturing systems given evidence from surveys on the benefits of partnering, teamwork and
concurrent engineering methods, the ability of such a system to exercise greater operational controls, the absence
of “one-off” production lines, and the greater external scrutiny (public and private) applied to production plants in
general. As a consequence, construction products produced in this manner also offer higher efficiencies due to
higher productivity, lower waste and tighter production tolerances: the EF of the sector can thus be reduced;
there is less chance of budget and time overruns; and more defect-free projects.

7
Conclusions

Construction’s strategic importance is to be found in the provision of the buildings and infrastructure on which all
other industries depend. Thus any intervention that leads to improved construction performance can contribute to
improved economic growth. Construction history has proved conclusively that in almost every case the discovery
of a new material and/or a new construction production process has led to the establishment of new industries,
faster economic growth, and more efficient construction artefacts. However, to make construction sector
enterprises successful, open building manufacturing systems will have to be built on a platform of infrastructure
and logistics, competitive input prices, skills, technology and innovation, partnerships, efficient regulation and
effective government offerings.
A framework for developing an open building manufacturing system in South Africa can therefore be constructed
on the capital used, and the processes employed. The Brundtland Report (WCED 1987) which develops a new
concept of capital, i.e. economic, social, environmental, technological, and ecological, provides a useful definition
of resources employed. The processes employed can be derived from the innovation demands associated with
contemporary manufacturing. A framework therefore can be developed as follows:

Table 2: A Framework for Open Building Manufacturing System in South Africa

The science at one level is simple: construction should not and need not use renewable resources faster than they
can be renewed; should not and need not deplete non-renewable resources faster than alternatives can be found;
and should not and need not create wastes faster than they can be recycled or absorbed into the environment.
Construction methods exist that are inherently safer and pose less risk to workers. None of these elements are
fixed: it is possible to boost the output of renewable resources and reduce consumption. Any technology adopted
should have as its very basis the above objectives. Without it construction will remain severely unbalanced.

Key Lessons Learned:

 Open building manufacturing systems can contribute to the beneficiation of raw materials, especially in
those countries that are net importers of finished products
 Open building manufacturing systems can contribute to economic growth, sustainable job creation, skill
improvements, technology development, sustainable construction activities
 Open building manufacturing systems can create new enterprises especially among targeted groups (SME,
gender and previously disadvantaged)
 Open building manufacturing systems can contribute to the creation of a new and increased total
construction capability.

8
References

Balch, O. (2006) Building momentum brick by brick, Ethical Corporation, June 2006.

Bruggemans, C. (2007) Fixed investment still accelerating, http://www.finb.co.za/economics (date accessed: 23

January, 2007).

CETA. (2005) April 2005 – March 2009 sector skills plan for Construction Education and Training Authority,
Construction Education and Training Authority, Pretoria.

CETA. (2006) List of scarce and critical skills in the construction sector (draft), Construction Education and
Training Authority, Pretoria.

Cidb. (2004) South African construction industry status report 2004, Construction Industry Development Board,
Pretoria.

Cidb. (2006) Annual report 2005/2006, Construction Industry Development Board, Pretoria.

DPW. (1999). White Paper: Creating an Enabling Environment for Reconstruction, Growth and development in the
Construction Industry, National Department of Public Works, Pretoria.

DST. (2002) South Africa’s national research and development t strategy, Department of Science and Technology,
Pretoria.

Dti. (2005) Metals sector development strategy, Department of Trade and Industry, Pretoria.

Ethical Corporation. (2004) Action urged to cut construction industry accidents in Europe,
http://www.ethicalcorp.com/ (date accessed:

SARB. (2006) Annual economic report 2006, South African Reserve Bank, Pretoria.

Science for Environmental Policy. (2006) Ecological footprint for policy-makers? DG Environmental News Alert
Service, European Commission.

SRRI. (2006). The economic benefits of housing. Sacramento Regional Research Institute, California.

StatsSA. (2006) Gross domestic product, first quarter 2006. Statistics South Africa, statistical release P0210,
Pretoria.

Transparency International. (2003) Global corruption report 2003, Transparency International, Berlin.

Van Wyk, L. (2006) The implications of occupational trends on the construction industry, CSIR, Pretoria.

WCED. (1987) Our common future, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Woudhuysen, J. and Abley, I. (2004) Why is construction so backward? Wiley-Academy, West Sussex, England.

Author’s Biography

Llewellyn van Wyk is a qualified and registered architect. He joined the CSIR in 2002
after 20 years in private practice. He is a Senior Researcher in the Built Environment
unit and Research Group Leader in the Construction competence area. He specialises
in sustainable construction and design, built environment professional training and
education, and advanced construction technology. He has presented a number of
papers nationally and internationally and has received a number of awards, including
the CSIR Excellence Award (2006) and the South African Institute of Architects Project
Award (2001).

9
Paper four

Upgradeable Masonry Architecture –

Updating an established Open Building
approach
Ian Abley - abley@audacity.org

Dr Jacqueline Glass - j.glass@lboro.ac.uk

Dr Dave Edwards - d.j.edwards@lboro.ac.uk

Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Engineering

Abstract

The pace and scale of social change over the twenty-first century necessitates an Open Building approach. For
many architects social change seems to render heavy construction obsolete, and there is again much interest in
prefabricated “pods” that appear to be upgradeable. Yet over the twentieth century the “plug-in” aesthetic based
on lightweight technology and rapid consumption has proven marginal to most development activity. At the same
time historic building stock such as Georgian or Victorian terraces have proven capable of adaptation to new life
cycles and aspirations, although that flexibility is far from optimal. It is often laborious and disruptive, requiring
considerable expense.

This paper will consider the extent to which heavy construction, easily realising a 100 year design-life, can be
better designed to anticipate and accommodate social change with less effort and waste. Critical reference will be
made to precedent, such as the work of mega-structuralists, open systems of “Support Structures”, and British
ideas of “Long Life, Loose Fit, Low Maintenance” - ideas that predate discussions of “Whole Life Costing”, or a
version of WLC in “zero-carbon” development.

However this paper is based on research at the Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Engineering at
Loughborough University, to identify better ways of accommodating social change within masonry architecture for
the twenty-first century. The paper will advocate the Upgradeable Brick Home. The UBH is the conscious
separation of 100 year design life living space from the kitchens, bathrooms, toilets and utility rooms designed to
be upgraded on shorter life cycles, and to a different commercial model. This paper will effectively report on work
in progress in collaboration with industry on the UBH project, set in the context of the pressing British demand for
housing renewal and new supply.

Keywords: Architecture, Masonry, Design-life, Upgradeability, Waste reduction

1
Background

Industrial Context

This paper is an early attempt by the authors at the Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Engineering at
Loughborough University to explore the Engineering Doctorate theme of “Improving the efficiency of the UK
masonry construction sector”.

This study, due to complete in July 2010, is focused on house building, has the shorter, working title of Better
Built in Masonry. The aim is three-fold, relating to the three scales of housing design that range between
planning approval and construction detailing:

Better Masonry Housing Technologies

To develop architectural ranges of advanced masonry wall constructions capable of achieving the highest
performance standards required in the Code for Sustainable Homes, (DCLG 2006 f) and with the long structural
design lives that bricks, blocks, and stone provide.

Better Masonry Housing Typologies

To show how masonry homes may anticipate the periodic upgrade of kitchens, bathrooms, toilets and utility
rooms to accommodate the emerging building services foreseen in the Code for Sustainable Homes, (DCLG 2006
f) and with larger internal and external space standards.

Better Masonry Housing Topologies

To consider streamlined and locally responsive approaches to residential development within the parameters of
Planning Policy Statement 3 – Housing issued by central government, (DCLG 2006 e) and within the context of
strategic land use and infrastructural planning.

Problem

There is much talk about the quality of architecture in Britain, and a demand for innovation in planning British
cities. Yet it is also recognised that there is a quantitative problem in housing a growing British population. Britain
is replacing the existing housing stock of over 25 million homes today, rising to 29 million homes by 2030, at less
than 1% per year, while new households are increasing at over 200,000 per annum. (DCLG 2006 d, p 10) There
is an acceptance that more homes need to be built every year. (Barker 2004) Government and manufacturers
hope to produce residential structures with MMC or through OSM to increase the number of units built per
annum. Yet it is a mistake to imagine that turning to structural technologies that have shorter design lives than a
load bearing masonry structure is necessarily solving housing under-supply. Most homes are, and have historically
been, built in masonry, and have lasted for more than a century of social change. It is the pace and scale of
change that requires constant upgrade of the housing stock, however it is built structurally. For masonry housing
the problem of upgrade in building services is the same as for any other structural technology. There needs to be
a conscious separation of the structural design life of living space from the kitchens, bathrooms, toilets and utility
rooms designed to be upgraded on shorter life cycles, and possibly to a different commercial model. Yet
manufacturers interested in MMC and OSM and the site built masonry sector may not see they have common
problems in strategically planning to end housing under-supply. Based in a competitive market, in which
government is not slow in the promotion of MMC or OSM, the masonry sector is often posed as being an obstacle
to be overcome. Even though history shows that “non-traditional” experiments have had marginal effect in
meeting everyday housing needs, and it has been the masonry sector, based in 5 millennia of architectural
experimentation, which has most successfully accommodated dramatic social change in an industrial society. That
ongoing task is not at all “modern”.

2
 Learning Objectives:
 To develop an appreciation that the production of everyday architecture, such as housing, requires a
different approach than that required in creating the many extraordinary buildings that society may come
to abandon, and keep as historic monuments
 To show that house building is neither “traditional” nor “modern”, but only more or less suited to meeting
the architectural needs of the everyday.
 To encourage manufacturers of kitchens, bathrooms, toilets and utility rooms to collaborate with the
masonry sector in developing building services technologies that can more easily upgrade the “long life”
housing stock.

Approach

The following paper is based on the appreciation of the authors that in architecture in general, and house building
in particular, there are wider problems to production than the narrowly technical. For if architecture could be
reduced to simply a technical creative process of design then cities could be made by technicians developing
technologies in factories. Cities, and the houses and flats that they are mostly comprised of, require an historical
understanding.

This paper aims to set out a framework against which the often technical discussion of Open Building may
connect with questions of architectural quality, without forgetting the historical context in which homes must be
produced today – that of a growing national and international population, concerned with climate change, and in
pursuit of sustainability.

Upgradeable Masonry Architecture – Updating an established Open

Building approach

Palladian beginnings

Masonry architecture and innovation are inseparable from the history of human society, since lacking stone the
Mesopotamians developed sun baked brick technology by 3000 BC, building the Ziggurat of Ur with an upper
stage over 30 metres high, and a base of 60 x 45 m. (Roberts 1997, p 56) While such extraordinary ancient
monumental masonry structures have survived to our age, the societies that made them are, if not thoroughly
changed, gone completely.

It took a further four millennia for any society to develop a university, partly to train the clergy, and partly to
provide servants for the state, with the first formed in 1088 in Bologna. By 1500 Europe is clearly recognizable as
the centre of a new civilisation. (Roberts 1997, p 518) Then, for an individual like Andrea Palladio (1508 to 1580)
it becomes socially possible, and desirable, to propose ‘… a bold new authoritative architecture, free from the
medieval constraints of Venice and uncompromising.’ For John Habraken it was important too that Palladio had
published his ideas in his lifetime. His I quattro libri dell’architettura (The Four Books on Architecture) are less
important for their ideas on style, and are obsolete in their technical recommendations, ‘… but much of what
architects do – and how we do it – continues to emulate this undisputed master.’ (Habraken 2005, p IX)

While Leon Battista Alberti (1404 to 1472) was the first Renaissance architect to write an architectural treatise,
the De re aedificatoria (On the Art of Building), it was not widely publicised at the time. (Tavernor 1998) Palladio
was clear: ‘I elected as my master and guide Vitruvius, who is the only ancient writer on this art… and Leon
Battista Alberti and the other excellent writers who came after Vitruvius.’ His aim was to produce a guide for his
peers and the public, so that ‘… one may learn to set aside those strange abuses, barbarous inventions, and
pointless expenses and (most importantly) avoid the common failures of various kinds that have been seen in

3
many buildings.’ (Palladio 1997, p 5) This is the precise motivation behind contemporary publications, such as
Efficient Masonry Housebuilding. Accepting too that masonry construction has advanced since that guide to design
was written. (Anderson et al 1985)

It is necessary at this stage to be clear about the architecture, whether masonry or not, that we are considering.
The Palladian sensibility dates from a time when the new professional architect was occupied with monumental
religious and civic buildings, or the villas of new social elites. Good work if you can still get it, but today everyday
buildings are supposed to be architecture too. Architects are more numerous, and, although scientific and artistic
generalists, practices attract clients by specialising in an established and changing profession. (Hyett 2000)
Architects ignore this shift at their peril, their client’s expense, and to some social cost.

As Habraken explores in Palladio’s Children, ‘… the demands of the everyday environment are vastly different
from what is required to create the extraordinary.’ (Habraken 2005, p IX) Architectural monuments, and even
bespoke villas, which tend to address social change mostly by ignoring the history being made around them,
require different ways of working than are required in the production and reproduction of everyday architecture,
like popular housing. This is most significant in masonry housing. Being a durable load bearing structure a
masonry home, whether a house or a flat, has to anticipate considerable social change if it is not to become
useless. Some social change has a technological dimension, so that the structure may be upgraded over time, but
the weathering masonry wall finish has to remain as fashions in other aspects of everyday life shift rapidly.

The weightiest methods of construction

Ignoring the prospect of social change is hard enough, however five millennia of advance in masonry construction
are really hard to ignore. But since the latest government modernisation agenda started in the mid 1990s, which
amounts to a succession of managerial initiatives and the establishment of duplicated quangos to implement
them, (Woudhuysen and Abley 2004) British construction is arguably far from Palladio’s practical appreciation.

The use of bricks, blocks and stone has such a weight of creative history that an easy but vulgar way of
appearing “modern” has been to reject the use of these materials in construction. The current call for “zero
carbon homes”, based on The Economics of Climate Change, (Stern 2006) requires the establishment of a method
of eco-accounting for the contribution of an individual home to global warming. (DCLG 2006 f) A few years before
that government policy makers began calling for “Modern Methods of Construction”. (Barker 2004) Asking ‘… what
are Modern Methods of Construction?’ in 2003, the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology were muddled
about how MMC could be considered “non-traditional”. The POST concluded that ‘… a range of materials is used
for MMC, the most common being wood, steel and concrete, although many houses built in the UK using MMC
have a brick outer layer and so look like traditional houses.’ (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology
2003)

For the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, the quango charged with ensuring the quality,
and beauty of design, ‘… MMC is a broad category that embraces a variety of build approaches including Off-Site
Manufacturing.’ For CABE MMC comes in volumetric or modular, and panel form, as for the POST. Also in a hybrid
form, using the smaller room pods that the POST group as modular, along with sub-assemblies and components
manufactured as products, all to be installed within larger structures. Also for CABE, ‘… whereas all OSM may be
regarded as falling within a generic MMC heading, not all MMC may be regarded as OSM.’ So CABE admit a
category of non-OSM-MMC, which covers a multitude of “innovation” in construction technology on site, including
innovations in masonry construction. (CABE 2004)

This use of “traditional” and “modern” as a prefix on construction loses the sense of continual technological
improvement, or imposes a false polarity between familiar and novel technique. MMC is an obsession with

4
innovation, seemingly unconcerned that some forms of construction have matured as a technology in which
innovations may be small and mundane for periods of time. The policy tends to fetishise off-site construction,
regardless of whether it furthers labour productivity or resource efficiency. By accepting all innovation as MMC all
construction is potentially capable of being considered “non-traditional”. All construction in the twenty-first century
is of course modern, while some technologies, like masonry, have a tradition of innovation throughout history.

Setting a frame of historical reference

Whether the pursuit of MMC and OSM have realised all the ills of architectural production that Palladio warned
against remains to be seen. But already government is moving to the next “zero carbon” policy initiative in pursuit
of construction innovation. The house building sector will be occupied with innovating construction techniques for
the house or flat types they need to get planning approval for. Recognising this obsession with innovation at the
topological scale of land use planning too, Sir Peter Hall wanted to show that ‘… no one kind of city, nor any one
size of city, has a monopoly on creativity.’ For Hall, writing in Cities in Civilization, ‘… it matters very much that we
try to understand how creativity comes about. It is much more than an academic question. Letting luckless
researchers loose in factories will not answer it; a long look back at history might do so.’ (Hall 1998 a, p 8). Hall is
correct, and those promoting MMC, and now “zero carbon”, need to support technical and typological enquiries
with an historical memory, and relate innovation to the topological legacy of the already built environment.

Who better in that effort to refer to than Palladio? While he is talking of the monumental, we might apply his
three part test for the perfectibility of architecture to everyday housing. ‘There are three things in every building
(as Vitruvius says) that have to be considered, without which none deserves credit; these are usefulness or
convenience, durability, and beauty. For one could not describe as perfect a building which was useful, but only
briefly, or one which was inconvenient for a long time, or, being both durable and useful, was not beautiful.’
(Palladio 1997, p 7) It would be perverse to seek to design inconvenience, obsolescence, dilapidation, or ugliness
into repetitively built homes.

