Case Studies Final Lbriquettes Machine

Renewable Energy Technology Promotion in Asia:
Case Studies from Six Asian Countries
S. Kumar
S. C. Bhattacharya
Dipal C. Barua
Trinh Q. Dung
Arnold R. Elepaño
Mohan B. Gewali
Muhammad Ibrahim
Md. Nawsher Ali Moral
Dinesh Sharma
Pham K. Toan
Based on the activities carried out under
Renewable Energy Technologies in Asia:

A Regional Research and Dissemination Programme
Funded by
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
Coordinated by
Asian Institute of Technology

Renewable Energy Technology Promotion in Asia:
Case Studies from Six Asian Countries
PUBLISHED BY
Regional Energy Resources Information Center (RERIC)
Energy Field of Study
Asian Institute of Technology
P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang
Pathumthani 12120
Thailand
E-mail: enreric@ait.ac.th
Website: http://www.serd.ait.ac.th/reric/
ISBN: 974-8202-65-6
Copyright © 2005, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the written permission of the publisher.
Printed in Thailand.
DISCLAIMER
Neither the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
(Sida) nor the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) makes any
warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability for the
accuracy or completeness of any information herein provided.
References herein to any apparatus, product, trademark or
manufacturer do not constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation or favouring by Sida or AIT.
ii
Foreword
Economic growth, industrialization and growing population in the developing
countries of Asia contribute to a rapidly growing demand for energy in the
region while global environmental concerns call for limiting use of fossil
fuels. Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) present a viable option of
meeting the growing energy demand, especially in remote and rural areas.
However, before full commercialization of RETs can be achieved, many
barriers need to be overcome. Apart from adaptive technological
improvements, this also calls for appropriate financial mechanisms,
institutional/research capacity enhancement and public awareness through
demonstration and dissemination. The Governments of Asian countries have
a key role to play in promotion of RETs through appropriate policy
interventions. To address these issues ‘Renewable Energy Technologies in
Asia: A Regional Research and Dissemination Programme’ was launched in
1997 by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
and the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT). The programme involved
thirteen institutes from Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal, Lao PDR, the
Philippines and Vietnam.
The programme activities carried out in the thirteen participating institutes

and at AIT included adaptive research, demonstration of RETs systems,
dissemination of research outcomes to the stakeholders and capacity
building. The wide range of activities and achievements of the RETs in Asia
programme in the six countries have been presented in six booklets:
1. Technology Packages: Solar, Biomass and Hybrid Dryers

2. Technology Packages: Screw-press Briquetting Machines and Briquette-
fired Stoves
3. Technology Packages: Low-Cost PV System Components
4. Demonstration and Monitoring of PV Systems: Lessons Learned
5. PV System Components: Technology Fact Sheets
6. Renewable Energy Technology Promotion in Asia: Case Studies from Six
Asian Countries
The information presented in the above booklets is expected to be useful to

a number of stakeholder groups, including those who are involved in
renewable energy development projects in the Asian region, business
community, policy personnel, NGOs and research institutions.
Dr. Gity Behravan

August 2005 Senior Research Advisor, Sida
iii
Preface
It is increasingly becoming evident that current pattern of rising conventional
energy consumption cannot be sustained in the future due to two reasons: the
environmental consequences of heavy dependence on fossil fuels, particularly
climate change, and the depletion of fossil fuels. Therefore, at present, a near
consensus appears to be emerging that renewable energy technologies need to
be promoted if global energy supplies are to be placed on an environmentally
sustainable path.
Despite the efforts of various government institutions, universities, NGOs and
international development organizations, renewable energy technologies are yet
to make a substantial contribution towards betterment of the quality of life in the
developing countries. To find wider acceptance, it is very important to make sure
that renewable energy solutions are accessible, affordable and appropriate.
Research and development institutes in developing countries have a vital role to
play in the development, local adaptation and promotion of renewable energy
technologies. These institutes have much to gain through regional networking
with similar institutes in other countries by sharing experience and carrying out
joint coordinated research.
In this background, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
(Sida) sponsored a regional programme entitled “Renewable Energy
Technologies in Asia: A Regional Research and Dissemination Programme (RETs
in Asia)”. The programme, executed during 1997-2004, was coordinated by the
Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) and involved thirteen research institutions
from six Asian countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Nepal, the Philippines
and Vietnam. Three technologies/applications were identified for research,
promotion and dissemination: solar photovoltaics, renewable energy based
drying and biomass briquetting/briquette-fired stoves.
Six books have been prepared to disseminate the findings of the RETs in Asia
programme. This document presents details of few case studies carried out
under the RETs in Asia programme. The cases detail the need to consider the
design and development, technical performance, users’ feedback and key factors
to success. The information presented is expected to be useful to those who are
involved in developing renewable energy projects in the Asian region.
We are grateful to the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency

(Sida) for providing financial assistance for carrying out the activities under the
programme. We are also thankful to Dr. Gity Behravan for her continuous
support and guidance during the implementation period.
Prof. S. Kumar
August 2005 RETs in Asia Coordinator
iv
RETs in Asia Project Team
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
Dr. Gity Behravan – Senior Research Advisor
Principal Investigators
Prof. S.C. Bhattacharya – Energy Field of Study, Asian Institute of
Technology, (until December 2004)
Prof. S. Kumar, Energy Field of Study, Asian Institute of Technology,
P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand. Tel: (+66 2)
524 5410, Fax: +66 2 524 5439, Email: kumar@ait.ac.th
National Research Institute (NRI) Team Leaders

Bangladesh
Mr. Dipal C. Barua, Managing Director, Grameen Shakti (GS),
Grameen Bank Bhaban, Mirpur - 2, Dhaka - 1216, Bangladesh.
Tel: (+88 02) 9004081, Fax: (+88 02) 803559,
E-mail: g_shakti@denbd.com
Prof. Muhammad Ibrahim, Executive Director, Centre for Mass
Education in Science (CMES), House #828, Road #19, Dhanmondi
Residential Area, Dhaka - 1209, Bangladesh. Tel: (+88 02)
811898, Fax: (+88 02) 803559, E-mail: cmes@citechco.net
Prof. Md. Nawsher Ali Moral, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Khulna
9203, Bangladesh. Tel: (+88 041) 774900, Fax: (+88 041)
774403, E-mail: nali@bttb.net.bd
Cambodia
Dr. Sat Samy, Under Secretary of State, Ministry of Industry,
Mines and Energy (MIME), No. 47, Preah Norodom Blvd. Phnom
Penh, Cambodia. Tel: (+85 5) 23 427 851, Fax: (+85 5) 23 990
602, E-mail: mimedet@forum.org.kh
Dr. Phoeurng Sackona, Director, Cambodia Institute of
Technology (ITC), Cambodia. Tel: (+85 5) 23 880 370, Fax: (+85
5) 23 880 369, E-mail: sackonap@bigpond.com.kh
Lao PDR
Dr. Phouvong Sayalath, Director, Technology Research Institute,
Science, Technology and Environment Agency (STEA), P.O Box
2279, Vientiane, Lao PDR. Tel: (+85 6) 21 218 711, Fax: (+85 6)
21 213 472, E-mail: tri@steno.gov.la
v
Nepal
Er. Rishi K. B. Shah, Vice President, Centre for Renewable Energy
(CRE), O. Box 589, Ga-2/717 Bag Bazaar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tel:
(+97 7) 1 248852, Fax: (+97 7) 1 226976,
E-mail: cre@ccslnp.com
Prof. Mohan Bikram Gewali, Executive Director, Research Centre
for Applied Science & Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University,
P. O. Box 1030, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tel: (+97 7) 1
330348, Fax: (+97 7) 1 331303,
E-mail: turecast@mail.com.np
Mr. Gyani Ratna Shakya, Director, Technology Division, Royal
Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST), P. O. Box
3323, Khumaltar, Patan, Nepal. Tel: (+97 7) 1 547719, Fax: (+97
7) 1 490190/ 547713, Email: grshakya@hotmail.com
Philippines
Prof. Rowaldo R. del Mundo, Head of Solar Laboratory, University
of the Philippines (UPERDFI), Diliman, Quezon City 1101,
Philippines. Tel: (+63 2) 434 3661, Fax: (+63 2) 434 3660, E-
mail: rmundo@info.com.ph
Dr. Arnold R. Elepaño, Associate Professor, College of Engineering
and Agro-Industrial Technology, Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, Division of Agricultural & Bio-Process Engineering,
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLBFI), College, Laguna
4031, Philippines. Tel: (+63 49) 536 2650, Fax: (+63 49) 536
3291, Email: retsas@laguna.net
Vietnam
Dr. Pham Khanh Toan, Director, Institute of Energy, Khuong
Thuong - Dong Da, Hanoi, SR Vietnam. Tel: (+84 4) 8522453,
Fax: (+84 4) 8523311, E-mail: ret@fpt.vn
Mr. Trinh Quang Dung, Director, Solar Laboratory, 01 Mac Dinh
Chi St., 1 District Ho Chi Minh City, SR Vietnam. Tel: (+84 8)
8222 028, Fax: (+84 8) 8295 905, Email: t-q-dung@hcm.fpt.vn
Research Staff at AIT

Mr. Mathias Augustus Leon – Energy Field of Study, AIT,
Email: augustusleon@gmail.com
Mr. Md. Anisuzzaman – Energy Field of Study, AIT,
Email: aniszm@yahoo.com
vi
Contents
iii Foreword
iv Preface
v RETs in Asia Project Team
vii Contents
1 Introduction
2 Rice Hull-Fed Drying System for Dried Mango Production
8 PV Battery Charging Station for Remote Communities
16 Solar Home System Demonstration for Dissemination
20 Productive Application of Photovoltaics: The Micro-Utility

Approach
24 Local Production of PV Accessories
32 Biomass Briquetting Technology: Domestic and Small

Industrial Applications
45 White LED Lamps: Replacing the Kerosene Lamps for Rural

