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WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

People consider it to be a personal trait – that is some

have it some don’t. In practice inexperienced managers often
label people who lack motivation as lazy. But it isn’t true.
What we know is that motivation is the result of the
interaction of the individual and the situation. Individuals
differ in their motivational drive.

For example : a student may find reading a 2o pages

note book very tiring, but the same student may be able to
read 150 pages of Harry Potter just in one day. For the
student the change in motivation is driven by the situation.

Thus we can say, that the level of motivation varies both

between individuals and within individuals at different times.

DEFINITION:

Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an

individual’s intensity, direction, & persistence of effort
towards attaining a goal.
General motivation is considered with efforts towards
any goal, but we narrow our focus on organizational goals.

Key elements are:

Intensity which is considered with how hard a person

tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we
talk about motivation. However, high-intensity is
unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes
unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits
the organization. Therefore, we have to consider the
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quality of efforts as well as its intensity. Effort that is

directed towards, and consistent with the organizations
goal’s is the kind of effort that we should be seeking.
Finally, motivation has a persistence dimension. This is a
measure of how long a person can maintain their effort.
Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to
achieve their goal.

A MYTH OR A SCIENCE?

“People are inherently lazy”. This isn’t true. All people

are not inherently lazy; and ‘laziness’ is more a function of
the situation than an inherent individual character. If this
statement is meant to imply that all people are inherently
lazy, the evidence strongly indicates the contrary, many
people today suffer from the opposite affliction-they are
overly busy, overworked, and suffer from over exertion.
Whether externally motivated or internally driven, a good
portion of the labour force is anything but lazy.
Managers frequently draw the conclusion that people are
lazy from watching some of their employees, who may be
lazy at work.
But these same employees are often quite industrious in
one or more activities off the job. People’s need structures
differ. Unfortunately, for employers, works often ranks low
in its ability to satisfy individual needs. So the same
employee who shirks responsibility on the job may work
obsessively on the conditioning and antique car, maintaining
an award-winning garden, perfecting bowling skills.
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EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

The 1950s were a fruitful period in the development of

motivation concepts. Three specific theories were formulated
during this period, which although heavily attacked and now
questionable in terms of validity, are probably still the best-
known explanations for employee motivation. These are the
hierarchy of needs theory, Theories X and Y, and the two-
factor theory.
These theories represent a foundation from which
contemporary theories have grown, and practicing managers
still regularly use these theories and their terminology in
explaining employee motivation.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

It’s probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of

motivation is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. He
hypothesized that within every human being there exists a
hierarchy of five needs. These needs are:

1. Physiological: - Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and

other bodily needs
2. Safety: - Includes security and protection from physical
and emotional harm
3. Social: - Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance
and friendship
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4. Esteem: - Includes internal esteem factors such as self-

respect, autonomy and achievement; and external esteem
factors such as status, recognition, and attention
5. Self-actualization: - The drive to become what one is
capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s
potential, and self-fulfillment

Self-
Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological

As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the

next need becomes dominant. In terms of the figure, the
individual moves up the steps of the hierarchy. From the
standpoint of motivation, the theory would say that although
no need is fully gratified, a substantially satisfied need no
longer motivates.
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So if you want to motivate someone, according to

Maslow, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy
that person is currently on and focus on satisfying the needs
at or above that level.

Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower

orders. Physiological and safety needs were described as
lower-order and social, esteem, and self-actualization as
higher-order needs. The differentiation between the two
orders was made on the premise that higher-order needs are
satisfied internally (within the person), whereas lower-order
needs are predominantly satisfied externally (by things such
as pay, union contracts, and tenure).

Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition,

particularly among practicing managers. This can be
attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and ease of
understanding. Unfortunately, however, research does not
generally validate the theory. Maslow provided no empirical
substantiation, and several studies that sought to validate the
theory found no support for it.
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Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of

human beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X,
and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y. After
viewing the way the managers dealt with employees,
McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of
human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions
and that he/she tends to mold his/her behavior toward
employees according to these assumptions.