Yet too little space, inflexibility of use, inefficient building services, high maintenance, severe wear in kitchens,
bathrooms, toilets and utility rooms, changing taste in fittings and furnishings, and the value judgements made on
the way the home looks or is situated, all render Palladio’s, or rather Vitruvius’ formula problematic in masonry
housing. A specific set of problems in masonry housing, but no less problematic in other forms of construction. At
the end of this paper this paper will read Hall vertically, against Palladio horizontally, to arrive at further study.

An improvement agenda is not new in the masonry sector. However the UK masonry sector concerned with house
building is in an unprecedented position with regard to building and land use regulations. Compared to the
historic origin of masonry walling as a solid construction, which is evident in British housing prior to and after the
First World War, (Mitchell 1930) still in occupation, it has become technically feasible to develop a suite of
composite and cavity masonry wall constructions to meet the highest performances in the Code for Sustainable
Homes. (DCLG 2006 f) These are to be demanded of all construction materials sectors for new build housing,
which as this paper will show, is small compared to the mass of the poorer performing housing stock.

Yet at the same time Planning Policy Statement 3 (PPS3) – Housing requires, amongst other things, that new

5
housing is built at a minimum of 30 homes a hectare – with few exceptional circumstances. (DCLG 2006 e) While
much of the existing housing stock was built, again often prior to the First World War, at far higher densities,
Britain has been characterised since by much lower density detached and semi-detached masonry housing. So
while government is expecting innovation in new technologies, the housing typologies and residential topologies
that it will permit are not like the largely masonry suburban architecture that has demonstrably accommodated
social change for at least a century. This is no trivial moment in the history of British housing development.

As Hall has warned, it shows a lack of historical memory to imagine that “zero carbon”, 30 a hectare housing,
built in factories, will materialise through sheer architectural innovation in response to government regulations.
Although the materials sectors will rise to the challenge, that does not guarantee the result will be useful, durable
and beautiful architecture, acceptable to planning committees, and capable of accommodating social change over
the life of the structure.

The low impact of lightweight ideas

Enthralled by the possibilities of new construction technologies, it was the Italian architect Antonio Sant’Elia who
was among the first to recognise that the twentieth century would be characterised by the pace and scale of
social change. As the First World War threatened in Europe, Sant’Elia poetically declared with his fellow Futurists
that ‘… things will endure less than us. Every generation must build its own city.’ (Sant’Elia 1914) A superficial
reading of Sant’Elia’s Manifesto of Futurist Architecture suggests a rejection of the aesthetic and technical
disciplines of building in brick, block and stone. For many architects, and particularly for the post-war generation
of architects who reinvented futurist themes, social change seemed to render heavy construction obsolete.

Whether the “plug-in” ideas of Archigram, (Crompton 1998) or the New Babylon of Constant Nieuwenhuys,
(Wigley 1998) a nomadic aesthetic based on lightweight technology and rapid consumption has proven marginal
to most development activity. Even though kitchen and bathroom “pods” featured in the highly influential The
Modern House, (Yorke 1946) in the astonishing House out of Factory, (Gloag and Wurnum 1946) or were
rendered as a domestic proposition in Richard Buckminster Fuller’s Nine Chains to the Moon, (Buckminster Fuller
1971) less widely published first in 1938, the sort of pods used in commercial office development are still
considered exotic MMC in house building today. The “revolutionary” utopias and dystopias of the period 1956 to
1976, exhibited upstairs in Future City at the Barbican between June and September 2006, showed that British
housing remains the laboriously expensive process of getting basic utilities and services fitted into structures not
designed for convenient upgrade.

That is not a problem exclusive to masonry housing of course. Brick, block and stone structures may be the least
difficult to retrofit with new building services. It is simply a measure of how architectural ideas might still be
brought to bear on housing. For while a masonry wall will endure, if all the components built into it are durable,
and start with a good performance, the things that will endure less than us are things like kitchens and
bathrooms. The convenience and beauty of the home depends on the ease of the less durable upgrades, which
may happen 10 times over the 100 year life of the structure. At least upstairs at Future City there was a sense of
the pace and scale of social change. Downstairs, where the post-1976 avant-garde were exhibited, the space was
cluttered with morphing architectural forms, with little of Sant’Elia’s momentous sensibility, and the antithesis of
Palladian. Downstairs was a display of contempt for history, and society. (Alison et al 2006) Yet we have technical,
typological and topological opportunities impossible before, for the historical reasons of interest to Hall.

For the British historian Eric Hobsbawm the Futurists around Sant’Elia stood at the end of “the long nineteenth
century”, dating from the French Revolution of 1789, which he periodised into an age of revolution to 1948,
(Hobsbawm 1975) an age of capital to 1875, (Hobsbawm 1962) and an age of empire to 1914. (Hobsbawm 1987)
It is entirely possible to criticise that periodisation as too neat. However, Hobsbawm well communicates the sense

6
that for more than a century preceding the emergence of a twentieth century architectural avant-garde, there was
tremendous social and technological change. That change was not brought to a halt by the First World War, but
rather projected into what Hobsbawm then accounts for as the “short twentieth century”, (Hobsbawm 1994) or an
age of extremes between the Russian Revolution and the end of the Cold War. The collapse of which, by 1991,
Hobsbawm took to indicate the premature start of the twenty-first century. That periodisation was given further
social expression by Anthony Giddens in Beyond Left and Right, (Giddens 1994).

This historical sweep may seem a remote concern to those engaged in producing the built environment. If they
escape physical destruction, as in war, buildings can appear to endure almost oblivious to the social processes
that historians and critics are concerned with. Being aesthetically or technically focused architects and engineers
can tend to disregard the changing character of society, and, at the same time, miss the relational consistencies
that run through periods of seemingly dramatic social change.

However the corrective is not to criticise the Futurists, like many “modernists”, for an obsession with technological
possibilities. Of course “modern” has been crudely reduced to being “not masonry”, just as “tradition” is capable
of being vulgarised as a fixed building technology. But it is similarly one-sided to be utopian, and to disregard the
very practical constraints acting on society. There clearly was for Sant’Elia, and still is, a need for the environment
we have made to keep changing, to accommodate the generational social change we are bringing about through
our ideas and action. Not only do buildings endure less than us because they wear out through use, or become
useless, but every generation must build for new times upon the urban development that happened for reasons
that may, or may not, have retained relevance.

A futile attempt to re-compact the city

Beyond the polarisation of “modern” and “traditional” forms of development, there is renewed interest in
exploring the relationship of architecture and engineering to society. The circumstance today is not the clash of
imperially minded and belligerent civilisations, as it was for Sant’Elia, but a widespread and not always
enthusiastic awareness that ‘… for the first time in human history, the majority of people on the planet are living
urban lives.’ For Ricky Burdett, Director of the 10th International Architecture Exhibition at the 2006 Venice
Biennale, ‘… the shape we give society affects the daily lives of those who live and work in cities across the
world.’ (Burdett and Kanai 2006, p 3) Burdett tends to miss the tension of the dynamic relationship that the
Futurists appreciated, underestimating how we act on our environment, so that we are not simply determined in
our behaviour by the buildings that we use.

Despite the tendency to indulge in environmental determinism the renewed interest in contemporary civilisation is
generally positive. It is often expressed abstractly, such as when the Institution of Civil Engineers insists that ‘…
civilisation relies more than ever on teams of inventive people to design, build and maintain the sophisticated
environment that surrounds us.’ (ICE 2005) The ICE recognises the social division of labour that has been
palpable over the entire industrial period of concern to Hobsbawm. It is clearly more the contemporary scale and
dynamic of an international division of labour, and in an era where there is no political ideology from the past to
rely upon, which encourages renewed interest in reconciling urban development to social change.

For Paul Finch, editor of The Architectural Review reporting on Burdett’s Venice Biennale, this means welcoming
the “inevitable” growth of megacities. (Finch 2006) To welcome the “megalopolitan” spread of usually low density
urbanisation that was first identified by French geographer Jean Gottmann. He coined the phrase when he
published his twenty year study of the East coast of the United States, (Gottmann 1961) to which he returned to
sensibly observe:

‘Architects are not alone in being preoccupied with form. So are also the geographers, as form delineates sections

7
of space and provides some geometrical frame and appearance of stability. In our time, however, these
approaches seem outdated. Moreover, the purely morphological approach is constricting for the understanding of
the dynamic phenomena.’ (Gottman and Harper 1990, p 265).

This willingness to see through the shapelessness of megalopolitan “sprawl” to the social and technological
change going on within puts the 30 home a hectare topological minimum of PPS3 to shame. It is also evident in
the ideas of German planner Thomas Sieverts. In Cities without Cities he considers the diffusion of the once
compact city into the Zwischenstadt, or ‘… a large conurbation made up of a number of development clusters,
linked by transport routes. (Sieverts 2003) He generously credits H.G. Wells with predicting the emergence of this
new type of city in “The Probable Diffusion of Great Cities”, the second chapter in his book Anticipations: ‘It is
much more probable that these coming cities will not be, in the old sense, cities at all; they will present a new
and entirely different phase of human distribution.’ (Wells 1902, chapter II, p 40) He anticipated too that ‘… old
“town” and “city” will be, in truth, terms as obsolete as “mail coach.” For these new areas that will grow out of
them we want a term.’ (Wells 1902, chapter II, p 61) We still lack the terminology for the new topologies of the
megalopolis.

Wells had a vision of a topology of varying densities of development serviced by patchy and layered meshes of
infrastructure, and it has been given a fresh expression by architect Will Alsop in Supercity. (Alsop 2005) Alsop’s is
a far more convincingly “clumpy” urbanised landscape than Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City, which was based
on the “affordable” Usonian concrete block housing he developed in the depth of the depression of the 1930s,
and centred on his Mile High Illinois of 1956. Wright had recognised that even more than the railways, the car,
along with other forms of communication, would spell the end of the compact, centralised city. (Lloyd Wright
1958) Alsop similarly recognises transport infrastructure and logistical networks as decisive, as does Marshall
Berman in All that is solid melts into air, (Berman 1982) and more important than the information
telecommunications too easily fetishised by Manuel Castells in The Rise of the Network Society. (Castells 1996)

Yet it is precisely the shifting “clumpy” indeterminism of the megalopolis that Hall acknowledged as Gottmann’s
achievement in his classic The World Cities, (Hall 1966) though he seemed to recoil from sprawl thereafter. Hall
was briefly involved in the Non-Plan challenge of 1969, centred on New Society magazine, and with Peter Reyner
Banham, Paul Barker, and Cedric Price. (Banham et al 1969) As Paul Barker remembered in Non-Plan, a
retrospective collection of essays:

‘Between us, Peter Hall and I floated this maverick thought: could things be any worse if there was no planning at
all? They might even be somewhat better. We were especially concerned at the attempt to impose aesthetic
choices on people who might have very different choices of their own. Why not, we wondered, suggest an
experiment in getting along without planning and seeing what emerged?’ (Barker 2000, p 4)

Note that the primary concern, at least as Barker remembers his priorities, was one of aesthetic choice. Not
primarily whether the new homes being built were substantially better serviced, larger, or more capable of
accommodating social change. And note the year too. Non-Plan coincided with the moment when British annual
housing production began to decline from the post-war peak achieved in 1968 of 413,714 homes. (DCLG 2006 c)
At that moment housing policy shifted from increasing new house production towards greater reliance on
refurbishing the existing stock. (Abley 2003) The moment the British middle class passion for the remaining
Georgian and Victorian housing came increasingly to the fore, despite the inconvenience of it needing extensive
repair and maintenance. When with rising expectations the criticisms of post-war construction were vocal.

8
The accommodating masonry housing stock – 1970s to 1940s

Between the late 1940s and the early 1950s British housing policy had been dominated by the urgency of
reducing immediate housing shortages at a time of acute building material and skilled labour shortages. 156,000
prefabricated suburban homes were built as a “temporary” measure, using a range of experimental light weight
frame and panel methods. (Stevenson 2003) Although notorious the “prefabs” were numerically small compared
to the further 1,764,000 houses and flats that were built in mostly masonry between 1946 and the end of 1954.
(DCLG 2006 c) Annual housing production had been raised to 350,000 homes per annum in Britain over a nine
year period. From 1955 onwards it was then possible to undertake large building programmes in both new house
building and renovation, and where it was used, prefabrication tended to turn towards the development of precast
concrete systems. (Glendinning and Muthesius 2004)

Up to the late 1960s, and Non-Plan, the emphasis was on “slum clearance” and comprehensive redevelopment,
and far more successfully than had been achieved after the First World War. This again involved developing “non-
traditional” construction methods. In the definitive Building Research Establishment study of Non-traditional
Houses, Stephen Mullin estimated that some 418,000 homes had been built from such methods in England and
Wales between 1946 and 1975. (Harrison et al 2004, p xxii) As Miles Glendinning and Diane Watters suggest in
Home Builders, Scotland also turned to system building in a limited way, and particularly between 1960 and 1975.
(Glendinning and Watters 1999) Allowing for a small amount of experimentation from the site built norm in
Scotland, over 30 years of house building in Britain before 1975, all non-masonry construction amounted to a little
over the number of homes produced in the peak year of 1968.

After the 1960s, and following considerable legitimate criticism that many of the better Georgian and Victorian
masonry homes being comprehensively cleared could have been renovated, the focus did turn towards
improvements. Indeed, from about 1971, as Paul Balchin and Maureen Rhoden explain in Housing Policy, the
emphasis in Britain shifted from publicly funded new house building to subsidies for the household. The “Home
Improvement Loan” became a notable form of subsidy. ‘These benefited the reasonably well housed at the
expense of the inadequately accommodated, in the belief that such a shift would reduce state intervention in the
production process and, instead, promote the development of the free market.’ By the mid 1980s after a long run
of declining housing production housing stock quality had deteriorated, and shortages were again in evidence. A
situation that appeared as something of a virtue to many, due to the rate of increase in residential property
values, but before the speculation in residential property crashed at the end of that decade. Balchin and Rhoden
note ‘… there was little close relationship between the different stages of housing policy and governmental
change.’ (Balchin and Rhoden 2002, p 7) Home improvement was the companion to speculation through home
ownership, and no political party advocated new house building after the late 1960s as production had been
planned for after 1947. Council houses, of all construction types, were ugly until they could be traded on the
housing market, when aesthetic judgements eased.

The Non-Plan idea was a challenging, if aesthetically driven criticism of those who had sought to increase housing
supply through government expenditure on house building before the late 1960s. Yet it would be foolish to
imagine the cause of the withdrawal of state expenditure was anything other than a political shift in favour of
subsidising home-ownership, and the inability of the British economy to support the construction of so many
homes for public rental.

9
Megalopolis denied in 1947 and 2007

At the same time Hall was completing a five year study published as The Containment of Urban England. The first
volume, notably titled Megalopolis Denied, considered the processes of urban growth in England since the 1947
Town and Country Planning Act had nationalised development rights. The second volume considered the
objectives, operations and impacts of that planning system. While Hall was calling for Non-Plan as an experiment
in freehold development, he was well aware that ‘… the powers conveyed by the 1947 Act made it practicable, for
the first time, to limit the physical growth of urban areas, through the use of green belts and other devices.’ Hall
was in no doubt that ‘… as a result of fears about unrestrained urban growth in the 1930s, in the period 1945-52
Britain set up one of the most comprehensive and powerful planning systems in the world. The key to the system
was that the right to develop land was in effect nationalized,’ and if the landowner wanted to develop ‘… he could
only do so after obtaining permission from a local planning authority.’ (Hall 1973, p 40)

Hall has long struggled with this conundrum. British land use planning was created in 1947 to stop land owners
building freely within technological and typological regulations. Six decades later, and for Kate Barker at the Bank
of England, in her Review of Land Use Planning for the Treasury, ‘… the context for the planning system is
becoming even more challenging’. (Barker 2006) The reason is simple, as she knows from her Review of Housing
Supply. Annual housing production fails to satisfy annual household growth, (Barker 2004), and is falling far short
of replacing the existing housing stock. (Heartfield 2006) This long run undersupply of housing, based on
containing urban development to prevent a very British megalopolis, is no housing policy. Rather it is an excellent
vehicle for a stable period of residential property speculation since the late 1990s. (Barker 2004)

In the context of a speculative property market unchallenged by the low level of new house building it might be
argued that it matters little whether residential structures are capable of accommodating social change. Whether
the structure is useful, durable or beautiful may even be considered academic under those circumstances.

Yet who wants to give up the Palladian pursuit of architectural perfection in housing? Since this speculative
distortion is capable of collapsing in many ways, from a return to higher levels of house building to a speculative
redirection of finance, the aim of developing a better housing stock is still worth pursuing. Hall has never given up
in the face of the contradictions in post-war planning policy. He has done much to argue against those who would
deny low density land use, and most notably Lewis Mumford, who maintained that the sprawling topology was ‘…
not in fact a new sort of city, but an anti-city.’ Mumford speaks for many today when he says:

‘To call the resulting mass Megalopolis, or to suggest that the change in spatial scale , with swift transportation, in
itself is sufficient to produce a new and better urban form, is to overlook the complex nature of the city.’
(Mumford 1973, p 575)

In his City in History of 1961 Mumford saw no evidence of a stable civilisation in the growth of Megalopolitan
sprawl. (Mumford 1973, p 598) He feared ‘… the multiplication of bathrooms and the over-expenditure on broadly
paved motor roads, and above all, the massive collective concentration on glib ephemeralities of all kinds,
performed with supreme technical audacity.’ For Mumford these developments were symptoms of the end, as the
‘… magnifications of demoralized power, minifications of life. When these signs multiply, Necropolis is near, though
not a stone has yet crumbled.’ (Mumford 1973, p 281) ‘I do not at all share the Mumfordian view that the great
city is doomed,’ says Hall in his Cities in Civilization. (Hall 1998 a, p 6)

However it is not sufficient to be pessimistic or optimistic about a particular urban topology. The city is the
container of civilisation, and the background to history. Masonry architecture can accommodate all sorts of social
change, but bricks, blocks and stone don’t determine the dynamic of a society. Mumford should have been looking
for history, not the city.