Home Lighting
49 Solar Dryers Offer Income Generation Opportunities
56 Conclusion
vii
viii
Introduction
In 1997, the Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency (Sida) launched a regional programme entitled “Renewable
Energy Technologies in Asia: a Regional Research and Dissemination
Programme (RETs in Asia)”. The objective of the programme was to
promote few selected mature/nearly mature renewable energy
technologies in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Nepal, the
Philippines and Vietnam. Thirteen national research institutes (NRIs)
from these six countries participated in the regional programme. This
regional programme was coordinated by the Asian Institute of
Technology (AIT).
Activities of the programme involved adaptive research, development

of technology packages and demonstration, capacity building of
various stakeholders through workshops and training programme,
and dissemination of programme activities to stakeholders in the
participating countries, and throughout the region. Three renewable
energy technologies were selected for promotion through the
programme: photovoltaics, renewable energy-based drying and
biomass briquetting/ briquette-fired stoves. Other activities of the
programme included preparation of manuals and videos for the
construction, operation and maintenance of RETs as well as
development and demonstration of renewable energy systems.
This booklet presents eight case studies from six countries. The case
studies have been identified based on the project activities and
selected from all three technologies (e.g. biomass briquetting and
briquette-fired stoves, renewable energy based drying system and
solar photovoltaics). The case studies include among others, details
of the description of the activity, technical features, cost details and
key success factors. These are expected to be useful to the
renewable energy project implementers, policy makers and other
stake holders in the participating countries and other developing
countries.
1
Rice Hull-fed Drying System for Dried Mango
Production
Mango is one of the major crops produced in the

Philippines. The growing demand for dried
mangoes has enticed local entrepreneurs to
engage in business and development of a
renewable-energy based drying system. This
provided them an alternative for medium scale
production of dried mangoes. A rice husk fuelled
dryer is commercially being used for drying
mangoes in the Nueva Vizcaya province of the
Philippines. Sweetened mango slices with initial moisture content of
90% (wet basis) could be dried to 29% (wet basis) in 18 hours of
continuous operation, at an average drying air temperature of 53ºC.
The dryer produced dried mangoes whose quality (sensory and
physical) was comparable to those available in the local market. The
payback period of the dryer system is estimated to be less than four
years, making the system a reliable and hygienic alternative to other
drying methods.
Background
Nueva Vizcaya is located in the
north-central part of the Philippines.
It has basically an agricultural
economy. The province is a member
of the Northern-Central Luzon (NCL)
agriculture cluster which produced
477,251 metric tons (mt) out of the
country’s total mango output of
995,886 metric tons (mt) in 2002.
However, the producers face lower
selling price of mangoes, and so
local entrepreneurs find it necessary
to engage in processing activities to
Figure 1: Map of Nueva Vizcaya increase their income.
Source: http://www.dotpcvc.gov.ph/starstudded/wownuevaviz-MAP.html/
2
Project details
A rice hull-fuelled drying system was designed by the University of
the Philippines Los Baños in coordination with the Asian Institute of
Technology, Thailand. The dryer, designed for medium scale
production of dried fruits and vegetables, suited the drying
requirement of HOMM Food Products, a cooperative, situated in
Nueva Vizcaya province. The dryer was installed in April 2002 and
has since been regularly in use. The cooperative mainly uses it to dry
mangoes, but pineapple and tamarind have also been dried.
Biomass was preferred for the dryer as rice hull is abundant in the
Philippines and paddy
processing generates an
average of 1.5 million
tons of rice hull a year.
The average annual
production of paddy in the
province of Nueva Vizcaya
is about 144,000 metric
tons per year, generating
about 28,800 metric tons
of rice hull. The
cooperative also owns a
rice mill near the
Figure 2: Rice hull-fed drying system
installation site, and
hence the supply of rice hull is assured throughout the year. Utilizing
rice hull would also be economically feasible as it is cheap, and in
many occasions rice millers willingly offer them free, as disposing
them otherwise is a problem for them.
Design of the Dryer

The dryer operates by feeding rice hull into the combustion chamber
for burning to produce heat inside the heat exchanger tubes. A
centrifugal fan then forces the heated air to the drying chamber
containing the product to be dried. A schematic diagram of the dryer
is presented in Figure 3. An air distribution system in the drying
chamber helps in the distribution of heated air. This is made up of
concentric rings of different outer and inner diameters and it
3
provides an almost uniform drying temperature at all locations of the
drying chamber.
Drying
Drying chamber
chamber
Recirculated air
Hopper
Heated
air
ISOMETRIC VIEW
Ambient air
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the dryer
The drying chamber houses two movable tray carts each having 26
trays. These trays can accommodate a total of 200 kilograms of
sliced mangoes. At an average drying temperature of 53qC, the dryer
can lower the moisture content of 90% (wet basis) down to 25%
(wet basis) in 18 hours of continuous operation consuming 240
kilograms of rice hull. Twenty six kilograms of dried mangoes is
produced when drying is complete.
Cost Details
A simple cost analysis was done on the dryer, the details of which
are presented below:
A. Initial Investment
The rice hull fed-drying system for mango drying costs
P96,000 (US$ 1,715)1
B. Technical Assumptions
1
1 US$ # 56 PhP (Philippine peso), October 2004
4
The dryer will produce 200 batches per year. But, during the
first year, the unit will operate at only half its capacity.
The effective capacity of the dryer is 180 kg of sliced mango
fruit per batch. With a recovery rate of 50%, 360 kg of
sliced mango fruits per batch will be needed.
The fuel feed rate is 13.20 kg of rice hull per hour.
The dryer has a blower and motor capacity of about 1.5 kW.
C. Operating Expenses
The price of fresh mango fruit is P15.00 per kg.
Preservatives: White sugar, 10% by weight of sliced mango
costs about P30/kg.
Sodium metabisulfite, 1 gram per 3 kg of sliced mango costs
about P800 per kg. Confectioner sugar, 5% by weight of
dried mango, costs about P55 per kg.
Rice hull costs about P10 per sack (10 kg).
Packaging material cost: P30/100 pieces.
Labor cost for the operator and three fruit peelers: P300
each per day and P70 each per hour, respectively.
Electricity tariff: P5 per kWh.
Delivery cost: 3% of the sales revenue.
Repair and maintenance: 8% of the total investment cost.
Operating expenses assumed to increase by 5% every year
starting on the 2nd year. Price of fresh mango is assumed to
increase 5% every year starting on the second year.
Depreciation is by straight-line method with a salvage value
of 10% of the investment cost.
Useful life is taken to be 5 years.
Yearly Expenses
Fresh mangoes : Php 360,000.00
Sugar : Php 60,435.00
Sodium Metabisulfite : Php 4,800.00
Fuel : Php 23,760.00
Labor : Php 114,000.00
Electricity : Php 14,100.00
Packaging : Php 3,510.00
Delivery Cost : Php 28,080.00
5
Depreciation : Php 16,200.00
Repairs and Maintenance : Php 7,680.00
Total Expenses : Php 632,565.00
(US$ 11,295.80)
D. Revenue
Recovery rate is 13% by weight of sliced mango fruit
inclusive of confectioner sugar. Thus, the dryer produces
23.40 kg of dried mango fruit per batch of 360 kg of fresh
mango.
The selling price of dried mango fruit is P80 per 200-g pack.
It is assumed that the price of dried mangoes will increase
by 3% every year starting from the 2nd year.
Yearly Income
Yearly income from the sale of dried mango: Php 936,000 (US$
16,714)
Net profit
Total net profit for the first year: Php 303,435 (US$ 5,418)
Payback period: 3.63 years
Monitoring and Evaluation

The University of the Philippines Los Baños monitored the dryer and
modifications for the improvement of the design were made. An
additional air duct to the air inlet eliminated the problem of ashes
entering into the drying chamber.
Evaluation of dried mangoes produced using the drying system was

carried out and it was found that the sensory and physical quality
parameters of the dried mango are not significantly different from
those available in the local market. The same is true as compared to
those that are for the export market.
6
Concluding Remarks
The collaboration between HOMM Food Products and the University
of the Philippines proved worthwhile as the company was in need of
a dryer that it can operate inexpensively. This demonstration acted
as an outdoor field evaluation and analyzes the applicability of the
drying system developed.
The company has noted that this drying system is a financially viable
option for production of dried mangoes, pineapple and tamarind.
Also, the demonstration set-up has showed them ways to utilize rice
hull from their rice mill which they had previously considered as a
waste that was difficult to dispose.
The strategy of showcasing the technology through collaboration

with HOMM Food Products proved effective in promoting the drying
system. Through the collaboration, the positive impacts of a
renewable energy-based drying technology could be highlighted as
follows:
a. The rice hull-fed drying system offers a cheap and efficient

method thus it is an attractive alternative to processing
needs of small and medium farmers.
b. The drying system can provide employment in rural areas
and help generate income.
c. Products with qualities at par with international standards
can be produced.
For further details, please contact

Dr. Arnold R. Elepaño
Project Leader, RETs in Asia– Philippines, University of the
Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. Email:
retsas@laguna.net
Related Publication
Elepaño, A.R. and M.K.B. Gratuito. A Solar-Biomass Dryer for
Pineapple. A paper presented by UPLB at the 51st Philippine Society
of Agricultural Engineers Annual National Convention, 22-26 April
2001.
7
PV Battery Charging Station for Remote
Communities
The installation of a PV-based

Battery Charging Station
(BCS) has brought benefits to
the people in remote rural
communities. The BCS
provides mainly lighting to the
households. In addition, it can
also supply power to the
other establishments e.g.
medicine storing facilities, entertainment and communication. This
way, BCS provides multi-directional service to the rural community.
Background
PV based Battery Charging Station (BCS) is usually installed in a
remote place where the grid electricity is not likely to reach in near
future. The targeted users are low income group who cannot afford
to purchase solar modules and have low energy requirement. The
capacity of the station depends on the number of users to be served
and their electricity needs. BCSs are also sometimes installed at
locations where grid extension would reach within a short or a
medium time period as the BCS can then be transferred to another
suitable location.
The use of BCS is rather limited as compared to the solar home

system. This is probably due to the fact that BCSs are not economic
as a sole enterprise. However, experiences show that BCS can
deliver power to the rural poor people who cannot afford solar home
system. In addition, it can supply surplus power to the nearby
establishments and earn extra revenue for the station. Experiences
with recently implemented BCS in terms of technical and
management issues are summarized below:
8
Battery Charging Station Features
Vietnam
Dong Dinh is a village located along the Tien River in Dong Thap
province, in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. This island, inhabited by
about 600 families, has no road link with the mainland. Therefore,
electricity and telecommunication network could not be established
in the village.
A PV-based Battery Charging Station (BCS) was installed by Solar