Under Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers

are:

1. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever

possible, will attempt to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced,
controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal
direction whenever possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other factors
associated with work and will display little ambition.
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In contrast to these negative views about the nature of human

beings, McGregor listed the four positive assumptions that
he called Theory Y:

1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or

play.
2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they
are committed to the objectives.
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek,
responsibility.
4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely
dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily
the sole province of those in management positions.

What are the motivational implications if we accept

McGregor’s analysis? The answer is best expressed in the
framework presented by Maslow. Theory X assumes the
lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes
that higher-order needs assume dominate individuals.
McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y
assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he
proposed ideas such as participative decision-making,
responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations
as approaches that would maximize an employee’s job
motivation.
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Two-Factor Theory

The two-factor theory (sometimes also called as motivation-

hygiene theory) was proposed by psychologist Frederick
Hertzberg. In the belief that an individual’s relation to work
is basic and that one’s attitude toward work can very well
determine success or failure, Hertzberg investigated the
question, “What do people from their jobs?” He asked
people to describe, in detail, situations in which they felt
extremely good or bad about their jobs. These responses
were then tabulated and categorized.

According to Hertzberg, the factors leading to job

satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to
job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to
eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring
about peace but not necessarily motivation. They will be
placating their workforce rather than motivating them. As a
result, conditions surrounding the job such as quality of
supervision, pay, company policies, physical working
conditions, relations with others, and job security were
characterized by Hertzberg as hygiene factors.
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MODERN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

ERG theory

Clayton Alderfer has reworked Maslow’s need hierarchy

to align it more closely with the empirical research. His
revised need hierarchy is labeled ERG theory. Alderfer
argues that there are three groups of core needs-Existence,
Relatedness, and growth—hence, the label ERG theory. The
existence group is concerned with providing our basic
material existence requirements. They include the items that
Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs.
The second group of needs are those of relatedness—the
desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal
relationships. These social and status desires require
interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they
align with Maslow’s social need and the external component
of Maslow’s esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates
growth needs—an intrinsic component from Maslow’s
esteem category and the characteristics included under self-
actualization.

In contrast to hierarchy of needs theory, the ERG theory

demonstrates that (1) more than one need may be operative
at same time, and (2) if the gratification of a higher-level
need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need
increases.

ERG theory also contains a frustration-regression

dimension. ERG theory counters by noting that when a
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higher-order need level is frustrated, the individual’s desire

to increase a lower-level need takes place.

McClelland’s Theory of needs

McClelland’s theory of needs was developed by David
McClelland and his associates. The theory focuses on three
needs: achievements, power, and affiliation. They are
defined as follows:

Need for achievement:

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for power:

The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise.

Need for affiliation:

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.

Some people drive to succeed. They are striving for

personal achievements rather than rewards of success as per
work done. They have a desire to do something better or
more efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is
the achievement need. From research into the achievement
need, McClelland found that high achievers differentiate
themselves from others by their desire to do things better.
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Goal-Setting theory
Gene Broadwater coach of the Hamilton high school
cross-country team gave his squad these last words before
they approached the line for the league championship race:
“each one of you is physically ready. Now, get out there and
do your best. No one can ever ask more of you than that.”

The research on goal setting theory addresses these

issues, and the findings, as you will see, are impressive in
terms of the effect that goal specificity, challenge, and
feedback have no performance.

In late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to

work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation.
That is, goal tells an employee what needs to be done and
how much effort need to be expended. The evidence strongly
supports the value of goals. More to the point, we can say
that specific goals increase performance; that difficult goals,
when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy
goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than
does no feedback.

Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is

committed to the goal; that is, is determined not to lower or
abandon the goal. This is most likely to occur when goals are
made public, when the individual has an internal locus of
control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned.
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Equity Theory

It means individuals compare their job inputs and

outcome with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.

This theory is based on the example of Ms Jane Pearson

who graduated from the state university with a degree in
accounting and working with 'G5' a public accounting firm
with a monthly salary of $4,550.

However Jane’s motivational level has dropped

dramatically due to the hiring of the fresh college graduate out
of the state university who lacks the one year experience
which Jane has gained and was paid $4,800 which was more
than Jane’s salary.