10
‘The reason it matters that Mumford takes the city out of history is that it has the effect of rendering a specific
historical form of human association as if it were eternal,’ says James Heartfield in Let’s Build! ‘The fact that we
commonly use the same word, city, to describe such different settlements as the tribute gathering encampment at
Ur, the Athenian polis, Imperial Rome, medieval Bruges, renaissance Florence, industrial Manchester and post-
industrial Palo Alto only confuses. The subsumption of radically different kinds of social organisation to one
uniform “city” ends up mystifying what is going on. Far from turning the focus onto historical change, the eternal
city abolishes change, or at least reduces it to the surface interference above the still depths.’ (Heartfield 2006, p
160) This historical appreciation of “man the change maker”, identifies the unique species that Roberts credited
with creating The History of the World. (Roberts 1997, p 38)

The accommodating masonry housing stock – 1940s to 1780s

Although Hall acknowledges there are many possible kinds of city capable of supporting civilisation, he never
escapes the mistake Mumford made in looking too closely at the city. He is interested in social processes, but Hall
still has his own ideal city. Through the Town and Country Planning Association, Hall has consistently advocated
the Garden City ideas of Ebenezer Howard in pursuit of what he and Colin Ward discuss as Sociable Cities. (Hall
and Ward 1998 b) Hall has a particular social organisation, and density of development, in mind.

The Garden City was first articulated in To-morrow! A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, (Howard 1898) and further
expanded upon in the year Wells was anticipating the Futurist potential of Gottmann’s megalopolis. (Howard
1902) For Howard Garden Cities were the anti-dote to the chaos of Victorian compact cities that, as Hobsbawm’s
age of capital transformed into the age of empire, showed a definite tendency to expand outwards through
speculative development. Through sub-divisions of redundant farmland, serviced with new transport and utilities,
often authorised through Acts of Parliament, industrialised Victorian cities spread through the suburbanisation of
speculative terraces in a range of sizes, villas with gardens, and some experimental semi-detached house types.
These were typically built as load-bearing masonry structures with timber trussed pitched roofs and intermediate
floors, entirely reliant on coal fired open fireplaces for warmth.

These are the handful of historic homes; the Georgian, and larger number of Victorian small scale residential
masonry structures that have accommodated over a century of social change. In England, 19% of the occupied
total housing stock of nearly 22 million homes were built before 1918, (DCLG 2006 b) or before house building in
Hobsbawm’s short twentieth century really got going again after the First World War. These typically masonry
homes have generally proven durable, partly because they were spacious, partly because easily adaptable, but
mostly because they could be upgraded periodically, albeit inconveniently, with increasingly better building
services. (Banham 1984) As Reyner Banham understood, it is the largely unwritten architectural history of
mundane building services, like plumbing, that would be a worthwhile further study.

The vital role of building services technology being “loose fit” into “long life” architectural structures seems to
have either been trivialised by post-modern cultural critics, (Lahiji and Friedman 1997), or largely ignored by
environmentalists who have pursued the “reinvention of the house” without regard to the continually improving
technological systems that allow buildings to accommodate social change. (Porteous 2002) This was most evident
immediately after the First World War with the popular availability of gas and electricity utilities, as David
Jeremiah shows in his Architecture and Design for the Family in Britain, 1900-70. It was then that the design of
the kitchen became important, with an increasing range of appliances and utensils being manufactured. In the
1920s gas lost out to electric lighting. Although domestic servants would still be the norm for the middle classes
there was an increasing emphasis on labour saving domestic services, and with the Daily Mail running a “one-
servant house” competition in 1921. The housing stock from Hobsbawm’s long nineteenth century was made
more habitable as societal aspirations were raised by, and demanded, technological innovation. New homes
seemed remarkably advanced in their servicing. (Jeremiah 2000).

11
The Code for Sustainable Homes, in contrast to the rapid period of spontaneous innovation in building services in
the inter-war period, is concerned to raise the performance of new housing construction to reduce reliance on
active systems in new housing. How house builders will act on the voluntary ambition is as yet unclear, and the
code may have to be made mandatory. Yet the existing housing stock will remain unaffected. (DCLG 2006 f) The
performance of the existing housing stock will be the focus of considerable discussion in the next few years, but it
will probably be discussed in terms of carbon emissions, not convenience, durability and beauty.

In England a further 19% of the total housing stock still in use was built between the First and Second World
War. (DCLG 2006 b) That means 38% of all English housing currently in use was built before there was a
planning system. This stock has been maintained, and no doubt extensively adapted and upgraded, to
accommodate considerable social change over at least 60 years – and in some cases a considerably longer period.
Mostly detached and semi-detached with large gardens, these inter-war suburbs are a familiar sight in Britain.
Often they have been so extended that gaps in streets have been closed, and pitched roof lines squared off with
loft extensions, to the point where they approximate the topology of terraced house types.

That so many homes built before the First World War are in use today, albeit with considerable extension, is
evidence that the original and generally masonry built structures are well able to accommodate social change,
mostly through the technological advance in other construction technologies. Yet they are also a reflection of the
inadequacy of the prolific inter-war suburban house building period, most of which were site built masonry
structures. Only 50,000 homes were built “non-traditionally” through to the 1930s, and most by local authorities.
How many of these remain in use today is a good question with no clear answer. In 1920 Sir Ernest Moir had
been made Chairman of the wonderfully named Committee for Standardisation and New Methods of Construction.
Numerous innovative forms of construction to overcome post-war materials and skilled labour shortages were
identified. The subsidies offered in the Addison Act of 1919 for these “systems” had little effect on their wider
application. (Harrison et al 2004, p xiii to xv) In the 1920s and 1930s house building continued to rely on
masonry construction, and upon the existing masonry stock from before the First World War. As Greg Stevenson
has observed:

‘Despite the boom in suburban building, with almost 50 per cent more houses in 1941 than there had been in
1921, Britain still remained desperately short of housing. Increased employment in the late 1930s had led to a
lower age of marriage and a need for more homes. Slums that should have been cleared in the 1920s survived,
and many people were living in substandard accommodation. The new housing rarely catered for the lower
classes as landowners and local councils controlled the housing types that were erected.’ (Stevenson 2003, p 21)

For those unable to afford speculative housing, or to secure tenure on adequate rented accommodation, there
was always the option of building easily on small plots of poor quality farmland, often along roadsides on the
outskirts of existing settlements. Planning did not exist. Plots could be bought cheaply, and squatting of
abandoned farmland became evident, even among the working population. As Hall and Ward recognise, the ‘…
plotland phenomenon was not confined to the South-East of England. Every industrial conurbation in Britain once
had these escape routes to the country the river, or the sea.’ (Hall and Ward 1998 b, p 72) That process of people
building their own, often meagre homes, in response to shortages in housing production from both the public and
private sectors was ended by the creation of the planning system in 1947.

Environmental planning between the state and the market

After 1947 both public and private housing needed planning approval from the public sector, which without a
nationalised construction industry, was dependent on private sector house builders for all production. The
construction industry recovering from the Second World War was consolidated around the planning system.
(Glendinning and Muthesius 2004) That remains the case today.

12
About 25% of the stock in use was built post-war through to the late 1960s, when housing production peaked,
when the state prioritised housing production over the market. A further 30% of current stock built as the
emphasis on housing production declined through to the end of Hobsbawm’s short twentieth century. Then the
market was being prioritised over the state, and property speculation on existing stock became more important
than building new. Only about 7% of existing stock has been built since 1991, (DCLG 2006 b), which as the
Department for Communities and Local Government recognises is less than 1% of the total stock per annum.
(DCLG 2006 d, p 10)

Although government policy is predicated on the fact that it will take more than 100 years to replace Britain’s
housing at current rates of building, there are no plans to insist that houses built today should be designed to last
more than 100 years. The opposite is the case. The design life required of MMC, and perhaps the “zero carbon”
homes to come, is expressed in the Standard for Innovative Systems, Elements and Components for Residential
Buildings as follows:

‘The life expectancy of the structural system and inaccessible elements or components shall not be less than
60 years.’ (BRE Certification 2006).

The standard, known as LPS 2020: 2006, is clear that this is the design life of the structure, allowing for
accessible components and assemblies built into the structure to have a lower design life. This is clearly an
expression of a “Long Life, Loose Fit, Low Maintenance” practicality familiar to architects since Alex Gordon, a
former President of the Royal Institute of British Architects, developed the idea in the early 1970s. Then, with the
oil crisis of 1973, low maintenance took on the far narrower meaning of low energy. However it is short sighted to
insist on an inadequate number of very low energy homes today if such “innovative” homes are insufficiently
durable in their design. How will the housing stock be maintained over the long term of household growth?

In our period, post-1991 for Hobsbawm, the state aims to collaborate with the market. (DCLG 2006 e, p 7)
Environmental concerns have been grafted onto a speculative expectation. If collaboration between planners and
house builders is the way forward, surely there must be some relationship established between the design life of
the structures being built, and the number of households that will be accommodated in them over that period of
social change. Anything less will be a planned undersupply that ensures an ageing housing stock in need of
increasingly laborious renovation. (Woudhuysen and Abley 2004, p 290) Devoted to closely collaborating with
house builders and mortgage lenders in the speculative housing market, to ‘… widen opportunities for home
ownership’, (DCLG 2006 e, p 6) the government appears to be in no mood to go anywhere near a reworking of
the Non-Plan idea to let people meet any planning regulated shortfall in convenient, durable and beautiful housing
themselves.

A contemporary Non-Plan experiment would not have to be like the roadside “ribbon development” of the inter-
war era, even though that suburbanisation has demonstrably accommodated considerable social change.
Government could insist that construction technologies are proven to last more than a century, that a selection
from a wide range of pre-approved spacious housing typologies would have to be made, and these built in
popular site arrangements around new infrastructure. Planners could concentrate on strategic topologies, and
experiment below the PPS3 30 homes a hectare. But even when qualified in technological, typological and
topological terms, there is no willingness within government to allow housing to diffuse into Britain’s abundant
redundant farmland. (Woudhuysen and Abley 2004, p 286)

Rather than recognise diffused development as a successful way that generations of increasingly mobile people
have built their own city, the megalopolis or Zwischenstadt is most negatively conceived as sprawling over-
population. The popular prejudice is there are too many people, with too many cars. Burdett, a member of in the
Urban Task Force that framed planning policy after the New Labour election victory of 1997, (UTF 1999) aims to

13
contain that sprawling car ownership, as if this were merely a technical problem of cramming more people into
less urban area. His most recent attempt to re-establish the compact city, which was the aim of the 2006 Venice
Biennale, follows the densification agenda set by Richard Rogers, chair of the UTF (Rogers 1997) and fellow UTF
member Anne Power. (Rogers and Power 2000) They aimed to force development around existing infrastructure,
rather than advocate investment in new.

Social change is more than numerical population growth divided into an arbitrary land area. For Hall the
densification agenda had become The Land Fetish by 2005, when he resigned from the UTF he had been a
member of, saying ‘… land fetishism is a uniquely English mental disorder.’ He added that ‘… this particular English
aberration is by no means new. The obsession with land began sixty years and more ago, in the 1930s…’ (Hall
2005) Arguably, the UTF was always about making an English fetish out of the topology of suburban homes with
gardens. Hall is right to point to the critics of “bungaloid growth” from the 1920s, such as Bertram Clough
Williams-Ellis, author of England and the Octopus. The Octopus was London, spreading suburban tentacles along
the transport routes into what became the “Home Counties”. In 1996 the Campaign to Protect Rural England
published a facsimile edition to mark the 70th anniversary of the founding of the CPRE as the Council for the
Protection of Rural England. Williams-Ellis not only predates the UTF in his concern about the popular, low-density,
megalopolitan sprawl of suburban house types, but predates much environmentalism:

‘For 25,000 years, more or less, Man or near-man has inhabited this world of ours. Only for the last few thousand
years do we know very much about him. Only for the past century or so has he given cause for alarm and
despondency in his maltreatment of the Earth’s surface.’ (Williams-Ellis 1928, p 11)

Sant’Elia’s Futurist hope for social dynamism had died in the First World War, along with himself, many of the
early Futurists, and vast numbers of young men and women from Europe and beyond. In the 1920s, after the
initial experience of the short twentieth century, a degree of social conservatism may not be surprising. As the
Cold War has ended it is strange that the sense of alarm and despondency that Williams-Ellis succumbed to is
now sustained through environmentalism. The sense that society must survive, and that we have a responsibility
to avoid change that cannot be shown to ensure social survival, (Diamond 2006) is perfectly expressed in the
Bruntland definition of sustainability, named after Gro Harlem Brundtland, a Norwegian politician, diplomat,
physician, and public health expert. The Brundtland Commission, formally the World Commission on Environment
and Development, published the Report of the Brundtland Commission, Our Common Future. (WCED 1987) After
two decades this remains the usual point of departure for any discussion of sustainable development today:

‘Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.’

This was written while the Cold War was still the foreseeable future, and a social polarisation extending
indefinitely into the future. When she might have chosen to look forward to a new millennium in the January
2000 edition of The Architectural Review, Catherine Slessor only looked back to Bruntland. She sensibly observed
that the Bruntland report definition of sustainability ‘… serves as a starting point, but it hardly suffices as an
analytical guide or policy directive.’ Slessor also articulated the hopes of many practitioners when she argued that
‘… sustainability should not be seen simply as a corrective force, but as a new mandate for architecture.’ (Slessor
2000)

But sustainability is no mandate for development in the present, which is where architecture is produced. The
often used Bruntland formulation appears to allow for competing claims between people in the present. But it
leaves open the question of “sustainable for whom?” By doing so it closes down the freedom of people to build
for convenience, durability or beauty, by requiring actions to be justified in the interests of “future generations”.
Who is in a position to decide whether the interests of future generations are being served by a Palladian pursuit
of architecture in the present?

14
One possible answer to that question is Sir Crispin Tickell, adviser to successive governments on climate change
since 1977, and a full decade before Bruntland defined sustainability. Along with anthropogenic climate change it
is population growth that seems to concern Tickell as another UTF member, and major influence on Rogers,
Burdett and Power. The call for “zero carbon homes”, (DCLG 2006 f) and The Economics of Climate Change,
(Stern 2006) is a measure of Tickell’s influence. With prominent environmentalist Jonathon Porritt he runs the
Optimum Population Trust, who think that 60 million people in Britain is unsustainable:

‘OPT researchers have concluded that a population of 30 million may be the largest that the UK can sustain
throughout the next century if its continuing damage to local and global environments is to stop and its citizens
are to enjoy an acceptable quality of life. This research is in part based on the techniques of ecological
footprinting, but the key factors determining the need for population reduction in the UK and worldwide are
climate change and energy requirements.’ (OPT 2004)

They are a little vague on quite how the population is to be halved. But the combination of UTF densification and
OPT reduction suggests Britain will need less development in this sustainable vision of the future, not more. This
is clearly dangerous nonsense. Yet the environmental concern about global over-population is widely accepted.

Britain now contains less than 1% of the global population, in a world with a billion squatters. As the global
population is expected to plateau between 2030 and 2050 at about 9 billion, the number of squatters is expected
to increase to about 2 billion. (Neuwirth 2005) Some designers like Bruce Mau of Massive Change seem to take
seriously the global challenge of housing 2 billion people in perhaps a quarter of a century, and the permanent
need of 9 billion people for buildings that can accommodate the social change they will bring about. (Mau 2004)
The unfounded fear of over-population reaches ludicrous proportions amongst professionals concerned with
sprawl. For architects MVRDV the fact that everyone wants space has, apparently ‘… transformed the world into a
single city, one endless domain of colonization and urbanization.’ But in their phantom ultimate megalopolis,
where it is supposed consumption must be reduced if population is not to be, ‘… there is work for architects.’
What that work might be is elaborated upon for another 1413 pages, before you get to a DVD of 3D graphics.
(MVRDV 2005, p 18 to 21) The productive task of taking population growth seriously is not new, of course. It is
highly unlikely that Burdett’s advocacy of the compact city will prevent the suburban megalopolis being the most
significant way in which societies around the world meet their need for change.