Lab in Dong Dinh village in May 1998 under the RETs in Asia
programme. The BCS was built to provide battery charging facilities
for forty five families/houses. In addition, it was designed to supply
electricity to a cultural house (an entertainment room for the
villagers), a health center and a post office. These houses were
selected based on their proximity to the battery charging station,
which was installed within the cultural house complex. The
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) of the Dong Thap
participated by building the infrastructure. The BCS was powered by
an array of 1kWp PV modules. Box 1 lists the equipment installed
and Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of BCS installed in
Vietnam.
TV
PV modules
Controller
Applications
Inverter
Storage
Channels
Batteries for the
individual users
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of BCS at Dong Dinh village
9
The end users contributed to the installation by providing batteries
(12V/ 20-70 Ah), lamps (12V/ 7W) and other fixtures. Solar Lab
assisted them choose the appropriate size of the batteries and
accessories. The BCS is used to recharge the battery of the houses,
which can be utilized for approximately three days. It also recharges
the battery bank of the cultural house. A specially designed
controller diverts the power to the battery bank when each battery is
fully charged.
The BCS provides the facility of charging the batteries which are
used in 45 households. It also provides power to the cultural room,
post office and health center. The charger-cum-controller charges
the batteries for the households and when the batteries are fully
charged, all the channels switch to the battery bank connected to
the cultural room. The cultural room operates a lamp, cassette
player, loud speaker, TV and VCR. The BCS charges a 400Ah battery
bank, which is converted to 220AC by an inverter and fed to the
appliances of cultural house at night time.
PV electricity has thus provided a unique facility for entertainment to

the villagers by supplying power to the cultural room. It also supplies
power to a radiotelephone to help the villagers communicate to the
outside world. The health center operates a vaccine refrigerator
powered by PV and serves as the only medical service in the island.
Box 2 gives some specific features of BCS.
Lao PDR
Phon Ngam Village in Savannakhet province is located about 120 km
north of Savannakhet town. The major occupation of the people
here is agriculture. The nearest grid electricity is about 30 km from
the village. This village may not have access to the grid network in
the near future.
A BCS was installed in August 1998. The objective of this system

was to charge the battery brought by the local community. The
users bring their batteries in specified days to the charging station
and get them charged. The charging fee is about US¢ 50 per month.
Figure 2 shows the BCS installed in Lao PDR.
10
Box 1: Equipments installed in the PV BCS
Vietnam
Charging station
x 20 solar modules (50 Wp each)
x 1 Charge controller with 4 auto charging channels
Cultural house
x 1 battery bank (12V, 400 Ah)
x 1 inverter (500W)
x 10 lamps (15W each) and 2 lamps (20W) each
x 1 color TV (60W)
x 1 set of cassette player, amplifier and speaker (30W)
x 1 VCR (17W)
Health center
x 1 vaccine refrigerator (36W)
Post office
x 1 radio telephone (60W)
Lao PDR
Charging station
x 4 Charge controllers (10 charging channels)
Figure 2: Battery Charging Station installed in Lao PDR
11
The BCS provides battery recharging facility to 40 users of the
village. 13 of them have one 85Ah battery, one state-of-charge
indicator (used to observe the charge level of the battery), one 20W
lamp and one 14W B/W TV. The rest have one 85Ah battery, one
LED and one 20W lamp. The users are suggested to operate the
given loads for an operating period of 4 hours per day. Usually, the
users are to get their battery charged every three days from the
BCS.
Box 2: Features of the BCS

Dinh Dong village, Vietnam
x Total cost of establishment: US$ 13,0002.
x Monthly tariff/user: US$ 2 for a maximum of 10
charges.
x Daily tariff for cultural house: US$ 5.
x Charging capacity of the station: 200-300 batteries of
20Ah equivalent per month.
x Batteries charged: ~ 400 per month
x 80% of the users are within 1 km of the station while
the rest are within 2 km.
Phon Ngam Village, Lao PDR

x Monthly tariff/user: US$ 2 for a maximum of 8 charges.
x Charging capacity of the station: 300 batteries of 85Ah
equivalent per month.
x Batteries charged: ~ 250 per month
x 100% of the users are within 2 km.
Operation and Maintenance

Vietnam
A technician was trained to operate the BCS, do troubleshooting and
collect the dues from the users. Solar Lab does the maintenance
work of all the installed equipment while a local NGO (Center for
2
1 US$ = 15,865 VND (July 2005)
12
Applied Science and Technology) looks after the management
issues. The users pay for the service and maintenance fees of their
own systems. They also add distilled water to their batteries. Solar
Lab shoulders the maintenance expenses of the charging station.
Figure 3 shows a radio telephone powered by the PV array of BCS in
Vietnam.
Lao PDR
A “Users Committee” involving persons from the users has been
formed to ensure proper operation and maintenance of the system.
The committee consists of a Manager, an Assistant, an Accountant, a
Cashier, two Technicians and four Members. The technicians have
been trained to operate the system and carry out minor repairs. The
users are also trained on maintenance of their system, especially the
batteries. They add distilled water whenever necessary. The cashier
maintains account under the supervision of the manager. The
maintenance and repair costs are met from the revenue earned. The
surplus is kept to recover the cost of the installation.
Figure 3: Radio telephone powered by BCS
13
The maintenance cost of BCS in Lao PDR is about USD 50 per year
and the average monthly operating cost for each user (including fees
for battery charging, minor repair and maintenance of system,
replacement of lamp, etc.) is about USD 1.2. Up to December 2004,
batteries of five users were damaged. These users replaced their
batteries by taking loan from the revenue earned by the station.
Concluding Remarks
The following factors contributed to the success of the BCSs:
x The appropriate site for the BCS and short distances of the users’
homes from the station,
x The possibility of grid electricity in the village is less likely to
happen in the future,
x Connecting the cultural house and other fixed loads in Vietnam not
only gives a constant revenue, but also helps the BCS to operate
at full capacity, and
x The keen interest and assistance of the local authorities in making
BCS work and the users’ participation in sharing the costs.
x Management of the station by local people who take care of the
operation and maintenance of the station.
The forty five families in Vietnam and forty families in Lao PDR
benefit from a better lighting system. In addition, it also provides
them entertainment. The villagers of Dinh Dong village also avail the
facilities at the cultural house. The vaccine refrigerator is used for
storing medicines and the new telecommunication system connects
the villagers of Dinh Dong to the outside world.

Mr. Trinh Quang Dung
Director, Solar Laboratory, 01 Mac Dinh Chi St, 01 District, Ho Chi
Minh City, S. R. Vietnam. Email: t-q-dung@hcm.fpt.vn
Dr. Phouvong Sayalath

Director, Technology Research Institute, Science, Technology and
Environment Agency (STEA), P.O Box 2279, Vientiane, Lao PDR.
E-mail: tri@steno.gov.la
14
Related Publications
Dung, T.Q, Anisuzzaman, M., Kumar, S. and Bhattacharya, S.C.
Demonstration of Multi-Purpose Battery Charging Station for Rural
Electrification. Renewable Energy, 28, 2003, pp 2367-2378.
Muangnalad, P. Introducing PV in a Developing Country: The Case

of Lao PDR. Proceeding of World Renewable Energy Congress.
Brighton, UK, 2000, pp 871-874.
Dung, T.Q. Application of Photovoltaics in the Mekong Region.

Proceedings of World Renewable Energy Congress. Brighton, UK,
2000, pp-1970-1973.
15
Solar Home System Demonstration for
Dissemination
Promotion of PV systems in developing
countries faces financial, technical,
institutional and policy barriers. Some of
these barriers can be addressed by
carrying out demonstrations. Choosing
appropriate sites and users, providing
suitable financial mechanisms and
technical support, and creating awareness
among the users can be an effective dissemination strategy to
promote solar home systems.
Background
The high initial cost of solar home systems (SHSs) and lack of
awareness regarding its usefulness are among the major obstacles
to the promotion of this technology application in the rural areas.
Electricity is generally associated with grid and diesel generators and
it is difficult for rural consumers to assess a PV system without
actually observing it in operation. Moreover, their low-income level
limits their ability to purchase a PV system. Grameen Shakti (GS)
addressed these issues to promote PV systems in rural Bangladesh
through demonstration coupled with innovative financing
mechanisms and technical support.
Technical Features
GS, formed in 1996, installed ten demonstration Solar Home
Systems under the RETs in Asia programme in 1997, with the aim of
disseminating this technology application in rural areas. Table 1 lists
the details of demonstration systems installed by Grameen Shakti
under this programme. Figure 1 shows an application of a system in
an electronic repair shop.
The following criteria were considered in selecting the site and

users:
x Easy accessibility to the site by visitors who would like to observe
the system,
16
x A minimum distance of 1 km of the site from the grid,
x Interest of users in meeting their electricity demand with PV
technology, and
x The systems were designed to operate 3-4 hours/day with 3 days
of autonomy.
Table 1: List of demonstration systems installed by Grameen Shakti under the