In this case Jane’s situation illustrates the role that equity

plays in motivation. Employees make comparisons of their
job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others.

In other words if we perceive our ratio to be equal to that

of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a
state of equity is said to be exist. When we see the ratio as
unequal we experience equity tension and when over
rewarded, the tension creates guilt.
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The referent that an employee selects adds to the

complexity of equity theory. There are 4 referent comparisons
that an employee can use:

1. Self-inside.
2. Self-outside.
3. Other-inside.
4. Other-outside.

Which referent an employee chooses will be influenced

by the information the employee holds about referents as well
as by the attractiveness of the referent.

Employees with short tenure in their current organization

tend to have little information about others and on the long
tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison.

Equity theory is also related with the pay of the

employees. Thus on these grounds, the theory establishes the
following 4 propositions related to inequitable pay:

1. Given payment on time, over rewarded employees will

produce more than will equitably paid employees.

2. Given payment by quantity of production, over rewarded

employees will produce fewer, but higher-quality, units than
equitably paid employees.

3. Given payment on time, under rewarded employees will

produce poorer quality of output.
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4. Given payment by quality of production, under rewarded

employees will produce a large no of low-quality units in
comparison with equitably paid employees.

These propositions have generally been supported with

few minor qualifications.

Conclusion of equity theory:-

The equity theory demonstrates that, for most employees,

motivation is influenced significantly by relative rewards as
well by absolute rewards. But some key issues related to this
theory are still unclear.

Expectancy Theory:-

Currently, one of the most widely accepted explanations

of motivation is victor vroom's Expectancy Theory. Although
it has its critics, most evidence is supportive of the theory.

Meaning:-
"The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual". In more practical terms,
expectancy theory says that an employee will be motivated to
accept a high level of pressure when he or she believes that
effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; which will
lead to good org rewards such as bonus, a salary increase, or a
promotion; and that the rewards will satisfy the employee's
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personal goals. The theory, therefore focuses on three

relationship:-

1. Effort performance relationship.

2. Performance-reward relationship.
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship.

Thus expectancy theory helps to explain why lot of

workers aren't motivated on their job and do only the
minimum necessary to get by.

In summary, the key to expectancy theory is the

understanding of an individual's goals and the linkage b/w
effort and performance, between performance and rewards
and, finally, between the rewards and individual goal
satisfaction. As a contingency model, expectancy theory
recognizes that there is no universal principle for explaining
everyone's motivation. In addition, just because we
understand what needs a person seeks to satisfy does not
ensure that the individual perceives high performance as
necessarily leading to the satisfaction to these needs.

Because of complications like methodological, criterion,

and measurement problems, this theory is viewed with
caution.
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Myth or Science?

Everyone wants a challenging job?

This statement is false. In spite of all the attention
focused by the media, academics and social scientists on
human potential and the needs of individuals, there is no
evidence to support the vast majority of workers want
challenging jobs. Some individuals prefer highly complex and
challenging jobs; other prospers in simple, routinized work.

The individual-difference variable that seems to gain the

greatest support for explaining who prefers a challenging job
and who doesn’t is the strength of an individual’s higher-order
needs. Individuals with high growth needs are more
responsive to challenging work. But what percentage of rank-
and-file workers actually desire higher-order need satisfaction
and will respond positively to challenging jobs? No current
data are available, but a study from the 1970s estimated the
figure at about 15%. Even after adjusting for changing work
attitudes and the growth in white-collar jobs, it seems unlikely
that the number today exceeds 40%

The strongest voice advocating challenging jobs has not

been workers-it’s been professors, social-science researchers,
and journalists. Professor’s researchers and journalists
undoubtedly made their career choices, to some degree,
because they wanted jobs that gave them their autonomy,
identity, and challenge. That, of course, is their choice. But
for them to project their needs onto the workforce in general
is presumptuous.
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Not every employee is looking for a challenging job.

Many workers meet their higher-order needs off the job. There
are 168 hours in every individual’s week. Work rarely
consumes more than 30% of this time. That leaves
considerable opportunity, even for individuals with strong
growth needs, to find higher-order need satisfaction outside
the workplace.