Metabolism and man-made environments

This paper has also been an attempt to show that in Britain it has been the mostly masonry suburbs, generally
built at less than 30 homes a hectare, that have done most to accommodate more than a century of social
change. They are far from perfect homes in Palladian terms, but they include large numbers of homes built during
what Reyner Banham called “the first machine age” of ambitious modernist architectural thought and limited
practice from 1900 to 1930. (Banham 1997) That period was the avant garde prehistory of the functionalist
Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM), which Le Corbusier commanded from inception in 1928,
but which collapsed around its tenth congress between 1955 and 1959. Kenzo Tange came forward with, as
Dennis Sharp noted in his obituary in 2005, a new interest in ‘… flexibility, growth, change and indeterminacy.’
(Sharp 2005)

Tange introduced the work of the young Japanese “Metabolists” Kiyonori Kikutake, and Kisho Kurokawa, who
advocated architecture intended to accommodate social change. They had seen enough upheaval and
reconstruction in post-war Japan. Kikutake argued in 1965 that, ‘... contemporary architecture must be metabolic.
With the static theory of unsophisticated functionalism, it is impossible to discover functional changes. In order to
reflect dynamic reality... we must stop thinking about function and form, and think instead in terms of space and
changeable function... to serve free human living.’ (Kikutake 1965) Kurokawa developed metabolism in his idea of

15
“Symbiosis”, a metaphor borrowed from biology, between the architectural development of man and nature.
(Kurokawa 1998) He has re-emphasised symbiosis as an environmental critique of Western industrialisation as
sustainability has come to the fore in the industrial West. (Kurokawa 2005)

The Metabolist criticism found that belief in planned modernism was already collapsing from the inside. The
functionalist CIAM had criticised the formalism of the schools of architecture, but after the Second World War and
as early as CIAM VIII, hosted in 1951 at Hoddesdon, England, the year of the Festival of Britain, the possibility of
total urban design was increasingly questioned. Not that surprising as Europe also emerged from total war, and
with the professional enthusiasm for comprehensive planning having inter-war origins. (Abley and Schwinge 2006)
Pop Art was underway, (Banham 1976) as were the divisive uncertainties of the Cold War. Architects interested in
technology in the 1960s, like Archigram and the young Richard Rogers, were inspired by the approach of the
Metabolists, and notably Kurokawa, against whom Rogers won the Pompidou Centre competition between 1968
and 1971.

In what serves perfectly as a criticism of the superficiality of Pompidou derived ‘High Tech’, or structural
expressionism, the man credited by Banham with the idea of the megastructure, Fumihiko Maki, had sensibly
warned in 1964 that ‘… our cities must change as social and economic use dictates, and yet they must not be
“temporary” in the worst visual sense.’ (Maki et al 1964) Maki in turn credits Kenzo Tange with the early insight,
although the Japan Architect quote is not referenced:

‘Short-lived items are becoming more and more short-lived, and the cycle of change is shrinking at a
corresponding rate. On the other hand, the accumulation of capital has made it possible to build in large-scale
operations. Reformations of natural topography, dams, harbors, and highways are of a size and scope that involve
long cycles of time, and these are the man-made works that tend to divide the overall system of the age. The
two tendencies - towards shorter cycles and towards longer cycles - are both necessary to modern life and to
humanity itself.’

Banham repeats the unreferenced quote in Megastructure, (Banham 1976, p 217) but Japan Architect had no
archive to search. Britain’s “High Tech” architects had missed the subtleties of Maki’s thinking. The turn to a
technological formalism in Britain in the late 1960s and 1970s, vulgarised mega-structure to mean little more than
big-architecture, served as an aesthetic criticism of masonry construction, and was no challenge to housing
production in decline. The misnamed “High Tech” styling has itself given way to the morphological formalism of
contemporary international avant-garde architects, who are equally disengaged from the need to accommodate
social change in everyday architecture. (Alison et al 2006) Maki has proven far more substantial, and chosen as
the 1993 Laureate of the Pritzker Architecture Prize, his concepts are the basis of much international design
thinking today. (Taylor 2003) Looking at his clarity of thought in diagrammatic form it is easy to see why Maki
remains influential:

16
In his Investigations in Collective Form Maki identifies the generic possibilities for accommodating the super-
human scale of industrial development, all as categories of “‘collective form”. These topologies are “composition”,
“mega-structure” and “group form”, which may overlap in Maki’s appreciation, have been expanded upon in Japan
Architect. (Maki 1994)

 Compositional topologies – where separate and novel projects are composed into the continually
changing urban fabric, regardless of whether these buildings are of a type, just as individual buildings are
composed out of a selection of technologies from the construction product options
 Mega-structural topologies – where instead of individual buildings a high cost infrastructure with a
long design life is imposed, anticipating periodic change of the environmental envelope and the fit out, in
a manner that is logically extendable, and perhaps technologically systematised into types
 Group topologies – where buildings are developed as a series of patterns, or as actual products, rather
than as either unique projects or permanent infrastructure, and where repetition is the means through
which those technologies are continually improved to establish a “vernacular” over time

Composition is the default condition, being the easiest if not the most efficient, and requiring less commitment
beyond the architectural project organisation. It is the way the compact city has been maintained. Maki’s
megastructural topology finds expression in the thinking of Habraken with his highly influential Supports; An
Alternative to Mass Housing of 1962, translated into English in 1972, and re-published in 1999. (Habraken 1999)
This is an approach also discussed as Residential Open Building and explicitly concerned with designing in not
only a rational means of maintenance, but increasing the capacity to adapt the fit out of structures over time.
(Kendall and Teicher 2000).

Maki personally seems to prefer group topologies as an efficient means of architectural production to
accommodate change over time. We might understand the largely suburban megalopolis less as a work of
architectural composition, and more as a social experiment in “group form”, with instances where professionals
have intervened in the everyday, as Habraken has argued for, to systematise development megastructurally
around infrastructure. We might also recognise the potential to consciously design masonry architecture as “group
form”, or a series of upgradeable masonry house types capable of presentation in pattern books, as the Georgians
and Victorians excelled in.

Maki’s topologies then speak to the typological scale. As Manfredo Tafuri explained in his Theories and History of
Architecture, through his rural villas in particular, but also his urban churches, Palladio produced a number of
typological “cycles”, ‘… easily recognisable and with autonomous symbological attributes, solidly structured, and
coherently elaborated.’ A number of “themes with variations”, which Sir Christopher Wren also achieved with his
London churches. Not “group form” as Maki has it, but a clear series of church types, distributed through the
compositional city, and in the case of Palladio’s villas also, through the Venice countryside. But more than Wren
for Tafuri:

‘In Palladio’s architecture one can observe that the logic of the experimentation is in perfect balance with the
expressive potential of the images: and it would obviously be very short-sighted to reduce the range of Palladio’s
art to simple criticism. Palladio… is at the same time poet, critic and a good theoretician.’ (Tafuri 1980, p 120)

Palladio’s success was to usefully accommodate a changing society in durable ways, but to synthesise from drawn
ideas and built practice a new sense of beauty. Contrast this to the assessment of Renato Severino, who in 1970
argued that “modern” architects had ‘… not changed the social sense, the spatial scale, or the urban nature of
architecture’. It was possible to observe ‘… the only lasting effect of the Modern Movement’s early impact has
been the International Style of architecture, with its neat lines and emphasis on pattern’. Severino simply
concludes ‘… we have inherited a style and betrayed a responsibility’. (Severino 1970, p 6) This was also the

17
assessment of Reyner Banham, who in the midst of The New Brutalism pointed to the potential recovery of
Palladian sensibilities, (Banham 1955) following the publication of Rudolph Wittkower’s Architectural Principles in
the Age of Humanism. (Wittkower 1998)

Instead of humanism we have sustainability. In Britain sustainability suggests that future generations will be best
served by inheriting a physically compact and socially diverse city, and that they in turn must look after the
composition for those that follow. (UTF 1999) Sustainability interpreted in that way stands in stark contrast to
Futurism, in that sustainable development is not defined as a process of actively looking to reconfigure the built
environment to accommodate social or technological change. Change may be considered sustainable, and worth
accommodating, but only if it is judged to serve the interests of those who cannot speak for themselves.
Sustainability sounds humanistic, but denies humanism in the present. Sustainability stands in stark contrast to
the lived humanism that Palladio devoted his life’s work towards.

If masonry architecture is to accommodate social change it is a Palladian sense of usefulness, durability and
beauty that must be reasserted, and against an historical appreciation that the housing technologies, typologies,
and topologies that have been realised are to be improved upon. It is then possible to summarise a position from
which to undertake further research:

Happy to talk about technology, but closed to anything but a high density version of the compositional approach
to land use planning, British architects often recoil against the idea of a typological approach to housing in a way
that probably seems odd on the European continent, (Schneider 2004) or in the wider world. Professor Jeremy Till
and his partner Professor Sarah Wigglesworth, both at Sheffield University School of Architecture, are notable
critics of a typological approach:

18
‘We argue that type should not be seen as an abstract initiator of housing design (driven by the will of the
architect) but rather that a whole new range of economic and social conditions are driving the development of
housing design – and that architects should be alert to these conditions.’ (Till and Wigglesworth 2002)

Till and Wigglesworth exaggerate the architect’s ability to engage in clairvoyance when there is only a professional
duty and possibility to exercise reasonable foresight. And attack professionalism in the name of innovative design.
They problematise housing by imagining an absence of continuities for the architect to be bounded by. Obviously
architects should be alert to the prospect of architecture being rendered obsolete through social change. Till and
Wigglesworth would evaporate all typological precedent in the pursuit of novelty, mistaken for innovation, as
evident in the advocacy of MMC.

Oddly, novelty is being sought in housing technology and typology in the name of economic, social, and
environmental “sustainability”. That is not to make the case for “sustainability” being code for “traditional”. While
cultural relativists like Till and Wigglesworth may wish to dissolve housing typologies, it would be a mistake to
merely replicate housing types from the past without improving upon them in our own age. Till and Wigglesworth
appear, in contrast to Habraken, infantile in their rejection of the architectural potential to rationalise everyday
man-made environments. And to do that in ways that allow for the things that architects cannot reasonable
foresee.

Further reading required

Till has been commissioned to further study Flexible Housing for the Housing Corporation. He uses flexibility in his
“guide” with an ambiguous meaning, (Till and Schneider 2006 p 7) even though he includes a useful reference to
the distinction made by Steven Groak between “flexibility” in physical arrangement and “adaptability” in use.
(Groak 1992) What is needed is greater precision of meaning, not less. Avi Friedman in The Adaptable House
similarly falls short of Groak’s distinction by using adaptable in an ambiguous way. (Friedman 2002) After rejecting
housing types, flexibility for Till appears to mean collapsing the thoughtful work of other architects into the
tautological ‘… designing out inflexibility’. (Till and Schneider 2006 p 6) Till and his co-author Tatjana Schneider
will publish Flexible Housing: The Past, Present, and Future in 2007. (Schneider and Till 2007) With Groak’s
clarification at the typological scale, and the importance of considering inaccessible and accessible technology in
masonry construction:

19
Again, this is a tentative table of issues to address further. However a conclusion is possible when PPS3 insists
that the government’s ‘… key housing policy goal is to ensure that everyone has the opportunity of living in a
decent home, which they can afford, in a community where they want to live.’ (DCLG 2006 e, p 6) If that goal is
to be more than rhetorical, meeting the new policy demand for “zero carbon” homes in sufficient quantity to
replace the existing housing stock, and accommodate new households, will require a rapid increase in productive
capacity.

Conclusion - Anticipations

Raising house building capacity is not simply a matter for the masonry sector. Hall is right. ‘Letting luckless
researchers loose in factories,’ is not enough. (Hall 1998 a, p 8) The land fetish has to end if we are to be able to
address the right typological and technical questions. As Mullin cautions, ‘… history is a stern judge, and will not
lightly forgive a failure to learn from experience, not once, not twice, but three times in succession.’ (Harrison et
al 2004, p xxiv) In our age too it is simply not possible to magic an architectural panacea out of a few prototypes
and a 3D computer aided design package.

But it still remains true, as Wells appreciated in 1902, that the subjectivity of ‘… a few energetic men might at any
time set out to alter all this.’ Wells was no advocate of masonry construction. ‘I find it incredible that there will
not be a sweeping revolution in the methods of building during the next century,’ said Wells in “Developing Social
Elements”, the third chapter in his astonishing Anticipations. Over the intervening century masonry construction
has improved upon itself, achieving better building performance with better site based processes. Yet it still

20
remains possible to say: ‘Better walls than this, and better and less life-wasting ways of making them, are surely
possible.’ (Wells 1902, Chapter III, footnote 26) Time is indeed an important in the sense of efficiency in
production, and in the durability of the product. But durable buildings need to be useful and beautiful to be
architecture.

Anticipating homes will last a century Britain should be building 500,000 homes a year to replace the existing
stock of over 25 million homes today, rising to 29 million homes by 2030, at 1% per year, and house new
households at over 200,000 per annum. (Heartfield 2006) We are far short of building even half that number.
(DCLG 2006 c) Any manufacturer looking to produce residential structures with MMC or through OSM with less
than that a 100 year design life need to explain how they will build in well in excess of half a million units per
annum. All sectors in construction need to show how the performance of the building fabric will be improved.
When that fabric, as in the walls of a brick, block or stone building are also the structure, the building
performance needs to relate to the structural design life.

Yet whatever the structural life, the fit out will need to be upgraded many times without damaging the structure.
With 25 million homes and rising more than 2.5 million fit outs can be expected each year at a 10 year design
life. That applies whatever the life of the structure. For masonry housing the problem is the same as for any other
structural technology. Hence we need to think in terms of the Upgradeable Brick Home. The UBH is the conscious
separation of 100 year design life living space from the kitchens, bathrooms, toilets and utility rooms designed to
be upgraded on shorter life cycles, and possibly to a different commercial model.

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings
There is a potential market in Britain for upwards of 2.5 million manufactured kitchen, bathroom, toilet and utility
rooms, either as volumetric modules or as pods. That market could be developed better if the manufacturers
wanting a share of it established collaborative initiatives with those planning the construction of load-bearing
masonry homes.

Business Impacts

Based on the ratio of 10 building services upgrades per each 100 year masonry home, the module or pod
manufacturers could begin to offer an upgrade service, financed not on the mortgage for the masonry structure,
standing on a plot of planning approved land, but on a credit finance arrangement. As the kitchen, bathroom,
toilet and utility rooms are paid for monthly as a depreciating asset, over say a 10 year period, the household
obtains 100% of the usefulness of the “consumer durable”, which being manufactured has all the beauty of a
product benefiting from the R&D invested across the production run.

Conversely the manufacturers of bricks, blocks, and stone might consciously produce Efficient Masonry Home
pattern books, based on the provision of upgrade modules and pods for kitchen, bathroom, toilet and utility
rooms. By collaborating with MMC and OSM manufacturers of such building services, the masonry sector could
offer, at planning stage, a typological and topological service to be provided to households.

Both the manufacturers of bricks, blocks and stone, as elementary prefabricated products, and the manufacturers
of ranges of kitchen, bathroom, toilet and utility rooms, each with their supply chains, could offer a combined
service to individual volume house builders, or reach agreement on Type Approvals with local planning authorities,
all based on a pattern book approach.

21
Conclusions

MMC and OSM then have a huge role to play in the servicing of masonry housing. Conversely, it is masonry
structure that makes sense of the business that kitchen and bathroom pod manufacturers want to develop. With a
sense of history the masonry sector might, again, anticipate the pace of technical advance required for brick,
block and stone architecture to continue to accommodate social change. Important work, since ‘… the alternative
to a changed society, is darkness.’ (Hobsbawm 1994, p 585) Masonry house building could be poised to confront
social change, with millions of better manufactured kitchens and bathrooms.

Key Lessons Learned:

 The production of everyday architecture, most of which is housing, requires an answer to the technical
question of how a structure lasting 100 years can be constantly upgraded, as a service and not a chore,
to remain useful, durable, and beautiful.
 That house building must relate the technical, typological and topological scales of architectural
production in a way that meet the needs of the everyday, for every day in their long life.
 That manufacturers of kitchens, bathrooms, toilets and utility rooms as modules and pods could be more
in the business of developing building services technologies that can easily upgrade the long life masonry
housing stock, if they collaborate with brick, block and stone manufacturers.
 That a new architectural synthesis might be established in Britain between the on-site and off-site sectors,
dismissive of simplistic talk of MMC. A synthesis that might be considered Palladian in the twenty-first
century.

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Maki, F., (1994). Notes on Collective Form. Japan Architect, Winter, p 247 to 297

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25
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Authors’ Biographies

Ian Abley is a 44 year old qualified architect with a long CV and extensive practical
experience. He is undertaking an Engineering Doctorate at the Centre for Innovative
and Collaborative Engineering at Loughborough University, titled Improving the
efficiency of the UK masonry construction sector. While his day job has been as a
detailer and site architect, Ian has a track record of research and publication. He edited
Sustaining Architecture in the Anti-Machine Age (Wiley-Academy, 2001) as a collection
of essays concerned with change in the construction industry, and with Professor
James Woudhuysen of De Montfort University he co-authored Why is construction so
backward? (Wiley, 2004).

Dr Glass studied Architecture at Oxford Brookes University and obtained RIBA Part II in
1994. She then undertook an EPSRC sponsored PhD on tilt-up concrete construction.
On completion of her PhD in 1997, she joined Oxford Brookes University as a Senior
Lecturer in Architectural Technology. During the following five years she also worked as
Architectural Consultant to the British Cement Association. Dr Glass joined
Loughborough University as a Lecturer in Architectural Engineering in 2003. Dr Glass is
a member of EPSRC Peer Review College for Civil Engineering.

In January 2002, Dr Edwards accepted a position at Loughborough University as a

Lecturer in Construction Plant Management. He is currently undertaking research
contracts for the EPSRC, JCB, Defence Logistics Organisation (UK Ministry of Defence),
Contractors Mechanical Plant Engineers and other leading industrial organisations and
working on preparation of an international conference (Sponsored by Finning
(Caterpillar) UK) on construction plant management. He is also the sole academic
representative on a specialist Health and Safety Commission panel for workplace
transport accidents. He has published more than 50 research papers, four textbooks
and is a peer referee for 12 academic journals.