RETs in Asia programme
System No. of Battery Controller Appliances Price
Systems
17Wp 3 12V, 50Ah 12V, 4A 2 lamps (6W US$ 228
each)
34Wp 3 12V, 71Ah 12V, 10A 2 lamps (6W US$ 333
each) and 1
B/W TV (14W)
50Wp 4 12V, 12V, 10A 3 lamps (6W US$ 438
100Ah each) and 1
B/W TV (20W)
Figure 1: Use of PV electricity in an electronic repair shop
Financial Mechanism
The demonstration also helped GS to identify suitable financial
arrangements that their consumers would be willing to follow for the
installation of the PV system. Under the first mechanism that GS
introduced, the users had to pay 50% of the rural cost, while the
remaining amount was to be paid in six monthly installments with a
17
service charge of 8%. This scheme was not well received by the
users. As a result, the initial down payment was reduced to 25% and
the repayment period was extended to 2 years. The interest accrued
from this scheme was limited to potential users of a certain income
level. However, a plan of 15% down payment, and a three-year
repayment period with a 12% service charge found more user
acceptance. GS also offers 4% discount in case of cash purchases.
Effect of Demonstration
x The demonstration provided a better understanding on solar home
systems capabilities to users and visitors.
x The high number of inquiries and purchase of the systems in the
areas where it was demonstrated indicate the effectiveness of
demonstration as well as the level of awareness among the
villagers.
x The financial mechanisms developed through this demonstration
made the PV system affordable to users of different income
groups.
x The demonstration facilitated on-site testing and evaluation of the
solar home system performance in field conditions.
Box 1 presents the uses and effect of demonstration.
Box 1: Types of uses and effect of demonstration

Types of uses
x Household (lighting, entertainment and children’s education)
x Shops (extending working hours)
x Workshops (repairing electronic appliances)
Demonstration details
x Persons attending demonstration (up to Dec 2004): ~3,600
3
x Installations in nearby areas :
x During Jan-Dec 1998: 74
x During Jan-Dec 1999: 172
x Up to June 2005: 3,593
3
The area refers to Tangail district which has an area of about 3424 sq. km and
population 3,253,961.
18
The demand of SHS has increased in rural areas of Bangladesh.
Grameen Shakti has installed more than 43,000 SHSs up to June
2005 with a total installed capacity of 2.15 MWp. Currently, about
1,500 SHSs are being installed per month4.
Concluding Remarks
The following are recommended for a successful demonstration:
x The accessibility of the site, its communication facility, and
distance from the electricity grid must be considered before
choosing a location for demonstration,
x The systems should be designed to suit the needs of the users,
x Leaflets and brochures with detailed information about the
systems and PV technology should be distributed to all potential
users,
x Inquiries and suggestions made by the visitors should be recorded
and followed up, and
x An appropriate financial mechanism should be developed taking
into account the financial capacity of users. A survey on the
preferences of prospective users maybe useful in formulating a
more acceptable and affordable financial scheme.

Mr. Dipal C. Barua
Managing Director, Grameen Shakti, Grameen Bank Bhaban, Mirpur
2, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh. Email: g_shakti@denbd.net
Related Publication
Barua, D.C., Urmee, T.P., Kumar, S. and Bhattacharya, S.C. A
Photovoltaic Solar Home System Dissemination Model. Progress in
Photovoltaics Research and Application. 2001. pp. 313-322.
4
http://www.lged-rein.org/solar/solar_gs.htm
19
Productive Application of Photovoltaics: The
Micro-Utility Approach
Lack of electricity supply poses great

hardships to the rural markets of
developing countries. A PV-based
electricity generation system with a reliable
institutional arrangement, an effective
financial mechanism and technical support
can be an attractive option to supply
electricity to such markets.
Background
Manikganj bazaar5 is an important market in Ranirhat, Dinajpur
district, about 400 km north of Dhaka, Bangladesh. There are about
40 shops in the bazaar, and their lighting needs are usually met by
traditional kerosene lamps called “Kupi”. A PV-based electrification
system for the shops was introduced by the Center for Mass
Education in Science (CMES). The model was explained to the shop
owners of Manikganj bazaar and the Bazaar Management Committee
(BMC), who welcomed the idea of a PV-based micro-utility for the
bazaar.
PV micro-utility system in a broad sense is similar to the Energy

Service Company (ESCO) model where the users pay for service
received. A number of PV modules are installed in a common place,
near the market. Each user is connected with one or two lamps. The
users do not own the system and pay a daily or monthly tariff for
using the electricity. A technician is employed by the owner and is
responsible for operation, maintenance and collection of tariff from
the users.
Technical Features
Box 1 lists the equipment installed for the system. Seven solar
modules, each having a capacity of 50 Wp were divided into two sets
5
A rural market, similar to a growth center
20
and installed in two locations of the bazaar. The batteries and the
controllers of each set were placed close to the respective solar
arrays. Twenty-four lamps were installed in twenty-one shops. These
included grocery, restaurant, barber, pharmacy (Figure 1), village
doctor's chamber and tea stall. A socket was also placed in the
BMC’s room to operate a 14-inch Black & White TV (Figure 2). The
system was designed to allow the lamps to function for 5 hours
every evening. A trained technician operated and took care of the
system and also collected the dues from the shops daily and
deposited it in a bank.
Box 1: Equipment installed

The PV micro utility includes the following equipment/ components:
x 7 batteries (12V, 100 Ah each)
x 7 Charge controllers (10 A each)
x 1 lamp (7 W each) in 18 shops,
x 2 lamps (7 W each) in 3 shops
x 1 socket for operating 1 B&W TV in BMC’s room.
Maintenance
Since the operation started in
October 1999, the repair and
maintenance works carried out
were the replacement of the
blackened lamps, repairing the
connection of the charge
controllers, replenishing the
distilled water of batteries, etc.
The technician was able to carry
out minor repairs, while major
repairs such as repairing the
charge controllers, lamp circuits,
etc. were handled by CMES
personnel. Details of the financial
features of the system are given
in Box 2. Figure 1: Medicine shop using PV light
to extend its working hours
21
User’s Feedback
Feedback from the users indicated that:
x Having a local, full time technician led to a higher user
satisfaction.
x The amount of light from the systems was sufficient.
x The pharmacy owner reported that the solar lighting made the
market livelier and had improved his business.
x The tea-stall owner reported an increase in the number of his
customers.
x The grocery shop owner also observed that the bright light of the
PV-powered lamps attracted more customers to his shop.
x The restaurant owner reported an increase of his working hours.
Box 2: Financial details
x Initial cost including site investigation, hardware and installation:

US$ 3,030.
x Monthly repair and maintenance cost of the system: ~USD 2.
x Monthly personnel cost: ~ USD 14.
x Monthly tariff per lamp: ~USD 2.5.
x Simple payback period is about 5 years6.
x US$ 3.5 was taken as initial deposit from each user. CMES may
forfeit this deposit in case of violation of agreement.
Concluding Remarks
Soon after the installation of this system, demands for similar
systems were noticed in nearby bazaars. CMES installed another nine
such systems in next one year. The model was also tried in other
parts of Bangladesh. The other PV operators e.g. Grameen Shakti
have also adopted the model. Total installations of MU system in
Bangladesh up to June 2005 is about 450. The success of the PV
micro-utility is due to the following factors:
6
Based on a soft loan fund (with 2.5% interest, 5 years repayment period and, 5%
inflation rate) and 10% discount rate of hardware.
22
x Initial survey to assess the financial capacity of the shop owners
and thus the viability of the system,
x Increasing the understanding of the potential users about the
capabilities and benefits of the system,
x Users’ awareness about the system’s constraints enabled them to
take measures to shorten their operating time during extreme
weather conditions,
x Agreement with BMC, which includes the terms and conditions of
the service, maintenance procedure, payment methods and
financial details of the users and security deposit, and
x Availability of a trained technician to take care of the system.
Figure 2: TV powered by micro utility

Professor Muhammad Ibrahim
Center for Mass Education in Science, House No. 828, Road No. 19,
Dhanmondi R/A, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh.
Email: cmes@citechco.net, ibrahim@citechco.net
Related Publication
Ibrahim, M., Anisuzzaman, M., Kumar, S. and Bhattacharya, S.C.
Demonstration of PV Micro-Utility System for Rural Electrification,
Solar Energy, Vol. 72, No. 6, 2002, pp. 521-530.
23
Local Production of PV Accessories
Development of PV accessories
through adaptive research helps
reduce the system’s cost through the
use of locally available components.
It also generates employment
opportunities. Commercial production
of the accessories was possible
through continued research, testing and modification.
Background
Lack of accessories of photovoltaic (PV) systems (e.g. Charge
Controller, Lamp, DC to DC Converter, etc.) is one of the major
hurdles faced during promotion of PV systems in developing
countries. Imported accessories are not only expensive but also have
several difficulties in their use. A reliable source of affordable system
components was a major concern to the users of PV system.
Therefore, development of inexpensive and reliable accessories,
based on locally available resources, appeared to be an important
requirement to promote photovoltaics in the region.
To develop low cost PV accessories adaptive research was carried

out under the RETs in Asia programme. First, the need for
development of the accessories was identified followed by design of
the component. The designed components were first tested in the
laboratory and then used in the field. Problems, if any, were
identified and remedial measures taken. Box 1 summarizes the
devices developed by Grameen Shakti (GS) in Bangladesh, Ministry
of Industry, Mineral and Energy (MIME) in Cambodia and Solar Lab
in Vietnam under the RETs in Asia programme. Figure 1 shows the
sample inverter developed in Vietnam.
24
Box 1: Devices developed by Grameen Shakti, MIME and
Solar Lab under RETs in Asia programme
Accessories Specification
Grameen Shakti, Bangladesh
Charge Controller Input: 12VDC
Capacity: 10A
Display: Battery status
Self consumption: 10mA
Ballast for DC Input: 12VDC
fluorescent lamp Power: 6W
Operating frequency: 55kHz
DC to DC converter Input: 12VDC
Output: 3, 6 & 9VDC
Capacity: 1A
Efficiency: 75%
MIME, Cambodia
Charge controller Input: 12VDC
Capacity: 5A
Solar Lab, Vietnam
Adaptor for color TV Input: 12VDC
Output: 15/24/110 VDC
Power: 100W
Inverter Input: 12VDC
Output: 220VAC
Power: 0.5-2 kW
Type: True sine wave
Ballast for DC Input: 12VDC
fluorescent lamp Power: 9-11W
Operating frequency: 80kHz
Charge controller Input: 12VDC
Capacity: 15A
25
In Bangladesh, the developed accessories were used in the systems
sold by GS to its customers and these were also supplied to the
other organizations. In Vietnam, the systems were mostly used with
the systems installed under different projects. Some devices were
also sold to users.
Figure 1: Inverter developed in Vietnam
Status and Field Performance