Professional Employees are more difficult to motivate..

Professional employees are different than your average
employees. And they’re more difficult to motivate. Why?
Because professionals don’t respond to the same stimuli that
non-professionals do.

Professional like engineers, accountants, lawyers, nurses,

and software designers are different from nonprofessionals.
They have strong and a long term commitment to their field of
expertise. Their loyalty is more towards their profession than
to their employer. And typical rewards, like money and
promotions, are rarely effective in encouraging professionals
to exert high levels of effort.

Usually they tend to be well paid already and they enjoy

what they do. For instance, professionals are not typically
anxious to give up their work to take on managerial
responsibilities. They’ve have invested a great deal of time
and effort in developing their professional skills. They’ve
have typically gone to professional schools for years and
undergone specialized training to build their proficiencies.
They also invest regularly - in terms of reading, taking
courses, attending conferences, and the like - to keep their
skills current. Moving into management often means cutting
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off their ties to their profession, losing touch with the latest
advances in their field and having to let the skills that they’ve
spent years developing become obsolete.
This loyalty to the profession and less interest in typical
organizational rewards makes motivating professionals more
challenging and complex.

So how do you motivate professionals?

Provide them with ongoing challenges projects. Give

them autonomy to follow their interests and allow them to
structure their work in ways they find productive. Provide
them with lateral moves that allow them to broaden their
experiences. Reward them with educational opportunities –
training, workshops, and attending conferences – that allow
them to keep current in their field. In addition reward them
with recognition. And consider creating alternative career
paths that allow them to earn more money and status, without
assuming managerial responsibilities.
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Summary & implications for managers: -

Summary
The theories which we have discussed so far address
different outcomes variables. The theories also differ in
predictive strengths.

1) Need Theory : -
Four theories focused on needs. These were
Maslow’s hierarchy, two factor, ERG, and McClelland’s
needs theories. The strongest is the McClelland’s needs
theory, which is regarding the relationship between
achievement and productivity.

2) Goal-setting theory : -
The evidence leads to conclude that goal-setting
theory provides one of the more powerful explanations of
this dependent variable.

3) Reinforcement theory : -
This theory has an impressive record for predicting
factors like quality and quantity of work, persistence of
effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates. It does
not offer much insight into employee satisfaction or the
decision to quit.

4) Job design theory : -

This theory addresses productivity, satisfaction,
absenteeism, and turnover variables. But it may be
limited to employees who place a high importance on
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finding meaningfulness in their jobs and who seek

control over the key elements in their work.

5) Equity theory : -
This theory also deals with productivity,
satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables. However, it
is the strongest when predicting absence and turnover
behaviors and weak when predicting differences in
employee productivity.

6) Expectancy theory : -
This theory focused on performance variables. It has
proved to offer a relatively powerful explanation of
employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover. But
expectancy theory assumes that employees have few
constraints on their decision discretion. It makes many of
the same assumptions that the rational model makes
about individual decision-making.
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Implications

1) Recognize Individual Differences: -

Employees have different needs. Managers should
not treat them all alike. Moreover, spend the time
necessary to understand what’s important to each
employee. Also, design jobs to align with individual
needs and, therefore, maximize the motivation
potential in jobs.

2) Use goals and feedback: -

Employees should have hard, specific goals, as well
as feedback on how well they are faring on pursuit of
those goals.

3) Allow employees to participate in decisions: -

Employees can contribute to a number of decisions
that affect them: setting work, choosing their own
benefits packages, solving productivity and quality
problems, and the like. This can increase employee
productivity, commitment to work goals, motivation, and
job satisfaction.
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4) Link rewards to punishment: -

Regardless of how closely rewards are actually
correlated to performance criteria, if individuals
perceive this relationship to be low, the results will be
low performance, a decrease in job satisfaction, and an
increase in turnover and absenteeism.

5) Check the system for Equity: -

Rewards should also be perceived by employees as
equating with the inputs they bring to the job. At a
simplest level, this should mean that experience, skills,
abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs should explain
differences in performance and, hence, pay, job
assignments, and other obvious rewards.
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