26
Paper one

Knowledge Transfer in Timber Frame

Construction
Robert Hairstans, Napier University/Oregon Timber Frame Ltd (r.hairstans@napier.ac.uk)
Robin Dodyk, Oregon Timber Frame Ltd (rdodyk@oregon.co.uk)
Abdy Kermani, Napier University (a.kermani@napier.ac.uk)
Roderick Lawson, Oregon Timber Frame Ltd (rlawson@oregon.co.uk)
Robin Mackenzie, Napier University (r.mackenzie@napier.ac.uk)

Abstract

Napier University and Oregon Timber Frame Ltd have recently completed an award winning two year project in
timber engineering. The project was conducted under the umbrella of a Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP)
which is a UK Government funded research programme. As a result of the project academic based research has
been put into industrial practice to the mutual development of all parties involved.
Oregon Timber Frame Limited design, manufacture and erect specialised timber frame systems for volume house-
builders in the United Kingdom. As a direct result of the KTP, Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) have been
adopted, value engineering has been implemented and regulation change and revised codes of practice have been
endorsed.
Central to the project are the principles of the Egan Report ‘Rethinking Construction’ which promotes house
builders to specify sustainable and environmentally friendly construction methods and reduce accident rates by
utilising off-site construction methods, whilst increasing overall efficiency and quality.
Through laboratory testing and computer modelling a best practice procedure for the crane erection of pre-
assembled components was developed which has resulted in improved Health & Safety, productivity and financial
gain. Key drivers were applied to the design process as a means to delivering optimisation in relation to
robustness, speed of construction, quality of product and sustainability. Structural design and component detailing
have been revised and improved to satisfy new European Structural Codes of practice and UK building regulations
(Parts L &F).

Keywords: Timber Frame Construction, Volume House Builders, Optimisation, Sustainability and Timber
Engineering

Background

Industrial Context

Timber frame housing achieved almost 20% market share in the UK of all new housing in 2005 and will reach
25% by 2008, according to the latest Market Report published by the UK Timber Frame Association (UKTFA). As a
method of construction timber frame has shown steady year on year market growth, this is due in part to its
procurement and construction procedures being inline with the principals of the Construction Task Force Report
(1998), its ability to conform with tighter building regulations and its environmental credentials.

1
The timber frame industry has endorsed partnering arrangements with both the private and public sector and as a
result the construction process has improved making it faster and more efficient than other forms. Timber frame
lends itself to Off-Site construction and there is now an accredited quality assurance scheme, Q-Mark (The UKTFA
Quality Scheme) which covers design, manufacturing and erection. In addition to this a timber frame erector is
now a recognised trade and the recently launched City &
Guilds accredited training programme in the UK will further
enhance its industry profile.

The benefits of Off-Site construction are mainly improved

time, cost and quality (Gibb and Isack, 2003) and this is
reflected in timber frame. Generally the level of off-site
construction of timber frame in the UK is currently the pre-
assembly of wall diaphragms and floor cassettes (Figure 1).
Oregon Timber Frame Ltd specialises in the design,
manufacture and erection of structural platform timber frames
for the residential market. The company manufactures over
2400 units per annum for house building companies and social
housing contractors in the UK. Figure 1 Timber platform frame during
construction
Problem

The focus of the project was to improve the product and service provided by Oregon Timber Frame Ltd through
the implementation of applied research. Due to the nature of the product and services provided by Oregon
Timber Frame Ltd design, manufacturing, construction and environmental issues all had to be given due
consideration. However, the focus of the research work was from a structural timber engineering perspective.

Learning Objectives



HowHow academic
academic research
researchcancan
be be
successfully implemented
successfully implementedintointo
industrial practice.
industrial practice.


How both product and service can be improved through striking
How both product and service can be improved through striking a balancea balance between
betweenkeykey
business drivers.
business drivers.


Why the implantation of Best Practice Procedures can result in a change in associated risk
Why the implantation of Best Practice Procedures can result in a change in associated risk and how and how through
affiliated
through research
affiliatedthese associated
research these risks can berisks
associated alleviated.
can be alleviated.

Approach

A Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP), which is a UK government funded research programme, was set up
between Oregon Timber Frame Ltd and Napier University. Knowledge Transfer Partnerships is Europe’s leading
programme helping businesses to improve their competitiveness and productivity through the better use of
knowledge, technology and skills that reside within the UK knowledge base (DTI, 2005). Each Partnership
employs one or more Associates (recently qualified people) for a project lasting one to three years, transferring
the knowledge the company is seeking into the business.
Each Associate works in the company on a project which is core to the strategic development of the business, in
this instance the project was to refine the whole process from design and manufacture to erection of platform
timber frames, leading to overall improvement in efficiency and cost over a two year period. Detailed in the paper
are four of the key project areas which have delivered success.

2
Analysis

1. Crane Erect Method of Timber Platform Frame Construction

Traditional methods of timber frame construction are labour intensive and time consuming. The crane erect
method of construction utilises on-site preparatory work and off-site fabrication of system components which
results in improved time, cost and safety.

One of the major parts of the crane erect construction method is

the preparatory construction of the roofing system at ground
level to be lifted into position (Figure 2). To eliminate the risk of
system failure during lifting a best practice erection method was
developed by means of laboratory testing and 3 dimensional
computer analysis (Figure 3).

The derived method of roof lifting is simple for ease of

application on site, can be altered to suit numerous different
roofing configurations and also engineers out the risk of failure Figure 2 Crane erect of roof system
of the roof system with no strengthening requirements
(Hairstans et al, 2004).

As a result of the new procedure significant health and safety benefits have arisen, including the improved safety
of site operations, potential reduced premiums for contract insurance, and reduced management time in
organising operations and dealing with incidents. The operational method also reduced erection time and
improved on-site logistics, and has been endorsed by house builders as an improved construction method.

3740
Resultant X-coordinate (mm)

3735

3730

3725

3720

3715

3710 Test results

3705 F.E. analysis

3700
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Resultant Z-coordinate (mm)

Figure 3 Laboratory testing and computer modelling of roof system

3
2. Shot Fired Dowel Flitch Beams

In domestic dwelling design, when relatively high loads and long spans predominate and where available depth of
section is restricted in some way, serviceability (deflection and vibration) is often the limiting criteria. To achieve
the design criteria without the introduction of a steel I or C section a flitch beam can be used.
A flitch beam is a form of sandwich construction where a relatively thin steel element is sandwiched between two
timber sections (Figure 4). This beam form combines the advantages of timber (ease of working, readily available
resource, simple connection of ancillary components) with the strength and stiffness of structural steelwork.
However, the traditional bolted connection is a time consuming method of fabrication and it also presents
problems in design detailing. Bolt slippage and fabrication tolerances result in disproportionate stress transfer due
to uneven strain affecting the stiffness and strength properties of the beam.

The structural behaviour and performance of a shot fired dowel flitch connection was investigated as an improved
method of construction which involved laboratory testing (Figure 5) and analytical work (Hairstans et al, 2006). As
a result of the work carried out design and manufacturing guidance has led to product endorsement.

Figure 4 (a) Traditional bolted connection Figure 5 Laboratory testing of shot fired nailed
(b) Shot fired nail connection flitch beam

3. Whole House Engineering

A detailed study of standard house types was conducted with parametric designs carried out in accordance with
current British Standards and new European Codes of Practice. As a result of the project the harmonisation of
standard house types with new European Codes has been facilitated and recommendations have been made
resulting in system improvement.

Overall system stability and robustness was regarded as a critical project area which resulted in system continuity
and redundancy being highlighted as important areas in design. Continuity is required for the transmission of
residual shear in walls where large openings predominate or there is the requirement of a residual shear transfer
across a party-wall. With regards to redundancy both holding down and shear resistance were investigated and in
particular it was demonstrated that the racking resistance of a wall diaphragm can be governed by the
specification of the foundation shear connections. A range of available shear connection methods (Figure 6) were
therefore studied which has resulted in improved specification (Hairstans, et al, 2006).

Figure 6 (a) KMN Low velocity shot fired nail;

(b)KF masonry screw anchor;
(b) (c)MSC masonry screw anchor;
(a)
(d) EXPN express nail.

(c) (d)

4
4. Optimum Sustainable Wall Detail 38 x 89mm Wall Head
Fibre cavity barrier

To reach the requirements of the EU Directive on Energy Insulation

Performance it is perceived a timber frame wall detail in (rock/glass wool,
min density =
the UK will have to ascertain a U-value of 0.27 W/m2K.
32/45kg/m3)
To reach this requirement a study was undertaken to
derive the optimum option giving due consideration to
35mm thick 9mm OSB
practicality, cost, sustainability and structural performance polyurethane
(Hairstans et al, 2006).
12.5mm Vapour
check plasterboard
The research work conducted was all encompassing with
Breather Paper
the primary function being to develop a sustainable
method of achieving thermal efficiency. However, due
consideration was given to other project drivers in the 302mm
form of structural performance, fabrication, erection and
Figure 7 Optimised timber frame wall detail
cost therefore providing an optimised solution (Figure 7).

Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings

The implementation of modern method of construction has in the past been met by client scepticism and has
been hindered due to a lack of documented information. Documented information of the processes is required for
Health and Safety and training purposes. As a result of academic affiliated research client scepticism has been
alleviated and robust information has been developed allowing for best practice procedures to be safely
implemented. It is also important to note that the documentation of such information can be used to act as a
bench mark for future research activities.

To improve the overall system through the use of engineered products and components or by means of optimal
standardisation coordinated research activities are required and a holistic approach needs to be taken. To
successfully take a concept from innovation to implementation it is important to communicate efficiently with the
parties to be affected by any change. It is important to balance the opinions of the parties to be affected by the
change such that a mutually beneficial end result is developed, a critical aspect of which is to understand the
business needs.

Business Impacts

As a result of the project Oregon Timber Frame Ltd has improved its competitive position. The commercial
decision making process has been enhanced through technical support and an increased availability of valued
information. In particular the academic partner has provided a knowledge base and use of resources which would
have been otherwise difficult to obtain.
The design procurement process is now more robust and the information streams between internal departments,
clients and suppliers have been refined and improved. It has been demonstrated that improved communication
was the catalyst to the implementation of innovation resulting in unique selling points (USP’s) for the business.
Due to the development of USPs an increase of £280,000 in pre-tax profit resulting from the Partnership over the
next three years is predicted.

5
Conclusions

As a result of the project the following have been achieved:

 The alleviation of client scepticism towards the implementation of modern methods of construction as a result
of credible research and development with an academic partner.
 The optimisation of components and the endorsement of new engineered materials by means of improved
design and investigation procedures.
 Improved standardisation and the assurance of quality and robustness by means of whole house engineering
concepts.
 The development of products and process applying a holistic approach has resulted in optimum solutions being
found.

Key Lessons Learned

 To take innovation to implementation in a multidisciplinary environment requires good communication

between the parties involved and those which will be affected.
 The competitive position of a company on several fronts can be enhanced as a result of working in
collaboration with academia.
 Research and development projects should meet both internal and external needs as this will result in
overall endorsement.
 Optimisation of a product or process requires a holistic approach to be taken.

References

UK Timber Frame Association (2006) “Timber frame sees biggest jump in market share since industry statistics
began” www.timber-frame.org

Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) (2005), Knowledge Transfer Partnerships Annual Report 2004/2005,
http://www.ktponline.org.uk

Construction Task Force (1998) Rethinking Construction, Department of Trade and Industry, Crown Copyright,
URN 03/951

Gibb, A. G. F and Isack, F. (2003) Re-engineering Through Pre-Assembly: Client Expectations and Drivers, Building
Research and Information, Issue 31(2), pp 146 – 160, ISSN 0961 3218

Hairstans, R., Kermani, A. and Lawson, R (2004) “Crane erect of timber-truss rafter roofs”, Proceedings of the
Institute of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability, Issue ES2, pp 89 – 98

Hairstans, R., Kermani, A. and Lawson, R. (2006). "Timberstrand LSL nailed flitch beams". Proceedings of the 9th
World Conference on Timber Engineering, 6-10 August 2006, Oregon, USA

Hairstans, R., Kermani, A. and Lawson R. (2006). "Stability of a domestic dwelling". Proceedings of the 9th World
Conference on Timber Engineering, 6-10 August 2006, Oregon, USA

Hairstans, R., Dodyk, R. and Kermani, A. (2006). "Development of the optimum sustainable timber frame wall
detail". Proceedings of the 9th World Conference on Timber Engineering, 6-10 August 2006, Oregon, USA

6
Authors’ Biographies

Robert Hairstans is both a Research Fellow in the Centre for Timber Engineering at
Napier University and a Development Engineer for Oregon Timber Frame Ltd.

Robin Dodyk, Technical Director of Oregon Timber Frame Ltd., is responsible for running
the Research & Development activities of Oregon Timber Frame Ltd.

Professor Abdy Kermani is a Chartered Structural Engineer and Fellow of the Institute of
Wood Science, based at Napier University with over 20 years’ experience as a R&D
Consultant in Timber Engineering. He has been involved in and led numerous academic,
industrial and government funded programmes in the structural use of timber and its
reconstituted and engineered products.

Roderick Lawson is the Financial Director of Oregon Timber Frame Ltd, who has a first
degree in Civil Engineering and is responsible for Innovation and Improvements.

Professor Robin Mackenzie is the Associate Dean (Research & Knowledge Transfer) in
the Faculty of Engineering, Computing & Creative Industries at Napier University. He is a
Fellow and past member of the Council of the Institute of Acoustics, the first chairman
of the Building Acoustics Group and has served as chairman and member of Working
Groups on Building Acoustics for the International Standards Organisation (ISO),
European Standards (CEN) and British Standards Institution (BSI).

7
Paper two

Attitudes towards pre-fabricated housing:

The training conundrum
Mark Sharp, CIRIA, Classic House, 174- 180 Old Street, London, EC1V 9BP, UK. mark.sharp@ciria.org

Keith Jones, Mike Coffey, University of Greenwich, School of Architecture and Construction, Bexley Road,
London, SE9 2QP, UK. k.g.jones@gre.ac.uk, m.w.coffey@gre.ac.uk

Abstract
This paper reports on findings from a structured research programme, funded by the Housing Corporation, which
aimed to establish current attitudes towards prefabricated housing systems and identify gaps in knowledge that
could undermine their effective future maintenance. The paper concludes that attitudes have changed over the
past 15 years with all the stakeholders exhibiting a more positive attitude than had been reported previously. In
addition the paper identifies key areas of training and possible skills required within the UK workforce if the
predicted uptakes of prefabricated systems are not to fall victim to the mistakes of the past.

Keywords: Prefabricated Housing; Training, Attitudinal Survey; Maintenance and Refurbishment.

Background
UK built environment perspective

The UK construction industry has been the subject of various initiatives and sector wide investigations over the
past few years (Latham, 1994; Egan, 1998). During these reviews traditional building concepts have been
questioned and improved quality has been identified as a key challenge that the industry has to address. To this
end manufacturing mechanisms have been proposed as one way that the industry could address this challenge
(Egan, 1998). In particular Egan identified the adoption of ‘standardisation’, ‘prefabrication’ and ‘whole house
thinking’ in the new social housing sector, where projects are commissioned by a few major clients, could provide
an opportunity for improvements in house building performance which would then act as a catalyst to the rest of
the industry. However, the conservative attitudes among mortgage lenders, a reluctance within the construction
sector to innovate, and an industry that is risk averse, has led to a market that is slow to introduce appropriate
technologies to deal with the problems associated with better quality, lower cost and a more efficient construction
paradigm. This paper will examine some of the issues from both a UK construction perspective and a European
training perspective.

UK Social House building

Whilst specific responsibility for procuring new social housing in the UK resides with Registered Social Landlords
(RSL’s), the majority of the funding for new development comes from the Housing Corporation via an annual
bidding round. In the annual bidding round individual RSL’s submit development projects which, following
evaluation, are either adopted as part of the Annual Development Programme (ADP) and funding is allocated, or
are rejected. Although the details of the bid process are not relevant to the present paper, the fact that from
2000 onwards a proportion of the ADP had to be deemed to be Egan compliant is. Whilst Egan compliance did
not necessitate the use of modern house building methods, they were on way that compliance could be

1
demonstrated. As such they provided a catalyst to the market at a time when it was in its infancy. Indeed,
through the Kick-start Programme (The Housing Corporation, 2001) the Housing Corporation ring fenced
approximately £80 million of Social Housing Grant to support prefabrication based projects between 2001 - 3. In
order to bid for this funding RSL’s had to identify new development opportunities that utilised one of a pre-
selected range of innovative (offsite fabricated) house building technologies.

At the same time as the Housing Corporation were providing funding incentives for pre-fabricated housing, The
Housing Forum were promoting its wider uptake through an awareness raising campaign of the various
technologies amongst those responsible for developing new housing. The Housing Forum Demonstration Projects
Report (Housing Forum, 2002) provided detailed case study information on the performance of a large number of
RSL focused development projects whilst the Homing in on Excellence report (Housing Forum, 2002) clearly
identified the arguments for offsite fabrication and the barriers to implementation that needed to be overcome
within the UK mass housing market. With respect to the latter, the past UK experience of non-standard house
construction and the inadequacy of current levels of training / skills amongst the workforce were identified as
major obstacles that needed to be addressed if offsite fabrication was to have a major impact on the UK house
building industry. These findings were similar to those reported previously by Chandler (CIB, 1988) who
examined a range of maintenance issues (including defect recognition and repair evaluation, knowledge and skill
of professional and site staff and whole life performance of building components) as part of the Construction
Industry Training Board Tern Project. Chandler concluded that research was required not only into the technology
of repair for non traditional housing but also into the whole decision making process.