Bangladesh
About eight different types of prototypes have been developed and
three of them (charge controller, solar lamp and DC to DC converter)
are currently being manufactured in large scale. About 100,000 solar
lamps, 30,000 charge controllers and 6,000 DC to DC converters
have been developed and are being used in the field. About 50%
cost reduction compared to the imported ones has been achieved
through this development. More importantly, after sales service and
availability of spare parts have been ensured through this endeavor.
26
Charge Controller
x About 30,000 charge controllers were installed up to June
2005. Initially, the failure rate was ~ 5%, which occurred
mainly due to the poor quality of the printed circuit board
(PCB). The rate has been reduced to 2% by improving the PCB
quality.
Ballast for DC fluorescent lamps
x About 100,000 lamps were installed up to June 2005, operating
for 4 hours each day. Initially, the failure rate was ~15%,
which occurred mainly due to the poor quality fluorescent
tubes. The rate has been reduced significantly by selecting
right quality of tubes and electronic components.
DC-DC Converter
x About 6,000 DC to Dc converters were installed up to June
2005, operating for 2 hours/day. Initially, the failure rate was
~10%, which occurred mainly due to the low current rating of
the transistor. This failure rate now is ~3%, which has been
achieved by sourcing improved quality transistor. Figure 2
shows a sample DC-DC converter developed in Bangladesh.
Figure 2: DC to DC Converter developed by Grameen Shakti
27
Vietnam
Four different types of prototypes have been developed in Vietnam,
and three of them (charge controller, ballast for fluorescent lamp
and inverter) have been commercialized. The programme also
developed DC energy saving lamp, which was the first such
development in Vietnam. Local experts have been benefited with the
research facilities established under RETs in Asia programme. In
addition, products for PV systems are now being manufactured
locally.
Charge Controller
x About 50 charge controllers are being used by the users of
battery charging station. The overall failure rate up to June
2005 is 2%, which has mainly caused by low quality
components.
Inverters
x Ten units were made. They are being used for various
purposes, e.g. cultural boat, cultural house, computer system,
and solar ambulance. No major problem has been found so far.
Ballast for DC fluorescent lamps
x More than 700 units have been made and many of these have
been installed in Ding Dong solar village and in other places of
Vietnam. No major problem has been found so far.
Adaptor for color TV
x About 20 units have been made and are being used in the rural
cultural facilities as well as in households of Vietnam. No units
failed so far since the first installation in June 2000.
Cambodia
Two different types of charge controllers were developed in
Cambodia, and one of them (presented in Box 1) has been
commercialized. About 40 of this device have been installed with
street lights at Prek Takouch bridge. The street light project was
funded by the government of Cambodia.
About 40 charge controllers are being used with the street lights
since December 2003. So far, no major problems have been
28
reported. Figure 3 shows a sample charge controller developed in
Cambodia.
Figure 3: Charge controller developed in Cambodia
The adaptive research on PV accessories development thus has

helped in various ways, such as:
x Price reduction of SHS in Bangladesh due to locally

developed accessories was approximately 10%.
x The reduction obtained compared to the imported items
were as follows7:
Charge controller : Imported : ~US$ 25
Present : ~US$ 10
Lamp : Imported : ~US$ 15
Present : ~US$ 7
x Local capacity has been enhanced so that the accessories
can be designed to any capacity required. Laboratory
facilities also have been developed (Figure 3)
x Display options (in charge controller) can be made according
to the users demand to help them understand the system
status easily.
7
One 50Wp system (~US$ 500) uses 1 charge controller and 4 lights. So, cost
reduction is ~US$ 50.
29
x After-sales service and a reliable source of accessories were
established. These enhanced users’ confidence on the PV
technology.
x Creation of employment opportunities for design, fabrication,
raw material and component delivery, transportation, repair
and maintenance work.
Figure 3: Laboratory facility of Grameen Shakti
Concluding Remarks
The following factors were vital in the successful development and
commercialization of PV accessories:
x Robust designs that were based on locally available components
and
x Development of designs based on the field performance and
users’ feedback.

Mr. Dipal C. Barua
Managing Director, Grameen Shakti, Grameen Bank Bhaban, Mirpur,
Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh. Email: g_shakti@citechco.net
Dr. Sat Samy

Under Secretary of State, Ministry of Industry Mines and Energy
(MIME), No. 47, Preah Norodom Blvd. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
E-mail: mimedet@forum.org.kh
30
Mr. Trinh Quang Dung
Director, Solar Laboratory, 01 Mac Dinh Chi St, 01 District, Ho Chi
Minh City, S. R. Vietnam, Email: t-q-dung@hcm.fpt.vn
Related Publication
Alamgir, D. Adaptive research and dissemination for development of
PV technology in Bangladesh. World Renewable Energy Congress.
Brighton, UK. 2000. pp-840-843.
Dung, T.Q. Energy saving technology application in solar electricity

for socio-economic development. Conference of Applied Physics
Serving for Socio-Economic Development, 10-11 December 2004.
31
Biomass Briquetting Technology: Domestic and
Small Industrial Applications
Rice husk briquette has emerged as a
viable and important substitute for fuel
wood in Bangladesh and Vietnam. With
improvements achieved in the briquetting
technology, briquettes have become more
cost effective than fuel wood, leading to
the establishment of a briquetting industry
in these countries.
Introduction
Utilization of agricultural residues is often difficult due to their
uneven and troublesome characteristics. The process of compaction
of residues into a product of higher density than the original raw
materials is known as densification or briquetting. Densification has
aroused a great deal of interest in developing countries all over the
world lately as a technique for upgrading of residues as energy
resources. Converting residues into a densified form has the
following advantages:
x The process increases the net calorific value per unit volume
x Densified product is easy to transport and store
x The process helps to solve the problem of residual disposal
x The fuel produced is uniform in size and quality
The process also helps to reduce deforestation by providing a

substitute for fuel wood.
There are several methods available for densifying biomass. Heated-

die screw press briquetting is a popular densification method suitable
for small-scale applications in developing countries. In this method,
the raw material (loose biomass) from the hopper is conveyed and
compressed by a screw through a cylindrical die, heated by electric
coil heaters. This process can produce denser and stronger
briquettes compared with piston presses.
32
In heated-die screw-press briquetting machine, the screw is prone to
wear caused by the abrasive behavior of biomass. The wear of screw
results in significant operating costs, and calls for a rather regular
attention of the plant owner. The high electrical energy consumption
by the briquetting process was another area of concern, which limits
the widespread use of the technology.
Heated-die screw-press briquetting technology has been in use to

produce rice husk briquettes in Bangladesh for several years. During
a nationwide survey, it was found that there were about 900
briquetting machines used in 1997, of which 880 machines were
fabricated in Bangladesh. Most of these can densify 75-120 kg of
biomass per hour. They were operated with 15, 20 or 25 horsepower
electric motors. The only raw material used was rice husk. A
significant potential for energy and cost savings existed, while there
was further scope for enhancing the operating convenience.
Heated-die screw-press briquetting technology was introduced in

Vietnam in the eighties, but the interest was quickly lost due to
many technical and economic issues. It was introduced again
through the RETs in Asia programme in 1997. Efforts were made to
ensure that the key issues that prevented the technology from
taking off earlier were addressed. Currently, there are about 500
households using rice husk briquettes for daily cooking in Vietnam.
About 800 - 1000 tons of briquettes are produced every year.
Briquettes are used as single fuel, or mixed with fuel wood and other
biomass fuels.
Rice husk briquettes have also been used in brick kilns in an

enterprise located in Binh Duong province (South of Vietnam). Trial
production using 20 tones of rice husk briquettes showed good
results. In the same province, five briquetting machines have been
installed in a rice mill to produce briquettes from rice husk produced
at the plant.
Briquetting Technology
Bangladesh
Under the RETs in Asia programme, Khulna University of Engineering
and Technology (KUET) worked to reduce the technical and
33
operational problems, and to adapt the technology to conditions in
Bangladesh, for the type and quality of raw materials available
locally. Adaptive research activities carried out at KUET resulted in
the development of improved and cost-effective briquetting
packages.
The major achievements of the research were the enhancement of

screw life and reduction in briquetting energy consumption, leading
to reduction in the production cost of briquettes. Two technology
packages were developed by KUET on improved heated-die screw-
press briquetting system, each consisting of a machine to produce
briquette, selected accessories, and a stove to burn briquettes
efficiently. Accessories developed included a biomass pre-heater,
die-heating stove and a smoke removal system. With the packages
developed, it is possible to produce rice husk briquettes at a cost of
about Tk 1.72 per kilogram8, which was very competitive with the
cost of fuel wood in the local market (Tk 3.75/kg).
Technical Improvements
The briquetting machines already used commercially in Bangladesh
are of heated-die screw-press type and rice husk is mainly used as
the raw material. Wear of the screw is the main problem of existing
briquetting machines. During briquetting, the biomass raw material
slides on the screw surfaces. This sliding action cause wear as the
biomass rubs against the surface of the screw continuously. As a
result, the root of the screw and also the flight surface get damaged.
The wear is more pronounced with more abrasive raw materials such
as rice husk. Research was undertaken with the aim of protecting the
screw surface from wear so that the screw could be used for a longer
duration. Mild steel is recommended as the base metal for screw
because of its availability and low cost. To improve the hardness and
wear resistance of the screw surface, the portion of the screw which
experiences most wear (about 15 cm from the front end) was
resurface with hard-facing electrode XHDN 6715. The technique
increased the screw life from 3 hours (without hard facing) or 6 hours
(with conventional hard-facing electrodes) to 22 hours per run,
8
1 US$ # 64 Taka (Tk), July 2005
34
resulting in improved economy. The briquetting machine can now be
operated continuously for three shifts before it requires a screw
replacement. The worn out screw can be repaired by welding and
resurfacing the damaged flights for a nominal cost, and re-used,
typically up to ten times.
Adaptive research at KUET also focused on the screw profile and die
design of the briquetting machine. An optimum design of screw and
die which consumes the least energy for briquetting rice husk was
developed. A screw pitch of 38.1 mm and a die taper angle of 2.32q
showed the best results for rice husk.
Electricity consumption for die-heating plays a major part in the total

