Lecture

Data Communication & Networks 06

Data Encoding Techniques

Muhammad Yousaf
Some Useful Terms:
Signal element:
Individual bits converted into signal (voltage pulse)
Unipolar signal:
All signal elements having same polarity
All positives or all negatives
Polar signal:
Some elements having +ve polarity & some having -ve
Data rate:
Bits per second
Modulation rate (Baud rate):
Signal elements per second
Differential Encoding:
Rather than sending actual data values, sending the changes in
consecutive data values
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Encoding Techniques:

Analog Data Analog Transmission

Digital Data Digital Transmission

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Digital-to-Digital Encoding:
Mapping of data bits onto the voltage levels
Many schemes for encoding digital data into digital
signal:
NRZ-L
NRZ-I
Bipolar-AMI
Pseudoternary
Manchester
Differential Manchester

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NRZ-L:
Nonreturn to zero-level
Most common and simplest scheme
Two different voltage levels for two states of a bit
Binary 0 = +ve voltage level (high)
Binary 1 = -ve voltage level (low)
Voltage remains constant for the duration of bit
length

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NRZ-I:
Nonreturn to zero-invert on one
Data is represented as transition on start of bit
Binary 0 = no transition
Binary 1 = transition (low to high / high to low)
Voltage remains constant for the duration of bit
length
It is an example of differential encoding schemes

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NRZ:

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Bipolar-AMI & Pseudoternary:
Bipolar-Alternate Mark Inversion:
Use more than two levels (+A, -A, 0)
Binary 0 = zero voltage level
Binary 1 = alternatively +A & -A
Pseudoternary:
Just opposite to Bipolar-AMI
Binary 0 = alternatively +A & -A
Binary 1 = zero voltage level

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Bipolar-AMI & Pseudoternary:

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Manchester & Differential Manchester:
Widely used in LANs
One bit is represented with two signal elements
Voltage doesn’t remain constant for the duration of bit length
Transition is must in the middle-of-bit
Manchester:
Binary 0 = transition from high to low level
Binary 1 = transition from low to high level
Used by IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)
Differential Manchester:
Binary 0 = transition at start-of-bit
Binary 1 = no transition at start-of-bit
Used by IEEE 802.5 (Token ring)

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Manchester & Differential Manchester:

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Modulation Rate:
Number of signal elements per unit time

NRZ, NRZ-I:
1 Signal Elements per bit
Modulation Rate = Bit Rate

Manchester, Differential Manchester:

2 Signal Elements per bit
Modulation Rate = 2 x Bit Rate

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Digital-to-Analog:
Modem is used for this conversion
Modulation/Demodulation
Have a re-look at the simple sinusoid:
S(t) = A Cos(2 π f t + φ)
t is independent variable
A, f, φ can be varied
Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Frequency shift keying (FSK)
Phase shift keying (PSK)
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
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ASK, FSK, PSK:

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Amplitude Shift Keying:
Information is mapped into the signal with changes
in the amplitude levels
Two binary values are represented by two different
amplitude levels e.g. (A1, A2)
Binary 0 = A1 Cos(2 π f t + φ)
Binary 1 = A2 Cos(2 π f t + φ)
If one of the amplitudes is zero:
Binary 0 = Amplitude 0-volts
Binary 1 = Amplitude 10-volts
This is also called On-Off Keying

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Frequency Shift Keying:
Information is mapped into the signal with changes
in the frequency
Two binary values are represented by two different
frequencies e.g. (f1 =10KHz, f2=12KHz)
Binary 0 = A Cos(2 π f1 t + φ)
Binary 1 = A Cos(2 π f2 t + φ)

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Phase Shift Keying:
Information is mapped into the signal with changes
in the Phase
Two binary values are represented by two different
phases e.g. (φ1=0, φ2=π)
Binary 0 = A Cos(2 π f t + φ1)
Binary 1 = A Cos(2 π f t + φ2)

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Quadrature PSK:
More efficient form of PSK
One signal element can represent information of more than
one bits
e.g. using four phase values can represent 2-bits
(φ1=0o, φ2=90o, φ3=180o, φ4=270o)
Binary 11 = A Cos(2 π f t + φ1)
Binary 10 = A Cos(2 π f t + φ2)
Binary 00 = A Cos(2 π f t + φ3)
Binary 01 = A Cos(2 π f t + φ4)
Some implementations use 8 phase angles and also two
amplitude levels
So each signal element can represent information of four bits

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Analog-to-Analog:
Why modulate analog signals?
For transmission shift towards the higher frequencies
Higher bandwidth is available
Antenna size is inversely proportional to the frequency
Transmission in higher frequency requires smaller
antenna
Provides basis for Frequency Division Multiplexing

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Modulation:

•X(t) •m(t)=X(t)*A cos(2 π fc t)

•User information signal •Transmitted signal
•Analog / Digital signal •Analog signal
•Low frequency signal •Higher frequency signal
•Baseband signal •Passband signal
•Modulating signal •Modulated signal
•F(t) = A cos(2 π fc t)
•Carrier signal
•Analog signal
•Higher frequency signal

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Types of modulation:
m(t)=X(t)*A cos(2 π fc t + φ)

Amplitude modulation (AM)

Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)

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Amplitude Modulation:

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Frequency Modulation:

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Phase Modulation:

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Analog-to-Digital:
Digitization
Convert analog data into digital data
Then use digital encoding to form digital signal
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Delta modulation (DM)

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Pulse Code Modulation:
Consists of two steps:
Sampling
Discretize along horizontal axis
Sampling Theorem:
Number of samples per second should be greater than or equal to twice
the highest frequency component of the analog signal
fs >= 2 * fmax

Quantization
Discretize along vertical axis

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Sampling:

1/8000 second

Time (sec)

fmax = 4000 Hz
Sampling rate (fs) = 8000 samples/sec
Sampling period (Ts) = 1/8000 sec

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Quantization: 1bit/sample

+2.5 v = 1

-2.5 v = 0

Mapping to bits: 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

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Quantization: 2bits/sample

+3.75 v = 11

+1.25 v = 10

-1.25 v = 01

-3.75 v = 00

Mapping to bits: 11 11 10 11 11 11 01 01 01 01 10 10 11

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PCM: cont…
Greater the number of samples, better will be the
quality
Telephony quality = 8000 samples/sec
CD quality = 44100 samples/sec
Greater the number of quantization levels, better
will be the quality
128 quantization levels = 7-bits/sample = 56Kbps
256 quantization levels = 8-bits/sample = 64Kbps
Better quality demands more storage, processing
power, data rate, bandwidth

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Delta Modulation:
Analog input is approximated by a staircase
function
Move up or down one level () at each sample
interval
Binary behavior
Function moves up or down at each sample interval
Requires 1-bit/sample
Data rate for DM = 8Kbps
Data rate for 128-PCM = 56Kbps

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Delta Modulation: cont…

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 Questions ???

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