Training background – EU perspective

The EU construction sector is one of the largest industrial employers in the European Union (2.3 million
enterprises) employing a total of 11.8 million workers (7.1% of the European workforce). Furthermore,
jobs held by 26 million workers in the EU are dependant (directly or indirectly) on construction. Despite
the fact that 96% of construction enterprises in Europe are SME’s (with fewer than 20 operatives) the
construction sector contributes 9.8% to the European GDP (Business Watch, 2005).

A criticism directed at European projects is that the take up of identified results for dissemination and
training has been limited. A primary reason cited for this is the gap between academic concepts and
industry need for continuous improvements in bottom line performance (Rezugi and Zarli, 2006).

Therefore training and education has an important role to play in communicating and demonstrating
technological solutions and benefits to stakeholders. However, the ‘typical’ educational model is often
criticised for providing general instruction to students, with the anticipation that the prospective employer
would be responsible for delivering on-the-job training. It is only with a combined approach to problem
solving through possible solution implemented by appropriate training will the construction sector be able
to find innovative solutions to its manufacturing problems.

Training Background – organisational perspective

There have been several attempts to identify the origins of Organisational Learning (OL) most notably Argyris and
Schon (1978), Senge (1990), and Huber (1991). These theories have identified that the collective actions of
individuals are used to improve the knowledge of the organisation.

A learning organisation is not about ‘more training’. Whilst training does help develop certain types of skill, a
learning organisation involves the development of higher levels of knowledge and skill. The model looked at was a
4-level model:

2
 Level 1.- Learning facts, knowledge, processes and procedures. Applies to known situations where changes are
minor.

 Level 2.- Learning new job skills that are transferable to other situations. Applies to new situations where
existing responses need to be changed. Bringing in outside expertise is a useful tool here.

 Level 3 - Learning to adapt. Applies to more dynamic situations where the solutions need developing.
Experimentation, and deriving lessons from success and failure is the mode of learning here.

 Level 4 - Learning to learn. Is about innovation and creativity; designing the future rather than merely
adapting to it. This is where assumptions are challenged and knowledge is reframed.

Furthermore this model (or adaptation of it) can be applied at three levels - to the learning of individuals, of
teams and of organisations. Organisations that achieve learning to Level 4 will “reinvent not just their
organisation but their industry” (Hamel and Prahaled in Competing for the Future)

Characteristics of a Learning Organisation

Observation and research identifies four types of factor:

 Learning Culture - an organisational climate that nurtures learning. There is a strong similarity with those
characteristics associated with innovation.

 Processes - processes that encourage interaction across boundaries. These are infrastructure, development
and management processes, as opposed to business operational processes (the typical focus of many BPR
initiatives).

 Tools and Techniques - methods that aid individual and group learning, such as creativity and problem solving
techniques.

 Skills and Motivation - to learn and adapt.

Additional points on the first three are

 A Learning Culture

 Future, external orientation these organisations develop understanding of their environment; senior teams take
time out to think about the future. Widespread use of external sources and advisors e.g. customers on
planning teams.

 Free exchange and flow of information - systems are in place to ensure that expertise is available where it is
needed; individuals network extensively, crossing organisational boundaries to develop their knowledge and
expertise.

 Commitment to learning, personal development - support from top management; people at all levels
encouraged to learn regularly; learning is rewarded. Time to think and learn (understanding, exploring,
reflecting, developing)

 Valuing people - ideas, creativity and “imaginative capabilities” are stimulated, made use of and developed.
Diversity is recognised as a strength. Views can be challenged.

3
 Climate of openness and trust - individuals are encouraged to develop ideas, to speak out, to challenge
actions.

 Learning from experience - learning from mistakes is often more powerful than learning from success. Failure
is tolerated, provided lessons are learnt.

Whilst training is an elemental part of organisational training along with change, and career development.
Lingham (2006) identified that in this context the training focus should be on adult learning, experiential learning
and cognitive abilities of adult learners.

Training can also be considered as a management tool as well as an instrument for addressing skill deficiencies
and therefore aims to adapt employee qualifications to job requirements (Krogt and Warmerdam, 1997). It can
also act as a conduit for linking organisational strategies and goals (Sleezer, 1993).

Within the construction industry, training has often been linked to improved levels of production, but more
fundamentally, it can also be used to address critical weaknesses, improve the transfer of skills and knowledge,
and help develop a common culture within the organisation. Furthermore, it can facilitate and provide a change
in organisational behaviour, which can often enhance an organisation’s capability to survive (Kessels and Harrison,
1998).

Approach
The research outline

The current project aimed to address the issues identified above by examining whether past (adverse) UK
experiences of prefabricated housing and/or inadequacy of current levels of training/skills amongst the workforce
were actual rather than perceived barriers to the implementation of prefabricated housing amongst RSL’s, their
professional advisors and their house building contractors. The project was funded by the Housing Corporation
through their Innovation and Good Practice Grant scheme.

The current project sought to examine the extent to which:

 a lack of skills to effectively project manage prefabricated development projects (both during design and
during construction) could prejudice good design and construction; and
 a lack of understanding about key aspects of effective maintenance of prefabricated buildings (e.g. the
importance of intact vapour barriers in timber or steel framed buildings) could prejudice good maintenance and
potentially undermine warranties.

Whilst either of these issues alone would prove problematic to RSL’s as they sought to promote the greater use of
off-site prefabrication, the combination of the two together would cause concerns to valuers and funders, and
ultimately prejudice mortgageability. This following reports the results from the maintenance and refurbishment
part of the project.

A semi structured, telephone based interview questionnaire was developed to address the attitudes and
experiences of the five key professional (Built Environment) stakeholders (architects, RSL developer,
contractor/producer, maintenance organisations, implementers) who, through the inputs they provide to the
housing development decision making process, have a significant impact on whether prefabricated housing
solutions would be adopted ahead of more traditional ones.

4
The questionnaire was developed into five sections, contextual, procurement, project management, skills
audit/training and maintenance issues.

Analysis
Results and analysis

Results for this paper have been drawn from the skills audit/training section.

Respondents were asked to identify whether special skills/knowledge was required for the design, construction
and management of prefabricated projects, compared to traditional construction techniques and methods of
construction. Unsurprisingly architects considered that the design was more important than the other
respondents.

Detailed knowledge of design principles used in the prefabricated

systems

4.5
4
4
3.5
3 3
3
2.5
Mean

2
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Surveyors Architects RSL Maint

Fig.1. Detailed knowledge of design principles for prefabrication.

Respondents were then asked whether they thought that operatives would need specialist knowledge and training
in order to both construct and maintain prefabricated building systems. As can be seen from Fig.2 below there
was a discrepancy in opinion. The surveyors and maintenance organisations clearly believed that training and
specialist knowledge was very important. Architects thought that training was not particularly necessary or
important, whilst the RSL’s indicated that there was a need for training but were not clear as to the importance of
what this actually meant to the maintenance phase as they were under the impression that all new houses came
with the National House Building Council (NHBC) ten year guarantee and so presumed that no maintenance would
be needed for ten years.

5
 Operatives need specialist knowledge and training to construct &
maintain prefabricated building systems

4.5
4 4
4
3.5
3
2.5
Mean

2
2
1.5
1
1
0.5
0
Surveyors Architects RSL Maint

Fig.2 the need for operatives to have specialist knowledge and training

There was a marked difference of opinion from respondents regarding professional training. Neither Surveyors nor
RSL clients considered specific training for professionals was necessary. Surveyors indicated that because they
were trained in building technology they did not require any further training, whilst RSL’s did not think that
training was necessary and a major factor was the cost of training not fitting in with the budgets of their
respective organisations. Architects however understood that training for the professionals who would be looking
after the prefabricated building was a high priority in order that it would remain as part of a legacy to the local
area in which it was built.

Maintenance organisations however, felt that all professionals concerned with prefabrication were in need of
training. Comments from this group of respondents indicated that, maintenance need of the building should be
considered at the design stage; architects were in need of identifying the ‘construction technology’ not just in the
specification of the materials, but also knowledge and training of their use in how the building can be
constructed and maintained efficiently were the main issues identified (surveyors were thought to be expensive,
subjective, inconclusive in traditional methods of construction and so were probably the most in need of training
identified by this group).

6
 Professionals need specialist knowledge and training to construct &
maintain prefabricated building systems

4.5
4
4
3.5
3
3
2.5
Mean

2
1.5
1 1
1
0.5
0
Surveyors Architects RSL Maint

Fig.3 the need for professionals to have specialist knowledge and training

Finally respondents were asked to identify where training could be most effective and what the reasons for the
identification of that need were. All agreed that training was essential, apart from the maintenance organisations
that identified that both professionals and operative training was highly important. All other respondents thought
that training needed to be restricted to those who carried out the operational construction and maintenance of
prefabricated buildings. The primary reason cited for this was that respondents felt that as they had all had
training in some form of traditional construction processes there was no need for them to undertake further
training.

Conclusions
In conclusion it would appear there is still a large disparity between the opinions of the various key stakeholders
in the construction process, indeed there seems to be a widening of the fragmentation within the construction
sector at a professional level as to the needs of a prefabricated system. There is a concerning lack of knowledge,
skill and training in the understanding of the key aspects of prefabricated systems in the UK. The need for
European initiatives such as the Manubuild project can act as both innovator and exemplar in identifying good
practice and training opportunities that can be transferred on a continental basis rather than within the confines
of individual countries.

However, it is the serious lack of understanding of prefabricated systems that needs to be addressed by training.
The authors recommend that further research be undertaken, to also include education as part of the training
process. The authors view within this context is that, educating opinion before it matures to an attitude, because
educating people to change their opinion is easier than trying to re-train an attitude.

7
References
Argyris, C and Schön, D.A (1978), Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective, Addison-Wesley,
Massachusetts, USA

Business Watch, The European e-Business Market Watch (2005), Sector report No. 08-II, ICT and Electronic
Business in the Construction Industry, IT adoption and e-business activity in 2005, European Commission,
Enterprise and Industry Directorate General

Egan, Sir John (1998) ‘Rethinking Construction’, Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions,
HMSO.

Hamel, G., Prahaled, C.(1994) Competing for the future: Harvard Business School Press

Huber, G.P (1991), Organizational Learning: The Contributing Processes and the Literatures, Journal of
Organization Science, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp 88-115

Kessels, J and Harrison, R (1998), External Consistency: The Key to Success in Management Development
Programmes?, Journal of Management Learning, Vol. 29, Part 1, pp 39-68

Krogt, F and Warmerdam, J (1997), Training in Different Types of Organisations: Differences and Dynamics in the
Organisation of Learning at Work, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 8, Part 1, pp 87-
105

Latham, Sir Michael (1994) ‘Constructing the Team’, HMSO.

Lingham, T. et al. (2006). An evaluation system for training programs: a case study using a four-phase approach,
Career Development International, 11 (4), pp. 334-351

Rezugi, Y. and Zarli, A. (2006), Paving the way to the vision of Digital Construction: A strategic Roadmap, Journal
of Construction Engineering and Management, 132 (7), pp. 767-776

Senge, P.M (1990), The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, Currency Doubleday,
New York, USA

Sleezer, C (1993), Training Needs Assessment at Work: A Dynamic Process, Human Resource Development
Quarterly, Vol. 4, Part 3, pp 247-264

The Housing Forum (2002) ‘Homing in on Excellence’, The Housing Forum.

The Housing Forum (2002) ‘The Housing Forum Demonstration projects Report February 2002’, The Housing
Forum.

8
Paper three

Crossover Design
Multidisciplinary design and construction process

Professor Dr. Thomas Bock, Chair for Realization and Informatics in Construction, Technical University of
Munich, (thomas.bock@bri.ar.tum.de)

Ron Unser, Chair for Realization and Informatics in Construction, Technical University of Munich,
(unser@bri.ar.tum.de)

Thomas Clausen, Chair for Construction Management, Technical University of Munich, (t.clausen@bv.tu-
muenchen.de)

Thomas Meiwald, Institute For Product Development, Technical University of Munich, (meiwald@pe.mw.tum.de)
Daniel Rackensperger, Institute for Information, Organization and Management, Technical University of Munich,
(rackensperger@wi.tum.de)

Abstract

Designing in multidisciplinary teams is the key to radical innovation. While parts of high tech industry start dealing
with this groundbreaking approach, the construction sector is falling behind once more. Related to building
industry, Universities continue teaching the traditional isolated view an different fields of knowledge. To overcome
this barriers and to introduce this way of developing to the construction sector, the Technical University of Munich
is launching a new seminar concept, bringing together students of architecture, civil engineering, mechanical
engineering and economics in multidisciplinary teams, focussing on knowledge transfer, appliance of methods and
communication skills.

Keywords: Multidisciplinary teams, industry-university cooperation, innovation, training, transfer of technologies

and methods, soft skills.

Background

Industrial Context
Many areas of industrial production are focusing on multidisciplinary cooperation of partly external fields of
expertise. Linkage of various domains can enhance innovation by systematic transfer of technology and
knowledge. This can be applied to new radical concepts and processes as well as on precise product
developments.

Multidisciplinary teams can contribute significantly to the success of innovations. Companies increasingly rely on
cross-functional teams, striving for the reduction of product development time and the improvement of product
development outcomes. Above all interdisciplinary teams have high absorptive capacity, facilitating the
identification and application of external information to the innovation process through the broad knowledge base
of the team. In addition, the combination of individuals with different expertise can also increase creativity.

1
 100%
90%
80% 74%
70% 64%
60%
50%
40% 31%
30% 21%
20% 2004
10% 5% 5%
2005
0%
Decrease No change Increase

Figure 1: Change of company’s investment in innovation (Source: BCG 2005 ICT Survey)

Dealing with innovations it is crucial to be aware of opportunities and risks involved. Innovations are seen as key
to growth and corporate success. Technological progress, changing consumer behaviour and tightened
competition demand for innovation to achieve competitive advantage. Often innovation is seen as the only way for
sustainable growth. But chances go along with risks. Depending on the industry, between 30 and 70 per cent of
the products introduced into the marketplace are proved to be “flops”. Therefore innovations can be seen as
demanding challenges.

Problem

The construction sector, known as a rather traditional branch, is dragging behind this evolution once more. Like
industrial prefabrication before, multidisciplinary work is virtually unknown today. At the same time, the
conventional construction process can be a classical example of multidisciplinary work, combining experts for
architecture, engineering, economics and others.
This deficiency can be found both in academic training and practise:

1. Academic education
In most construction related faculties there is a clear focus on the classical elements of the design and
construction without any link to industrial prefabrication, construction sequence, process oriented work or
innovative technologies. Instead of influences from other technical or economical sectors it is an isolated view on
design theories and structural analysis; unfortunately the importance of multidisciplinary work and communication
is a very rare lesson. The design process itself is stated rather artistic and emotional, lacking any methodical
approach or organisational structure.

2. In practice
This archaic view is carried right into practical work, making the design and construction process more elaborate
than it might be, specialist consultants are called in too late or only if essential. This traditional proceeding often
results in inefficient planning and constrains any progression towards new production techniques and industrial
prefabrication.

However the high complexity and the mostly unique design of a modern building, as well as its much longer life
cycle (compared to other industrial products) require multidisciplinary work between all kinds of high tech
branches and experts in business administration of course.

2
 OPTIMUM

EXPERTISE APPLICATION OF METHODS SOFT SKILLS

Figure 2: Current state of academic and practical work

Learning Objectives:
 benefits of multidisciplinary work, especially for housing industry
 importance of soft skills for efficient working teams
 methods leading to innovative solutions
 cooperation between industry and different university faculties

Approach

Crossover Design wants to overcome these barriers, aiming at the full exploitation of the benefits of
multidisciplinary teams for the construction industry, especially for prefabrication. Apart from traditional isolated
teachings by separated faculties, the students’ awareness of multidisciplinary work and all its preconditions and
consequences is to be raised.

Therefore TU Munich’s four faculties of civil engineering, architecture, mechanical engineering and economics
have developed a radical new seminar concept, bringing students from each of the faculties together to work on
and learn from practical tasks given by industrial partners.

The primary aims of this one semester seminar are:

– Exchange and appliance of external methods to the design and construction processes
– Knowledge transfer leading to new links and combinations
– Enhancing prefabrication by applying established external technologies and new materials
– Development of awareness for the other disciplines
– Analysis and promotion of communication between different fields of knowledge
– Embedding of economical perception from the very beginning
– Training soft skills

OPTIMUM

EXPERTISE APPLICATION OF METHODS SOFT SKILLS

Figure 3: Potential increase based on multi-disciplinary training

3
Analysis

It is impossible to capture all these specified topics in a theoretical one semester lecture, the issue is much too
complex to highlight every detail. Rather, behaviour as well as working methods are to be trained in a map
exercise, combining precise up to date tasks and coaching from industry partners.