briquetting production cost. A briquette-fuelled stove was therefore
developed, to replace the electrical coil heaters used for die heating,
resulting in a reduction of about 25% in the total electricity
consumption.
Heating loose biomass before feeding into the briquetting machine

reduces the power required for the motor, and gives an added benefit
of longer screw life. Research has shown that preheating can save up
to 10% of the total electrical energy required for briquetting rice husk
in electric motor-driven briquetting machines. KUET developed a raw
material pre-heater which uses hot exhaust gases from the die-
heating stove, fuelled by biomass briquettes. The pre-heater further
reduced the briquetting energy consumption.
Another development was a briquetting machine that can be run

without electricity as shown in Figure 1. The electrical motor was
replaced with a diesel engine and the electrical coil heaters by a
kerosene stove. The machine is attractive even at locations where
electricity is available: the cost of fuel for running the engine (diesel)
is only 50% of the cost of electricity required for the motor.
By incorporating these improvements in a prototype briquetting

system, briquettes could be sold for Tk 2.50/kg. This competes with
fuel wood sold in the local fuel wood shops, which typically costs Tk
3.75/kg. The production cost reduced from Taka 2.03 (US$ 0.04) to
Taka 1.78 (US$ 0.03) per kg of briquette, while the cost of electrical
35
energy consumption to run the briquetting system decreased from
Taka 68.80 (US$ 1.18) to Taka 48.80 (US$ 0.81) per hour. Local
availability of materials (base metal and welding electrode) in
fabricating and repairing the screws contributed to a further reduction
in costs.
In addition to cost reductions, KUET also developed a new

mechanism for changing the worn out screws in a shorter time, thus
reducing the machine downtime during screw replacement
significantly.
Figure 1: Off-grid briquetting machine (screw run by diesel engine,

and die heated by kerosene stove)
Fabrication of briquetting machines and production and selling of

briquettes (Figures 2 and 3) are already established in the Khulna
region of Bangladesh. With the briquetting technology reaching
maturity and the growing acceptance of briquettes as a replacement
for fuel wood in the residential and cottage industry sectors, the
briquetting industry is poised for more growth in the near future.
Financial Analysis
Financial analysis of the improved briquetting system, both for electric
motor and diesel engine, indicate a payback period of less than one
year. Table 1 shows the results of the analysis. The analysis is based
on the following assumptions:
36
x 10 hours of operation per day
x 25 days per month of operation
x Machine life: 10 years
x Screw life: 77 hours (total lifetime after repairing and reuse)
x Briquette production rate: 90 kg/hr
x Rice husk price: Tk 0.90/kg
x Briquettes selling price: Tk 2.50/kg
x Operator charges: Tk 10/hr
x Interest rate: 10%
Figure 2: Rice husk briquettes in a fuel wood shop
Figure 3: Selling briquettes in a ‘mobile shop’
37
Table 1: Financial analysis of the briquetting systems
Description Electric system Diesel system
Production cost, Tk 1.72/kg 2.06/kg
Net profit per day, Tk 387 702
Net profit per year, Tk 116,070 210,720
Payback period, year 0.63 0.33
Benefit cost ratio 1.21 1.45
With such a short payback period, the briquetting systems make good
economic sense, and demonstrate a viable business model.
Vietnam
A commercially operating briquetting machine was imported from
Bangladesh, and was modified through adaptive research to suit the
local conditions and requirements. Training was provided to the
technicians involved (in Bangladesh) on the design, assembly,
operation and maintenance of the machines. Studies were conducted
locally in Vietnam, and several biomass stoves that can effectively
burn rice husk briquettes were developed.
Technical Improvements
Institute of Energy carried out adaptive research on the imported
machine, and introduced key improvements. Figure 4 shows a
briquetting machine in commercial operation. The briquetting screw
and die were redesigned to reduce briquetting energy consumption
(Figure 5). The screw profile was modified, and diameter increased,
to produce 71 mm diameter briquettes instead of 55 mm produced
in the original machine (Figure 6). The briquette production rate was
increased from 70 kg/hour to 90 kg/hour. The new design of screw
and die also allowed a reduction in the size of motor from 20 to 15
horse power.
The improvements resulted in an overall reduction of 25% electricity

consumption. The cost of briquette reduced from 1.1 to 0.9 times
the cost of fuel wood, thus effectively competing with fuel wood in
the local market.
38
Figure 4: Improved briquetting system in commercial
operation
Figure 5: The redesigned briquetting Figure 6: 71 mm and 55 mm

screw and die diameter briquettes
Briquette stoves
Bangladesh
Biomass briquettes have different density and combustion
characteristics compared to other biomass fuels such as wood.
Therefore, it is essential to develop suitable low-cost briquette
stoves to popularize biomass briquettes as a domestic fuel in
Bangladesh. KUET developed briquette-fuelled stoves for domestic
39
and small business use (Figures 7 and 8). Over 400 of these stoves
were distributed to a local village community with whom the stoves
became very popular.
Figure 7: Improved briquette stove developed

at KUET
Figure 8: Briquette stoves dissemination
Vietnam
With the introduction of rice husk briquettes in Vietnam through the
RETs in Asia Programme, several households have chosen briquettes
as fuel for cooking. Briquettes are attractive as they are cheaper to
fuel wood. Stoves designed to use briquettes as fuel stoves are now
available in the country. These stoves can burn rice husk briquettes
efficiently, with less or almost no smoke. Advantages of the rice husk
briquette fuel include sustainable supply from the local rice milling
40
industries, non-exposure to price fluctuations as experienced with
fossil fuels and fuel security.
Under RETs in Asia Programme, the requirements and design

features of briquette stoves were first identified by studying many
existing wood and coal stoves used in Vietnam. These stoves were
tested and evaluated by considering the relevant design and
operational aspects such as efficiency, emission of pollutants and
convenience of use. Altogether, four types of briquettes stoves were
developed at the Institute of Energy. Figures 9 and 10 illustrate
three of the stoves thus developed. The stoves offered high
efficiency while emitting fewer pollutants.
Figure 9: Two types of single pot briquette stoves
Figure 10: Top burning stove for briquettes
41
More than 300 briquette stoves have so far been disseminated within
the programme. Several others have been sold commercially through
stove manufacturers. Table 2 presents the cost details and payback
period for a briquette stove in comparison to a traditional stove and
an improved stove that uses fuel wood in Vietnam.
Table 2: Selected indications of the biomass briquette stoves

Description Unit Traditional Improved Briquette
stove wood stove stove
Type of fuel used Fuelwood Fuelwood Briquettes
Heating value kcal/kg 3,500 3,500 3,300
Stove efficiency % 15 20 33
Annual household kg/household/ 1,738 1,304 838
fuel consumption year
Stove price VND/unit 0 – 5,000 30,000 30,000
Fuel price VND/kg 500 500 500
Annual fuel cost VND/household/ 869,048 651,786 418,962
year
Cost saving VND/household/ - 217,262 232,823
year
Simple pay back Months - 2 2
period
Success features and concluding remarks

With sufficient know how, experiences and capacities for local
fabrication of low-cost and much more efficient briquetting systems,
biomass briquetting technology is much more attractive than before
for interested entrepreneurs. Presence of trained engineers and
technicians for maintenance and repairing is an added incentive. With
briquettes being sold at a cheaper price than fuel wood, the
technology seems to offer an ideal business opportunity for small
entrepreneurs in rural Bangladesh.
An initial countrywide survey in 1997 showed that the average cost of

a briquetting machine was about US$ 2500, which is quite high for
small investors in Bangladesh. KUET’s efforts in improving design and
fabrication methods have brought down the cost of briquetting
42
machine of similar production capacity to about US$ 800 (2002). It
was also observed that the number of briquetting machines in
operation in Bangladesh was about 900. This increased to more than
2000 in the year 2002, with the introduction of improved technology
and better profitability.
The impact of the briquetting programme in Bangladesh is multi-

faceted: generation of rural employment and income, solution to the
disposal problems of large quantities of unutilized rice husk, efficient
utilization of an indigenous energy resource and associated
enhancement of energy security; and a reduction in the use of wood
and consequent conservation of forests. The activities related to
briquette-production such as briquetting machine and components
fabrication, screw repairing, transportation, and marketing of rice
husk and briquettes, have contributed in instituting a small industrial
and service sector in Bangladesh.
In Vietnam, although currently briquette stoves are used mainly for

household cooking, there is a large potential for their use in the small
and cottage industries sector, especially in the food processing
business. Some stoves of bigger size have already been demonstrated
for food processing.

Prof. Nawsher Ali Moral
Professor, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology Khulna,
Bangladesh. Email: nali@bttb.net.bd
Dr. Pham Khanh Toan

Director, Institute of Energy, Khuong Thuong - Dong Da, Hanoi, SR
Vietnam. E-mail: toanpk@fpt.vn; ret@fpt.vn
Related Publication
Choudhuri, A.R., Moral, M.N.A. and Kazim, K.A. 1998. ‘Techno-
economic Feasibility of Biomass Briquetting in Bangladesh’.
Proceedings of the National Seminar on Utilization of Renewable and
Alternative Energy Sources for Sustainable Development (NSURAESD
’98). BIT Khulna, Bangladesh, pp 66-71.
43
Islam, M.M., Khan, K., Moral, M.N.A. and Islam, M.S. 2003. ‘An
Investigation on the Raw Materials and Products of the Briquetting
Machine’. Proceedings of the National Seminar on the role of
Renewable and Alternative Energy Sources for National Development
(SRRAESND-2003), Khulna, Bangladesh, pp 35-42.
Moral, M.N.A., Islam, M.M., Rahman, A.N.M.M. and Gani, M.A. 1998.
‘Scope of Biomass Briquetting in Bangladesh’. Proceedings of the
National Seminar on Utilization of Renewable and Alternative Energy
Sources for Sustainable Development (NSURAESD ’98), BIT Khulna,
Bangladesh, pp 51-65.
Moral, M.N.A. 2003. ‘Biomass Briquetting: Bangladesh Perspective’.