1. Seminar structure
The seminar is held in two phases (see Figure 2). In Phase 1 multidisciplinary teams are formed, containing at
least one of each field of study. Goal of this competition phase is to develop four competing innovative concepts
as answer to a challenging task. From the beginning the students are encouraged to work multidisciplinary,
creating high innovative solutions and concepts by creating new combinations, linking different technologies and
fields of knowledge.

Comparable to an architectural competition, at the end of Phase 1 a jury of professors and professionals out of
industry will select the most promising concept to be further developed in the upcoming Phase.
In Phase 2 the four student teams are reorganized subject wise, in order to refine every aspect of the ‘winner
concept’ depending on their field of study, ie architectural design, production or structural and economical
analysis. Communication as well as coordination between the different teams is needed to carry the idea from a
concept stage to a well defined prototype stage or product. Each student team is encouraged to nominate a
representative, managing all internal and external communication, coordinating the different needs and
preconditions of each discipline, simulating real life working situations during the development of a well balanced
complex product. Right from the beginning the efficiency of the product itself as well as of the industrial
production is taken into account, making sure the idea will find its place on the European or even worldwide
market.

At the end of Phase 2 another jury takes place. This time all students are presenting their achievements and their
final product together, to get detailed feedback from the professors as well as from industry delegates.

FINAL XD PRODUCT
PHASE 1 PHASE 2
AWARDED DESIGN

CONCEPT TEAM 1 ARCH. DESIGN

COMMUNICATION

COORDINATION
XD TASK

CONCEPT TEAM 2 CONSTRUCTION

CONCEPT TEAM 3 PREFABRICATION

CONCEPT TEAM 4 PROFITABILITY

COMPETITION ELABORATION

Figure 4: Process of Crossover Design (XD)

During all Phases the teachers as well as the industry partners are offering coaching, assistance and background
information, for example kick-off seminars as well as soft skill training.
To bring together students of four different faculties every one of them has to be flexible, as their timetables may
be very different. To facilitate coordination, a web based communication platform had been introduced, featuring
public and team related forums, timetables, web storage, and wiki pages. This groupware was also used for
communication with teachers and external coaches.

4
2. Pilot seminar
Since this is a radical new teaching concept, the first trial starting last summer term was a rather universal one,
containing a non product specific task with coaches of all kinds of industry, such as building prefabrication, car
and banking industry. The task of this seminar of Crossover Design was to design an innovative family home,
meeting the demands of a four person family. An architectural design had to be created and engineered,
associated production and logistics processes had to be developed and financing as well as marketing strategies
had to be conceived.

3. Lessons learned
To analyse this first trail, great importance had been attached on reviewing and evaluating. So all parties were
asked to give their feedback after the phase 2 jury:

Figure 5: Evaluation results of pilot seminar

This clearly shows that the XD concept did work quite well, communicating to the students the basic concepts,
needs and problems of multidisciplinary work. This is emphasized by the unanimous statement of the students,
that every faculty speaks its own special tongue and it took some time to find a common language enabling
precise communication in the mixed teams. Furthermore the adaptation of product design methods to structurize
building development processes was complex but effective in the end. Above all, the final result of the first trial
semester shows the excellent teamwork of all faculties’ students in both phases.

5
 FINAL PRESENTATION
JURY PRESENTATION
BLOCK SEMINAR
XD KICK OFF

1 WEEK 6 W EEKS 6 WEEKS 1 WEEK

TEAM SETUP COMPETITION ELABORATION OVERALL
REVIEW

Figure 7: Pilot seminar course

Although a lot of problems were caused by the rather complex task for only one semester of work, the evaluation
also marks some general difficulties which must be clarified. Some unnecessary debates between team members
point at the need to focus more on soft skills, beside methodical proceeding the most important precondition to
enable an efficient work flow. This would also help to mark assignment of tasks and to come to clear decisions
easier. This might even supersede an external decision maker, which was demanded by the students in the XD
trial.

Figure 6: 3D animated scheme for structural analysis, result of first XD trial

6
Results and Business Impacts

Key Findings
Nearly every industrial sector is transforming into a specialised high tech branch. At the same time every product
is getting more and more complex, making it impossible for a single engineer to cover every aspect of the
development. Mentioning the newest standards for example in thermal insulation or home automation, this
applies for housing industry even more. The transformation from traditional handcraft to high level industrial
prefabrication includes issues like manufacturing processes, industrial processing of traditional as well as new
materials, modularisation etc. The same applies for the economic evaluation of modern planning and production
processes. The architect handling cost control and bookkeeping is an outdated and inefficient approach.
So one of the primary goals of engineers’ education is not detailed knowledge in every special subject, but must
be the awareness for the multitude of disciplines and the ability to communicate with them. This qualification,
what nowadays has to be learned after university in an autodidactic way, is useful in common architects or
engineers practice but essential for modern housing production.

Apart from that, especially the architects’ planning processes can be enhanced by transferring methods
established in mechanical engineering. Whilst designing a building usually is a rather emotional unstructured
process, mechanical engineers use precise methods to guide their developing processes by clear milestones,
defined assortment criteria etc.

The typical engineer’s process leaps from analyzing and understanding the task and it’s side conditions over
formulating product requirements, designing and researching a high number of possible solutions, choosing the
best solutions under regards of the given requirements and proofing this decision by test, e. g. user surveys.
This process is usually supported by a high variety of methods of product design. These leap again from research
methods like internet or patent research over creativity methods like brainstorming, Synectics or TRIZ to more
complete methods like QFD and SWOT analysis.

Business Impacts

Focussing on multidisciplinary work in university is only one part of the way to innovative solutions. Companies
can take part in this evolution as well by creating an open and modern working environment without strictly
separated departments, leading to reduction of product development time and costs and a much higher level of
creativity and innovation.

Industry partners who decide to take part in the XD seminar do have two different benefits. On the one hand
they will get high innovative answers and developments to their given tasks, on the other hand they might as well
learn through coaching the students, what it takes to implement and promote multidisciplinary work.

Conclusions

The need for radical changes in engineers’ education is evident. This will lead on the one hand to new and
specialised branches of study, but must result on the other hand in targeted promotion of communication
between those specialists. Multidisciplinary seminars like TU Munich’s Crossover Design can be a efficient way to
bring students of all kinds of faculties together, leading to new learning experiences and to innovative ways of
planning and producing, especially in housing industry in the future.

7
 Key Lessons Learned:
 Multidisciplinary work leads to radical innovation
 Multidisciplinary work is even more necessary to cover extensive task of future industrial housing
 Product development methods can be applied to complex building development process
 Change of academic education towards multidisciplinary and methodical training
 Soft skills needed for efficient communication between specialists

References

Brereton, M.F.; Cannon, M.C.; Mabogunje A.; Leifer, L. (1996) Collaboration in Design Teams: How Social
Interaction Shapes the Product. in Analyzing Design Activity, K. Dorst, H. Christiaans, H. Cross, (Editors).
Wiley, Chichester, UK.

Bock, Thomas (2000) Fusion of technologies for innovation in Japanese building industry. Japan analysis
prognosis: 167.

Christensen, C. M./Raynor, M. E. (2003): The Innovator`s Solution, Boston 2003.

Cohen, W.M.; Levinthal, D.A. (1990) Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation.
Administrative Science Quarterly 35: 128-152, Ithaca.

del Cerro, G.; LeMée, J.; Mar, E.; Wei, C.-S. ; Weimann, C.; Wortzel, A. (2001) Assessing communication modes in
design project teams. 31st ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference T2G-5, Reno.

Drucker, P. F. (1998): The discipline of innovation, in: Harvard Business Review, 6/76, S. 149-157.

Ehrlenspiel, K.; Giapoulis, A.; Günther, J. (1997) Teamwork and Design Methodology – Observations About
Teamwork in Design Education. Research in Engineering Design 9: 61-69, Springer-Verlag, London.

Henke, J.W.; Krachenberg, A.R.; Lyons, T.F. (1993) Cross-functional Teams: good concept, poor implementation!.
Journal of Product Innovation Management 10: 216-229.

Hoegl, M.; Gemuenden, H. G. (2001) Teamwork Quality and the Success of Innovative Projects: A Theoretical
Concept and Empirical Evidence. Organization science 12: 435-449.

Kanter, R.M. (1988) When a thousand flowers bloom: Structural, collective, and social conditions for innovation in
organizations. Staw, B.M.; Cummings, L.L.: Research in organizational behaviour 10: 97-102, Berkley.

Kelley, T. (2001): Prototyping is the shorthand of innovation, in: Design Management Journal, 3/12, S. 35-42.

Nissl, A.; Ponn, J.; Lindemann, U.(2005) The Tutorensystem Garching: education on social competencies for
engineering students. International Conference On Engineering Design ICED 05 Melbourne.

Olson, E. M.; Walker Jr, O. C.: Organizing for effective new product development: The moderating role of product
innovativeness. Journal of Marketing (1995) 1/59: S. 48-62.

Pralahad, C. K./Ramaswamy, V. (2003): The New Frontier of Experience Innovation, in: MIT Sloan Management
Review, Summer/2003, S. 12-18.

Tidd, J./Bessant, J./Pavitt, K. (2001): Managing Innovation. Integrating Technological, Market and Organizational
Change, Chichester 2001.

Utterback, J. M. (1994): Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation, Boston, Massachusetts 1994.

Woodman, R.W.; Sawyer, J.E.; Griffin, R.W. (1993) Toward a theory of organizational creativity. Academy of
Management Review 18: 293-321.

8
Authors’ Biographies

Prof. Dr.-Ing./Univ. Tokio Thomas Bock. 1989-1997 Professor for Construction

Automation at University of Karlsruhe, since 1997 Chair for Realization and Informatics
in Construction, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Munich.Honorary
Professor of SSTU South Russian Technical University Nowotscherkassk. Director of the
International Institute for Construction Technology Information (i2cti), Tokyo. President
of I.A.A.R.C. (International Association on Automation and Robotic in Construction)

Ron Unser, Dipl.-Ing. Arch. TUM, Research Assistant at the Chair for Realization and
Informatics in Construction (Prof. Dr. Thomas Bock), Faculty of Architecture, Technical
University of Munich. After his degree in Architecture he started working at Professor
Bock’s research lab, focussing on prefabrication and home automation. Following three
years of working in national founded projects he now participates in the European
Manubuild project, developing scenarios and multifunctional modules for workpackage 2.

Thomas Clausen, Dipl.-Ing., Technical University of Munich, Faculty of Civil Engineering

and Geodesy, Research Assistant, Chair of Project Management and Building Law.After
several years practical experiences in the construction industry and as a consultant for
Real Estate Developers, the author is involved at present in research and teaching.
Main focus in research is Real Estate Valuation, especially in the public sector,
behaviourism in project management and process optimisation in construction and real
estate industry.

Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Meiwald studied Mechanical Engineering at the Technical University

of Munich with the two focuses of automotive engineering and systematic product
development. Since 2005 he is doing his Ph.D. at TUM’s Institute of Product
Development with Prof. Dr.-Ing Udo Lindemann. Issues of his current studies are
interdisciplinary design teams, measures against product piracy and cost
considerations in product development.

Daniel Rackensperger holds a degree in Architecture and a Master of Business

Administration of the Technical University of Munich. He has been working as an
architect and designer in Barcelona and Munich. He is a researcher at the Institute of
Information, Organisation and Management (Prof. Ralf Reichwald) at the TUM. His
research is focused on innovation management, currently he is completing his
dissertation on the impact of design on companies capacity to innovate.

9
Paper four

Aligning product architecture design and

sourcing decisions in the house-building
industry
Erwin Hofman, University of Twente (e.hofman@utwente.nl)

Johannes Halman, University of Twente

Hans Voordijk, University of Twente

Abstract

There is considerable dissatisfaction with the performance of housebuilders in providing customer variety cost-
efficiently. Notions of modular product architectures and organisational structures which have spread through
other industrial and retail sectors have largely passed the housebuilding industry by. This might be due to the fact
that housebuilders operate in a project based, decentralised business network. Modularity in design and
production is all about design rules. Design rules fall into three categories: the architecture defines what modules
form part of the systems and what their functions will be, interfaces describe how the modules will interact,
including how they fit together, connect and communicate and standards for testing the conformity of the
modules. Systems architects fulfil the role of defining design rules, within these design rules which form the
boundaries of the module, there is design freedom left that is essentially managed by the module supplier itself.
This paper addresses the question how mid-sized housing suppliers can manage their supplier relations to develop
and produce houses with an industrial, modular product architecture. A case study of a housebuilding company
that is developing a modular type of house, illustrates the transition from old to new design rules through joint
alignment of these rules with the supply chain structure. The case shows how supply chain (network) structure
mediates product architecture evolution and the division of production and design tasks among network
participants. The other way around it further shows how a mid-sized construction firm that operates in a
decentralized network can change the design rules if the supply chain relations are aligned with these design
rules and this new way of doing business.

Keywords: house building industry, design rules, modularity, networks.

Background

Industrial Context
During the 1960s and 1970s, housing manufacturers primarily focused on the mass production of their products
(see e.g. Gann 1996; Ball 1999; Craig and Roy 1999; Ozaki 2003; Barlow et al. 2003; Van den Thillart 2004).
Today’s consumers however are no longer satisfied with monotonous products, even though the products
themselves are reliable enough in terms of product quality (Noguchi 2003). Therefore, the housing industry is
looking now for ways to increase the influence of the customer on the design of their own house, without
increasing the price too much and loosing the advantages of serial, project-wise, production (Wolters, 2001).

1
To produce this variety efficiently, housing suppliers increasingly adopt modern construction methods that are
based on modularity in design and production. Competing with a differentiation strategy, based on the sharing of
a common platform and modules across products and projects has several advantages:

a) Increased external variety (on the market) and decreased internal variety (within the company) (Muffatto
and Roveda, 2000; Sanderson and Uzumeri, 1995; Halman, 2003).
b) Increased speed in product development (Meyer, 1997).
c) Reduced product development cost.
d) Increased product reliability (Muffatto and Roveda, 2000).

In a module-based product family product family members are instantiated by adding, substituting, and/or
removing one or more functional modules from the platform (Simpson et al, 2006). Modularization allows the
product to be differentiated to a high degree and thus meet varied customer requirements. In this way the
architecture of the product relates to manufacturing firm performance (Ulrich, 1995). Housing suppliers
increasingly acknowledge the strategic reasons for developing products with modular architectures. While recent
studies focussed on customer variety needs and design methods to uncover platform potential of housing designs
(e.g. Hofman et al, 2006; Veenstra et al, 2006) the implications for supply chain structure is an under researched
topic. A company can follow two strategies, it can internalize design and production tasks and it can outsource
these tasks to partners with whom the company has a certain degree of vertical integration, Ulrich and Ellison
(2005). We characterize supply chain structure by the degree to which a company is integrated with its supply
chain partners. In other industries it is found that product architecture and supply chain structure designs are
complements and need to be aligned. Autonomous changes in product architecture or supply chain structure, lead
to the need of re-matching both aspects (Novak and Eppinger, 2001). So far, no systematic research has been
conducted in the specific setting of the housebuilding industry that links development of new modules and
components in housing to the selection, and level of cooperation of potential suppliers.

Problem

In developing and implementing modular product architectures both demand and supply side issues have to be
resolved and balanced with the product architecture. In this respect we formulated the following research
question that must be answered to ensure that housing suppliers adopt platform based principles in their housing
designs correctly and in a competitive way: What type of supplier involvement strategies must be
followed to successfully develop and produce a modular house?

Learning Objectives:
 How to set up supply chain relations in order to successfully develop industrial, modular houses.
 What role should different network participants play in the development and production of houses with
industrial, modular architectures?

Approach

This paper illustrates how to achieve modularization of housing designs from a product and organisational
perspective. For answering the research question we conducted a case study at a Dutch housebuilding company
that has an industrialised house with a modular product architecture under development. We chose to conduct a
case study because this method is especially appropriate for explorative research with a focus on “how” and
“why” questions (Eisenhardt, 1989 and Yin, 1994). This case was selected because it undergoes a change from an
integral to a modular product architecture, particularly because it witnessed the importance of aligning supplier

2
relations with this changing nature of the product. We picked this mid-sized construction firm because its
production scale is limited and thereby it is unlikely that it can develop and produce such an innovative modular
product totally independent from its suppliers and customers. It operates in a decentralised network where a
large number of organisations have influence over different parts of the housing system. Aligning supply chain
structure (relations) with new product architecture in this case might be crucial to success since new standards or
design rules can cause isolation if suppliers or customers do not follow (Langlois and Robertson, 1992). The aim
was to select a case that would allow isolation of the central concepts that pertain to the research question; this
case was therefore selected since it shows how alignment is put into practice. The unit of analysis is the
development project.

The goal of this exploratory research is to show how to modularize a housing design from a technical (product
architectural) point of view, and second, to explore the implications of new modular designs for supplier relations.
This study was conducted in two steps: the first step involved a literature study; the second- part, qualitative case
study findings are then used to explore how different supplier involvement strategies can be followed to develop
and produce the different component families of a modular house.

Case description

The new concept of Vos Construction Division, a Dutch housing company, has been used as case study. Vos
Construction Division is a division of the Vos Group, a developing building company operating in the north, east
and central part of The Netherlands. This company employs on average 550 people and has revenues of about
140 million euro per year. An important criterion for selecting this firm has been its past performance in
developing and offering customized housing concepts. To address the differentiation in demand Plegt-Vos Living, a
department within Vos Construction Division, started in 2003 the development of a model from which several
distinctive types of houses can be derived. Each housing type starts with minimum standard measures. The
platform potential of this design concept has been analysed in a case study of Veenstra et al, 2006. To bring
customization and industrialization to a next level and beyond the level reached with the latest concept, Vos
Construction Division is now developing a new type of house with a highly modular product architecture.