Proceedings of the National Seminar on the Role of Renewable and
Alternative Energy Sources for National Development (SRRAESND-
2003), Khulna, Bangladesh, pp 17-23.
Rahman, M.M., Khan, K., Moral, M.N.A., and Mizanur Rahman,

A.N.M. 2003. ‘Biomass Briquetting Technology and Environmental
Pollution’. Proceedings of the National Seminar on the role of
Renewable and Alternative Energy Sources for National Development
(SRRAESND-2003), Khulna, Bangladesh, pp 24-30.
Toan, P.K., Nguyen, D.C., Nguyen, T.Q. and Phi, K. S. 2000.

‘Application of Briquetting Technology to Produce Briquettes from
Agricultural Residues and By-products’. Proceeding of the World
Renewable Energy Congress, Brighton, UK, 2000, pp 1416-1419.
Toan, P.K., Nguyen, D. C. and Leon, M. A. 2005. ‘Activities and

Achievements of a Biomass Briquetting Project in Vietnam’. World
Renewable Energy Regional Congress & Exhibition 2005, 17-21 April
2005. Jakarta, Indonesia.
44
White LED Lamps: Replacing the Kerosene Lamps
for Rural Home Lighting
Inadequate supply of good quality

fluorescent lamps in the rural market
poses difficulties for Solar Home
Systems (SHSs) use. In addition, only
high-income group of the rural areas
could afford SHSs powered by PV at the
current price level. To make the best
use of PV system, an innovative
approach is necessary to reduce the
system’s price and also eliminate the
problems associated with the low quality fluorescent lamps. In this
context, white light emitting diode (LED) lamp has become a
promising option.
Background
The major drawback of a traditional solar home system is the high
cost of photovoltaic module, which is not affordable to the mass
rural poor people. Secondly, the durability of the solar lamp is also
very low and is prone to damage and require frequent replacement
of the bulbs, increasing repair/maintenance cost. To address these
issues, an initiative was undertaken by the Center for Renewable
Energy (CRE), Nepal to develop lamps using white light emitting
diodes (WLEDs). The attractiveness of WLEDs is due to its extremely
low power consumption (0.324 W per LED with light intensity of 5
Candela (Cd), longer lifetime extending over 10,000 hours, and the
ability to be powered by smaller size PV modules. This has reduced
the cost of solar home system and made it affordable to the poor
villagers. In addition, these lamps provide a cleaner environment in
the households. Each system, consisting of 3 WLED lamps, would
lead to saving of 2 liters of kerosene and 2 pairs of dry cell per
month for each household.
45
Development of WLED Lamps
The lamps have been developed by incorporating three WLEDs in a
single case with a concave lens on the top to deflect light outward.
Each of the lamps consumes about 100 mA at 3.6 VDC.
A 1.8 Wp module at 12 V will generate about 150 mA. For the

average solar radiation available in Nepal, the daily available energy
from the module would be around 750 mAh. Therefore, one lamp
could be used for 7.5 hours/day. Thus, in rural households using two
lamps daily for 3 hours, a small radio could additionally be operated.
Box 1 presents the technical features of two different portable lamps

for use of rural households.
Box 1: Technical Features

Type A: Portable lamp
x Three 6 Cd. WLEDs,
x Three 400 mAh NiMH AA size rechargeable batteries,
x Socket for charging, and
x Socket for powering a small radio with 3 VDC input.
Type B: Portable lamp

x Two ceiling mounted WLED lamps with six WLEDS each,
x One maintenance free, lead-acid battery (6Ah, 12 V),
x Charging socket,
x Two outlets for lamps and one outlet for 3 V radio
A WLED with luminous flux of 5 Cd consumes 20 mA of current at

3.6 V. In other words, the power consumed by one WLED is 72 mW.
Field studies indicated that a lamp with 3 WLEDs is sufficient for use
as a table lamp for reading, whereas 8 WLEDs are required for use
as a ceiling lamp for general lighting. Power consumption by these
LEDs is far less than the power consumed by typical 7 or 9 W
compact fluorescent lamps used in solar home systems.
WLED lamps require very little or no maintenance. The average life

of the lamps is about 10,000 hours. When the LEDs become non-
46
operational, they can be replaced. Figure 1 shows a lamp with six
WLEDs.
User’s Feedback
Feedbacks from the users indicate that the intensity of the light is
sufficient for domestic purposes and good for reading and the lamps
make the solar home system affordable by reducing the size of the
PV modules.
Figure 1: Ceiling mounted WLED lamp
Concluding Remarks
The WLED lamp is mainly targeted to those using kerosene lamp for
lighting, who cannot afford (the high cost of) solar home systems. In
addition, the frequent replacement of fluorescent lamps is also a
major expense for them. About one hundred and fifty units of WLED
lamps are now operating in the rural areas of Nepal. The
performances of these units are satisfactory. The successful
demonstration of the WLED lamp shows the advantages of these
lamps over kerosene lamp and fluorescent lamps as follows:
x Kerosene lamp is hazardous for health due to its smoke,

x The illumination intensity of kerosene lamp at a distance of 20 cm
is about 35 Lux whereas it is 537 Lux for a WLED lamp,
x Power consumption of WLED lamps is much lower compared with
fluorescent lamps used in solar home systems. This gives room
47
for using several lamps with the same module, or reducing the
module size for the same number of lamps.

Prof. Dinesh Sharma
Executive Director, Center for Renewable Energy, P.O. Box 589, Ga-
2/717 Bag Bazar, Kathmandu, Nepal. cre@ccslnp.com
Related Publication
Sharma, D.K, Shrestha J.N. and Shrestha B.R. 2005. Low cost
lighting system to replace kerosene lamps, World Renewable Energy
Regional Congress, Jakarta, Indonesia, 18-21 April 2005.
48
Solar Dryers Offer Income Generation
Opportunities
Solar drying is an economically
attractive option for producing dried
products in commercial scale in
Nepal. Drying vegetables in solar
tunnel dryers prove to be an
effective income generating activity
for small entrepreneurs. A solar
tunnel dryer modified by Nepal’s
Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST) to
improve performance and to enhance the operating convenience,
can dry about 70 kg of fresh vegetables in a single loading. It has
been tested with several vegetables, including radish, onion, carrot,
ginger and mushroom. Fruits are also dried in the tunnel dryer. Most
of the dried fruits are made into candies and sold in the local market
while the dried vegetables are exported.
Background
Dried food products are used in Nepal in the form of snacks, soups
and vegetables. Some fermented and dried vegetables, dried spices
and medicinal herbs are also used for preparing traditional meals
and medicines. Most traditional dehydrated food products were
prepared by open sun drying and very small quantities of these
products entered into the market. With the introduction of solar
drying technology and the availability of good quality dried products
in sufficient quantities, the solar drying systems are gaining
popularity.
Recently, mountaineers, trekkers and tourists have become one of

the main consumer groups of dried fruits. Solar dried fruits, e.g.
apple, apricot, mango etc. are sold in Kathmandu and other cities of
the country. In response to rise in consumers’ demand for dried
products in the recent years, some entrepreneurs have started solar
drying of various fruits, vegetables and herbal products using solar
tunnel dryers. Apart from promoting environmentally friendly solar
drying technology, the business is also economically rewarding for
the entrepreneurs. Additional benefits include fresh job opportunities
49
for local women employed in pre-processing activities such as
peeling, cutting, slicing, pitting, etc. and also in transporting and
marketing of the dried products.
Project details
An entrepreneur involved in drying of different fruits, vegetables and
related products is a former School Headmaster and now a farmer-
cum-businessman. He is also a wholesaler of fresh fruits and
vegetables in Kathmandu. He has been producing jams, juices and
candies from the strawberries grown in his own land and supplying
them to department stores, hotels, restaurants and foreign
institutions. He has also been running a candy business with lapsi
(Choerospondias axillaris) and strawberry as raw materials.
Candies are made mainly from fruits, such as mango, strawberry,

lapsi etc. The process consists of mixing fruit pulp with salt and/or
sugar and drying the mixture to a safe level of moisture content for
storage. A problem encountered in candy making is during the
process of drying. Initially, the entrepreneur used electrical oven and
ordinary solar cabinet dryer for this purpose. But this was not
satisfactory in terms of quality of the dried products and was not
very profitable. The entrepreneur therefore looked for alternatives,
and selected the solar tunnel dryer developed in RECAST under RETs
in Asia programme. RECAST installed a solar tunnel dryer (Figure 1)
in his premises, and provided him training on its operation and
maintenance. The installation proved successful with the production
of better quality candies in the solar tunnel dryer and a higher profit
margin.
With the successful production of lapsi and strawberry candies, the

entrepreneur extended the range of his products to include other
fruits and vegetables such as, banana, tomato, mushroom,
cauliflower, radish etc. Besides three of his family members, he has
employed twelve people for production of solar dried products.
Being a wholesaler of fresh fruits and vegetables, the entrepreneur

dries his highly perishable raw materials that would otherwise go
wasted.
50
Figure 1: Tomato slices being dried in the solar tunnel dryer
Design of the dryer