Analysis

In this part we will first present theoretical backgrounds on the concepts of design rules and supply chain
structures. Next we will discuss the case study in which we further explored these two concepts. We show how
new design rules are introduced and link the development and implementation of these rules to different,
matching, supplier involvement strategies.

Theory: design rules

A way to manage complexity is by decomposing it into simpler manageable parts. Complex products or systems
can be decomposed into sub-systems, complex processes into sub-processes and large organisations into teams
or even individuals. This strategy of decomposition can also be called a strategy of modularization. Complexity is
therefore one of the drivers for decomposition and modularization of products, processes and organisations.
Modularity is a strategy for organizing complex products and processes efficiently. A modular system in general is
composed of modules that are designed independently, but function as an integrated whole (Baldwin and Clark,
1997). System integration needs are defined by the final product architecture.

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Basically there are three types of modularity that are interrelated and have to be balanced: modularity in
production, modularity in use and modularity in design (Baldwin and Clark, 1997):

 Modularity in use is related to offering variety, it allows customers to mix and match elements according
to their own needs and tastes (speed and scope flexibility).
 Modularity in production arises from the partitioning of the production and development process into
manageable tasks that can be performed independent from each other.
 Modularity in design is achieved by partitioning information into visible design rules and hidden design
parameters.

1. Visible design rules fall into three categories: the architecture defines what modules form part
of the systems and what their functions will be, interfaces that describe how the modules will
interact, including how they fit together, connect and communicate and standards for testing the
conformity of the modules.
2. Hidden design parameters, is the design freedom within the boundaries of a module and is
essentially managed by the module supplier itself.

Figure 1 illustrates how design rules apply to the different component families; component family A and B and C
are for instance the product modules: wall and floor parts and columns. Each component fulfils a function and the
interfaces within the component families as well as between the component families are standardized, the
components are “loosely coupled”. The functional specifications can be defined by the component buyer while
detailed engineering specifications can be defined by the module supplier, so product modularization can lead to
modularity in design and production.

Architecture: component fulfills

specific function

Interfaces within and between

component families are standard ized

Design parameters: design freedom is left

within the constraints of the design rules

Figure 1, design rules: architecture, interfaces and design parameters, adapted from Salvador, 2002.

These design rules enable a designer to modify one part of a system without communicating with designers of
other parts. Modular products can therefore lead to modular organisations, as product design rules define both
the technological and organisational architecture of firms (e.g. Brusoni and Prencipe 2006, Sanchez and Mahoney
1996, Langlois 2003, Sturgeon 2002). Novak and Eppinger (2001) showed that product complexity and vertical
integration decisions are complements. Randall and Ulrich (2001) found that matching the degree of product
variety with the supply chain structure leads to a better performance. Product complexity, variety and the cost of
variety are all characteristics that are directly related to design rules and the degree of modularity of a product
design. Therefore, inter-organisational design and product architecture (design rules) are interrelated and
complementary, these things have to be re-aligned when either one of the two undergoes a radical change.
Empirical studies in different industries and at different levels of analysis (i.e. transactions, organisational, value
chain) already show that if architectures of products and organisations change autonomously, both become

4
aligned after a while. Examples can be found in the microcomputer, stereo component (Langlois and Robertson,
1992), tire manufacturing (Brusoni and Prencipe, 2006), construction (Cacciatori and Jacobides, 2003) and hard
disk drive industries (Chesbrough and Kusunoki, 2001); they show architectural changes in products and supply
chains and the way both are interrelated. However, to our knowledge in the construction industry this relationship
has been hardly investigated. Some of the drivers or preconditions for (product) modularization are:

 High variety need from a customer perspective, and high innovation speed from a supplier perspective,
leads to modularization (Muffatto and Roveda, 2000; Salvador et al, 2002; Langlois and Robertson, 1992).
We can use the example from the computer industry; innovation speed of microprocessors is higher than
of disk drives, if the two sub-systems are tightly coupled, redesign is necessary each time a new
microprocessor was introduced. Decoupling (modularization) of both sub-systems decreases thereby
future development time and costs.
 Medium to large production scale leads to modularization, while unique products to small scale and very
large production scales lead to integral product architectures.
 Type of network, in decentralised networks, companies that try to introduce other design rules than at the
time in use, risk being isolated if their design rules are not accepted by partners in the business network.

If a company adopts a strategy of modularization, it can choose between two strategies; first, it can compete as a
systems architect, creating the design rules for a product made up of modules, and communicate this to its
suppliers. Second, it can compete as a module supplier that produces conform the design rules defined by the
systems architect (Baldwin and Clark, 1997). Modularity in design, variety in housing designs, can than be
achieved in two ways: by varying the parts that belong to the system level and by varying the parts that belong
to the project level. System level parts are designed and produced to be reused in several projects and product
families. Project level parts can easily be purchased on the market, or they can be designed and produced
specifically for a project. In the case study we explore in what way these roles are fulfilled by different network
participants in the development and production of houses conform the new design rules.

Theory: network and supplier involvement strategies

In specialised, disintegrated business networks, two forms of networks can be identified: centralised and
decentralised networks (Langlois and Robertson, 1992). Centralized networks are networks in which suppliers are
tied to a “lead” firm (as in the Japanese automobile industry), the design rules (standards of compatibility) are
laid down by the lead manufacturers and may differ from one lead firm to another. This lead manufacturer fulfils
the role of a systems architect. In decentralized networks however, suppliers have to meet the needs of diverse
clients, and the standards are determined jointly by components producers and users and assemblers through
market process or negotiation. No one in the network has total control, and the one who attempts to standardize
in a decentralised network risks isolation if other producers or users don’t follow. Most construction companies
operate in a decentralised network of suppliers and customers, in which they attract production capacity from
external suppliers. In such networks it is hard to function as a lead firm, a systems architect, which introduces
design rules for standardized product modules. This is also due to the project based nature of construction
industry and the often unique site conditions. The options to standardize are often limited to the project level;
construction projects can be seen as temporary organisations between and within organisations, standardization
at the between projects level (system level parts) is therefore hard as project teams change from project to
project.

Basically, for product development and production, companies can opt to develop and produce parts in-house or
to buy development and production capacity on the market. In between the poles of vertical integration and
vertical specialization lay the options of vertical (and horizontal) networks of producers, also known as quasi
vertical integrated networks (Karlsson et al, 1998).

5
Quasi vertical integration combines the benefits of vertical integration with the benefits of vertical specialisation
and can be an option for companies in decentralised networks to modularize systems and its sub-systems. Like
we discussed, in disintegrated or specialised supply chain structures the systems architect decides to outsource
production tasks, or to outsource design and production tasks. There are four options to divide design and
production tasks between supply chain partners, one can internalise development and production; internalise
development & outsource production; outsource development & internalise production or one can outsource
development & production (Ulrich and Ellison, 2005). In a disintegrated or specialised supply chain structure
development and production tasks are outsourced to external suppliers. Procurement systems can be structured
around two models: the “professional model” and the “industrial model”. The professional model is based on
labour specialization in which design is separated from production (construction), in the industrial model design
and construction are integrated (Cacciatori & Jacobides, 2005). Changing design rules can be seen as one of the
motives for outsourcing or internalising activities.

Case study findings: design rules

The product architecture of the housing system is modular and has been designed in such a way that industrial,
off site production is possible for a number of subsystems / component families. The assembly of the sub-systems
will still be done onsite. To investigate the options to modularize the product architecture the Design for Variety
(Veenstra et al, 2006) and the Design Structure Matrix (Pimmler and Eppinger, 1994) are used and analyzed to
evaluate the options for modularization. Both methods appeared to be useful and complementary, the first
method explicitly links customer needs to product characteristics, the second method helps defining modules from
a technical point of view.

Vos Construction Company fulfilled the role as systems architect in designing this modular house and applied
these methods. A simple, aggregated, graphical representation of the system is given in figure 2. System level
parts are reused at the between project level, project level parts are reused at the within project level for several
houses, or these parts are tailored to unique customer needs and are also applied at the project level. In this
case, the product architecture looks as follows:

 System level modules (component families) form parts of the structure, the three component families are:
structural and system floor parts, walls and columns. The functional specifications of these component
families as well as the engineering specifications and interfaces are narrowly defined. The structural floor
parts have standardized sizes (900*900 mm; 900*600 mm and 900*300 mm) and have standard iron
couplings. Variety (layout and surface) is achieved by mixing and matching of these component families.
The interfaces between the component families are standard steel connections, specifically designed and
produced for this system.
 System level technical installations: mechanical systems for heating and ventilation form part of the
system floor. Above the structural floor, the pipes and wiring can freely be located. Above this structural
floor a decoupled system (comparable to a table system) will be placed which comprises a combined
heating (floor and air) and ventilation system.
 Project level parts: stair case, exterior finish (cladding), roof, casements and project specific infill. If
necessary, the interface specifications of the parts are communicated to the suppliers. Interface
characteristics of the exterior finish are also narrowly defined, to ensure that the cladding can be easily
swapped onto the standardized concrete exterior walls which are at the system level. Variety at the
project level is achieved by decoupling the exterior finish (cladding and casements) of the concrete
exterior walls. Since the structure allows for large design freedom within this structure, infill systems can
differ from project to project and are more or less unique to the project.

6
 Project level parts Unique at within project level

Project level parts Common at within project level

System level parts Common at between project level

Figure 2: decomposition of the new housing system.

Case study findings: network and supplier involvement strategies

In developing the system level modules: floor parts (structural- and system-), exterior walls, columns and the
interfaces, Vos Construction Division fulfilled the role as a systems architect. They defined the design rules of the
new product (functions and interfaces) and they restructured and aligned the supply chain to achieve this product
modularization. Vos Construction Company did not own the resources (materials and money) and competencies
(knowledge) which are required to develop and produce the system level modules in-house. For instance, the goal
is to produce the precast system level parts offsite, and assemble them onsite, but Vos Construction Company is a
traditional construction company and they do not own factories and have no extensive experience with industrial
production systems. Therefore they have to rely on external suppliers to outsource production and access
essential resources and knowledge. During meetings with several suppliers it became clear that the suppliers
initially were reluctant to invest in setting up new product lines to produce the new modules, as well as to invest
in for instance special moulds for the structural floor parts. This is typical for a decentralised business network;
parties do not have enough bargaining power to force partners to adopt new design rules, even though the new
design rules can be better than the old ones. We found several reasons why suppliers were not willing to work
according to the new design rules, these are summarized below:

 New standards: new design rules ask for adapted working routines and production lines, suppliers are
reluctant to new standards.
 Design for manufacturing and material knowledge: product designs did not match with manufacturing
practice and could be improved if the voice of supplier would be taken into account during module
development.
 Scale: traditional project based procurement correlates with relatively small production scales from a
supplier point of view; willingness to make relation specific investments is therefore limited.
 Knowledge: suppliers where unfamiliar with the new design rules but also with co-maker relations,
supplier willingness increased during discussing these issues.
 Capacity: at the moment, there are many construction projects in progress, supplier factories have no
overcapacity and the need to work according to design rules of external customers has little priority.

This case illustrates that in a traditional decentralised construction network it is hard to introduce and adopt new
design rules. To overcome the problems, which are forces that work against the adoption of new design rules, it
was decided to restructure the supply chain. The modular network that appeared to be appropriate for developing
and implementing the new design rules is illustrated in figure 3. The parties represented by the red circles form
part of the development team, they fulfil development and production tasks. The parties represented by the green
and yellow circles offer production capacity and are preferred suppliers and suppliers that are traditionally
procured, respectively.

7
 Consultant G
Consultant E Produc er B SCM-bureau manages
design rules and
contractual relations in
Supplier : the inter-organisational
Structural Engineering
engineer bureau
technical network.
installations

System level parts that

Supply Chain are reused between
Management
Bureau projects are developed
Supplier : walls monitors design and produced by
rules
suppliers or
development is done in -
Vos house while production
Supplier :
Construction
Supplier : Division
system floor is done by preferred
structural floor suppliers.

Supplier : infill
Project level parts that
Supplier : are unique within the
casements
Supplier : roof project are traditional ly
Red: design & production
procured.
Green : production (preferred supplier )
Supplier : Yellow : production (traditional procurement )
foundations

Figure 3: Modular network structure that matches the new design rules

The supply chain structure was matched with the requirements of the new design rules. For different parts of the
product, the system level parts and project level parts, different strategies were followed. Vos Construction
Company initially fulfilled the role as a systems architect and started with defining the functional and engineering
specifications of the modules and the interfaces. As a systems architect, Vos Construction Company forms part of
the development team, they will also function as the assembler of the system.

During development of the system floor, technical installations and the interfaces of the walls and structural floor
parts, it became clear that there was a lack of knowledge of material properties and production techniques within
Vos Construction Company. Especially for these two aspects the input of suppliers’ expertise was needed. Their
input improved the module designs and the related manufacturability, product performance and production costs.
So input of supplier knowledge in the development phase improved the quality of the design rules which
increased adoption of these rules by the suppliers. This way of integrating suppliers in the development phase
solved the problem of a lack of knowledge and competences at Vos Construction Company. To overcome the
problem that suppliers were not willingness to make relation specific investments (in development and in new
production facilities) it was decided to change project based procurement into stable supplier relations. In this
way the suppliers who invest in both development and production have a production scale that is large enough to
ensure a sufficient return on investment. The other parties that form part of the development team are the
Engineering bureau and the Supply Chain Management (SCM) bureau.

The engineering bureau has extensive knowledge on how to fit project specific designs of external architects into
the new system and will be in the development team as well. The SCM bureau is a new legal entity and will
monitor the functionality of the modules and the integration of these modules into a system; in future it will also

8
evaluate the changing system requirements concerning supplier integration or even disintegration.
For development of the system level parts: walls and structural floor parts, Vos Construction Company did not
need specialised supplier knowledge. Therefore development of these parts is done in-house. To ensure that
suppliers accept the new design rules and are willing to invest in new production lines and routines, traditional
relations have been transformed into stable preferred supplier relations. Preferred suppliers produce the parts at
the between project level. The difference with suppliers in the development team is that preferred suppliers do
not fulfil development tasks and they compete with one or two other suppliers that form part of the pool of
preferred suppliers.

The project level parts: roof, foundations, casements and infill are traditionally procured. These commodity items
can easily be bought on the market through traditional procurement methods. We conclude that when new design
rules are introduced, for developing and producing different component families different supplier involvement
strategies are demanded.

Business Impacts

The housebuilding industry is faced with changing demand and supply side needs to offer customer variety cost-
efficiently, to shorten lead times and improve product quality and reliability. In this regard traditional production
methods and business models don’t suffice and new concepts of modularity have come to attention. The case
findings show that in a decentralised network, modular houses can only be developed and produced in
cooperation with suppliers. A certain degree of integration is needed to access the supplier knowledge base and
to increase supplier willingness to invest in development and production.

Conclusions

The research question was: what type of supplier involvement strategies must be followed to successfully develop
and produce a modular house? Based on a case study, this paper elucidates how new design rules and supply
chain structures can successfully be matched. Several drivers for stable supplier relations have been found, but
the supply chain strategy should be a differentiated approach. For parts that have a high variety need and show
similarities with commodity items, project specific procurement is preferred, however, parts that can be reused at
the between project level can be developed and produced in close cooperation with suppliers. Main benefit of
stable relations is that suppliers become willing to invest in development and production of houses according to
new design rules.
This study confirms and complements existing literature on how to match product design with organisational
design in development trajectories. Further research is needed to test the relationships for significance and
strengthen the conclusions and accompanying organisational design rules.

Key Lessons Learned:

 In a decentralised network, modular houses can only be developed and produced in cooperation with
suppliers. A certain degree of integration is needed to access the supplier knowledge base and to increase
supplier willingness to invest in development and production facilities.
 The functions and compatibility of system level components (interfaces) should be monitored by a
systems architect.
 Suppliers become motivated to invest in development and production when they when they are asked to
produce for more than one project.
 Suppliers are often unfamiliar with co-maker relations and are therefore also averse of changing
traditional relations into for instance co-maker relations.

9
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Authors’ Biographies

Erwin Hofman received his M.Sc. degree in Industrial Engineering and

Management Science from the University of Twente, in 2004. Since 2005, he is a
Ph.D. candidate with the Construction Management and Engineering department.
The research programme, named `Platform Driven Innovation in the Housebuilding
Industry' focuses on design methodologies and inter- and intra organisational
design issues for platform based, modular housebuilding.

Dr. Johannes I.M. Halman is professor at the University of Twente in the

department of Construction Management and Engineering. He earned his M.Sc. in
construction engineering from Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands;
an M.B.A. (cum laude) from Rotterdam School of Management at Erasmus
University in the Netherlands; and a Ph.D. in technology management from
Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands. His research interest are in
the field of innovation management with primary focus on program and project
management of innovation processes, new product platform development, and
high-tech start-ups.

Dr. Hans Voordijk is Associate Professor Supply Chain Management at the

Department of Construction Management and Engineering of the University of
Twente, The Netherlands. Research, consultancy and lecturing of Hans are in the
following fields: supply chain management and ICT in the construction industry
and the epistemology of construction management and engineering.

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