The solar tunnel dryer consists of six flat plate air-heating solar
collector modules and eight drying chambers connected in series in a
particular layout, thus forming a 17m long tunnel. Four of the six
collector modules are fixed at one end, next to the air inlet opening,
while two collectors are located in the middle. The two solar collector
modules at the middle help prevent condensation of moisture on the
inner surface of the glasses, by maintaining the temperature of air
inside the tunnel at reasonably high levels.
Each module has an outer box and an inner box, with glass wool
insulation between them. The solar collector and drying chamber
frames of the dryer are made of wood and GI sheets, insulated with
glass wool, and glazed at the top with ordinary window glass,
available in the local market. A corrugated sheet GI absorber, coated
with flat black paint, is fixed inside the inner box. Four millimeter
thick window glasses are used for glazing the collector.
The eight dryer modules are fixed between the collector modules.
Each module has two partitions, and each partition has two trays
and a glass door hinged at one side of the door frame. The glass
doors can be opened at the top, for loading and unloading of the
product. The trays are made of aluminum frames and stainless steel
wire mesh, on which the products to be dried are loaded in thin
layer.
51
A 370W AC exhaust fan connected at the rear end of the tunnel
sucks ambient air into the tunnel. Warm, moist air leaves the tunnel
through the exhaust fan.
The integrated collector-dryer unit is supported at the bottom by a
steel frame, which rests on footings made of MS pipes. The footings
are firmly fixed to the ground using cement concrete.
Cost details
A simple cost analysis of the dryer is presented below. The
calculations show cost details for drying two products, tomato and
lapsi-strawberry fruit pulp.
A. Initial investment
The solar tunnel drying system costs NRs 200,000 (US$ 2703)9.
B. Technical assumptions
Only 130 days of drying was considered. Operation during the other
days of the year depends on the availability of fruits and vegetables
for drying.
Tomato
Drying time: 1 day/batch.
Tomato is 150 kg per batch.
The dryer approximately produces 90 batches (90 days of dryer
operation).
Lapsi-strawberry
Drying time for lapsi-strawberry is four days per batch. Lapsi
weighs 135 kg and strawberry weighs 90 kg, per batch,
respectively.
The dryer approximately produces 10 batches (40 days of dryer
operation).
Sugar used for candy sweetening is 150 kg per batch.
Powdered milk used in candy making is 15 kg per batch.
9
1 US$ # 74 NRs (Nepalese Rupees), March 2004
52
C. Operating expenses
Market price:
o Tomato: NRs 15 per kg
o Lapsi: NRs 135 per kg
o Strawberry: NRs 90 per kg
Preservatives:
a. Sugar for lapsi-strawberry candies costs about NRs
40 per kg
b. Powdered milk costs about NRs 250 per kg
c. Spices costs around NRs 4000 per batch
Packaging material cost: NRs 1 per pack (50 grams per

pack).
Labor cost for the workers (12 laborers per day): NRs 83
each per day.
Electricity tariff: NRs 9 per kWh. Electricity is used 4 hours
per day.
Delivery cost: 3% of the sales revenue.
Repair and maintenance: 5% of the total investment cost.
Depreciation is by straight-line method with a salvage value
of 5% of the investment cost.
D. Revenue
Recovery rate is around 8% by weight of tomato. Thus, the

dryer produces a total of 1,080 kg of dried tomato from the
90 batches (13,500 kg) of fresh tomato.
For candy, recovery rate is around 60%. Thus,
approximately 2,340 kg of lapsi-strawberry fruit candies are
produced from the 10 batches of fresh lapsi-strawberry.
The selling price of dried tomato is NRs 400 per 50-g pack.
The selling price of lapsi-strawberry candies is NRs 250 per
50-g pack.
Details of the expenses for the 130 days of drying operation of

13,500 kg of tomatoes and 2,340 kg of lapsi-strawberry to produce
dried tomatoes and lapsi-strawberry candies are given below. The
53
total expenses for the drying activities amount to a total of
US$11,258. The itemized expenses are:
Tomato : NRs 202,500

Lapsi : NRs 135,000
Strawberry : NRs 108,000
Sugar : NRs 60,000
Powdered milk : NRs 37,500
Spices : NRs 40,000
Labor : NRs 130,000
Electricity : NRs 1,170
Packaging : NRs 68,400
Delivery Cost : NRs 30,510
Depreciation : NRs 10,000
Repairs and Maintenance: NRs 10,000
Total Expenses : NRs 833,080 (US$ 11,258)
The total income is estimated based on the sale of dried tomatoes

and lapsi-strawberry candies. The projected total revenue from
selling 50-gram packs of the dried products reaches up to
US$13,743 while the net profit amounts to US$2,485 after deduction
of the operational expenses. The total income and net profit are
itemized as follows:
Total income from the sale of dried tomatoes : NRs 432,000

Total income from the sale of candies : NRs 582,000
Total revenue from sales : NRs 1,017,000
(US$ 13743)
Total net profit : NRs 183,920
(US$ 2,485)
Monitoring and evaluation

The solar tunnel dryer was monitored by RECAST. The dryer
generally performed well, and no significant maintenance was
required during the initial one-year period.
The dried products were found to be of good quality. Drying was

faster in the solar tunnel dryer compared to open sun drying. The
54
dryer also saved labor costs during cloudy and rainy weather
conditions as the products do not require covering up or removal
from the drying field during such unfavorable weather conditions.
Concluding Remarks
Use of the solar tunnel dryer presents a viable option for drying
highly perishable fruits and vegetables to produce dried fruit candy
products.
Experience in Nepal clearly indicates that tunnel type solar dryers are
financially viable and can be used to dry fruits and vegetables, and
thus reduce wastage of these highly perishable commodities.

Prof. Mohan Bikram Gewali
Executive Director, Research Centre for Applied Science &
Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, P. O. Box 1030,
Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. E-mail: turecast@mail.com.np
Related Publication
Joshi, C.B. Performance Evaluation of a Modified Solar Tunnel Dryer,
Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Science and
Technology, Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology
(RONAST), Kathmandu, Nepal, 1999.
55
Conclusion
The institutions participating in the RETs in Asia programme initiated
and implemented different technologies, applications and techniques
for promoting selected renewable energy technologies in their
countries.
Although it is recognized that PV systems are vital in meeting basic

electricity requirements of rural and remote areas, the technology
has remained out of reach to many people due to a variety of
reasons such as high system cost, lack of reliable after-sale service,
lack of overall user confidence regarding the technology etc. The
experience of RETs in Asia suggests that these barriers can be
overcome through demonstration, reduction in the system’s cost,
and improving its reliability through producing accessories locally.
Experience in Bangladesh suggests that PV systems can be
promoted commercially by offering a package of appropriate
financing mechanisms, enhancing users’ knowledge about the
system and assurance of after-sale service.
Commercial drying of fruits and agricultural products is new in most

developing countries. However, the introduction of renewable energy
based drying technologies shows that dried products are accepted by
local users as well as the export market. These systems provided
income generating opportunities for individuals, private companies
and cooperatives. In addition, biomass (i.e. rice hull) which was
previously considered as a waste that is very difficult to dispose
proved very useful for generating heated air for small and medium
scale drying purposes.
In most developing countries there is increasing shortage of fuel

wood, while large quantities of agricultural residues remain
unutilized due to their uneven and troublesome characteristics. RETs
in Asia experience in the participating countries shows that
briquetted residues can be an important substitute of fuel wood if
reliable locally made/low cost briquetting machines are available and
private entrepreneurs are involved in producing and marketing
briquettes.
56

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Renewable Energy Technology Promotion in Asia:

Case Studies from Six Asian Countries

Based on the activities carried out under

Renewable Energy Technologies in Asia:

Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency

Asian Institute of Technology

Copyright © 2005, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.

No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means, stored

The programme activities carried out in the thirteen participating institutes

1. Technology Packages: Solar, Biomass and Hybrid Dryers

The information presented in the above booklets is expected to be useful to

Dr. Gity Behravan

We are grateful to the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency

National Research Institute (NRI) Team Leaders

Research Staff at AIT

2 Rice Hull-Fed Drying System for Dried Mango Production

8 PV Battery Charging Station for Remote Communities

16 Solar Home System Demonstration for Dissemination

20 Productive Application of Photovoltaics: The Micro-Utility

24 Local Production of PV Accessories

32 Biomass Briquetting Technology: Domestic and Small

45 White LED Lamps: Replacing the Kerosene Lamps for Rural

49 Solar Dryers Offer Income Generation Opportunities

Activities of the programme involved adaptive research, development

Mango is one of the major crops produced in the

Design of the Dryer

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the dryer

Monitoring and Evaluation

Evaluation of dried mangoes produced using the drying system was

The strategy of showcasing the technology through collaboration

a. The rice hull-fed drying system offers a cheap and efficient

For further details, please contact

The installation of a PV-based

The use of BCS is rather limited as compared to the solar home

A PV-based Battery Charging Station (BCS) was installed by Solar

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of BCS at Dong Dinh village

PV electricity has thus provided a unique facility for entertainment to

A BCS was installed in August 1998. The objective of this system

Figure 2: Battery Charging Station installed in Lao PDR

Box 2: Features of the BCS

Phon Ngam Village, Lao PDR

Operation and Maintenance

Figure 3: Radio telephone powered by BCS

For further details, please contact

Dr. Phouvong Sayalath

Muangnalad, P. Introducing PV in a Developing Country: The Case

Dung, T.Q. Application of Photovoltaics in the Mekong Region.

The following criteria were considered in selecting the site and

Table 1: List of demonstration systems installed by Grameen Shakti under the

Figure 1: Use of PV electricity in an electronic repair shop

Box 1 presents the uses and effect of demonstration.

Box 1: Types of uses and effect of demonstration

For further details, please contact

Lack of electricity supply poses great

PV micro-utility system in a broad sense is similar to the Energy

Box 1: Equipment installed

Box 2: Financial details

x Initial cost including site investigation, hardware and installation:

Figure 2: TV powered by micro utility

For further details, please contact

To develop low cost PV accessories adaptive research was carried

Figure 1: Inverter developed in Vietnam

Status and Field Performance

Packaging material cost: NRs 1 per pack (50 grams per

Recovery rate is around 8% by weight of tomato. Thus, the