Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF INDIA
DEFENCE R&D ORGANISATION (DRDO)
ADVANCED COMPOSITES CENTER (ACC)
ADVANCED SYSTEMS LABORATORY
P.O. Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad -500 058, A.P. Phone.No.
040-24583403, FAX.No. 0040-24583405
S
ABSTRACT
Determination of mechanical properties like tensile, flexural and inter laminar shear
1. Metals are not suitable materials for aerospace applications due to their high
density and therefore composite materials are used as substitute due to their light
bearing materials useful in aero space applications like reentry vehicle structures of
3. Filament winding process and tape wound processes are used for fabrication of
materials.
carbon-epoxy composites for light weight and high strength application for Re-
of missile systems to support the army with the weapon systems. In this context
AGNI-3 and AGNI- 5 missile systems and has been tested successfully.
The typical missile system is shown in Fig.1, contains pay load in the Re-entry
composite( for mechanical strength bearing purpose) and where as the outer shell is
wound process in the RVS. The exact thermal and mechanical loads are simulated
obtained from laminate level experiments. Based on the simulation studies the
vacuum and pressure during curing of the laminate. Hence we have selected the
above topic.
Introduction
to
Composites
ABSTRACT
1. Introduction
1. Metals
3. Ceramic materials
4. Composite materials
1.1 Metals:
1. Metals are materials that are easily shaped by forming, malleable, reflective,
2. Metals have useful properties like strength, ductility, high melting points and
1.2. Polymers:
smaller molecules. The carbon atoms may be attached to other carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, and hydrogen atoms. But polymers may or may not have an orderly
arrangement of atoms.
bonded parts or units which themselves are bonded together to form a solid.
rubbers.
will be converted as liquids and where as by cooling they will be converted as solids.
6. Rubbers are partially thermoplastic and partially thermo set in nature but by
1.3 Ceramics:
1. A ceramic has traditionally been defined as “an inorganic, nonmetallic solid
that is prepared from powdered materials, is fabricated into products through the
low electrical conductivity, and brittleness." which are basically a mixture of metal
oxide powders like structural clay products, glasses, abrasives, etc. Ceramic is a
domestic, industrial and commercial purposes. Many common ceramics are made up
of oxides or nitride compounds and are crystalline with long range molecular order.
Other ceramics are partially or fully amorphous, with no long range molecular order;
3.
4. Ceramics are lighter, stiffer and corrosion resistant. They are brittle because
of strong directional bonds. So they shatter rather than deform. The electrons in
ceramics are tightly held because of covalent bonds. There are no mobile electrons to
1.4. Composites
materials, each of which retains its own distinctive properties, to create a new
material. The two distinct materials. Composites are the mixture of two materials,
composites usually refer to the use of fibers which are embedded in a plastic. These
2. The two distinct materials are one is matrix and another is reinforcement
embedded in the plastic. Matrix surrounds the reinforcement and protects the
the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the
5. The matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the
reinforcement material is placed into the mold cavity allows the designer of the
weight distribution, high strength to weight ratio, directional strength and stiffness,
i) Epoxy resin
group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms that are already
bonded in some way. The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with
an epoxide group at either end. The structure of molecule is shown in the figure
below.
2. Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical
3. The epoxy molecule contains two ring groups at its centre which are able to
absorb both mechanical and thermal stresses better than linear groups and therefore
sealants, varnishes and paints, as well as laminating resins for a variety of industrial
applications.
5. Epoxies are widely used as a primary construction material for high strength
1. Polyamides (nylon) are the oldest and largest volume engineering polymers.
Commonly used products are designated as nylon 6; 6,6; 6,9; 6,12; 11; and 12, with
the nomenclature designating the number of carbon atoms that separate the repeating
2. Most widely used nylon polymers are semi crystalline products with
4. The polyamide analogs exhibit good chemical resistance and low moisture
and stiffness.
5. All polyamides are hygroscopic to some extent because of that water acts as
i) Carbon fiber
1. Carbon has the highest strength and highest price of all reinforcement
2. Carbon fibers exhibit substantially better strength and stiffness values than
composite products can be from relatively low to very poor, and greatly
over 90% of worldwide similarity in shape between the fiberglass and the
structural reinforcement.
1. Carbon or metal fibers are coated with a layer of boron to improve the
overall fiber properties. The extremely high cost of this fiber restricts it
sporting equipment.
2. A boron/carbon hybrid, composed of carbon fibers interspersed among
reinforcement combinations where matrix holds the fibers and transfers the
mechanical load among the reinforcements whereas the strength and stiffness is
i). Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC): Glass, carbon and aramid type of different
reinforcing elements in metallic matrix materials like Aluminum, steel and titanium.
high temperature environments. The ceramics are used as matrix and short fibers or
1. The carbon fibers are first placed in the mould and then semi-
liquid epoxy resins are sprayed or pumped in to form the object. Pressure
may be applied to force out any air bubbles, and the mould is then heated
protected from the sun, but, unlike steel alloys, have no endurance limit
B. Glass-Epoxy Composites
composite material an individual structural glass fiber is both stiff and strong in
under thermal environments to protect the structure and posses good thermal
handlebars, seat posts, and crank arms are becoming more common on
to its stiffness.
propellers and rotor blades made from advanced composites, along with
entirely from composites, since composites are less likely than metals to
break up completely under stress. A small crack in a piece of metal can
any small crack and to share the stress around. Wing, tail and body panels
Production Methods
of
Composites
2. Fabrication methods of composites
structures based on the nature of resin and fiber used. Spray lay up is used for
stacking of different layers one on another for making sheet molded composites.
Autoclave curing method is used for fabrication of composites with volatile evolving
resins like phenolics. Match die molding is used for all types of composites
manufacturing.
polyester with glass rovings. The method of fabrication is shown in Fig.2. The
mould of the required shape of the component is selected release agent is first
applied to the mold and then a layer of gel coat is applied. The gel coat is left for two
hours, until it hardens and a spray gun is used to deposit the fiber resin mixture onto
the surface of the mold. The spray gun chops the incoming continuous roving to a
mixing can take place inside the gun (gun mixing) or just in front of the gun. The
mixture of resin and fiber is sprayed on to mold and compacted with help of rollers
and to remove entrapped air as well as to ensure good fiber wetting. Fabric layers or
continuous strand mats are added into the laminate, depending on performance
requirements. The curing process of the resin is done at room temperature so that
the fibers will be embedded in the solid structure. This method is cheap and used in
fabrication of simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies,
transparent material such as nylon plastics is placed over the lay-up on the mold and
sealed. Vacuum is applied between the sheet and the lay-up. The entrapped air is
removed by the vacuum and the part is placed in an oven or autoclave. Addition of
pressure further results in higher fiber concentration and provides better adhesion
vacuum and the part is placed in an oven or autoclave. The addition of pressure
further results in higher fiber concentration and provides better adhesion between
layers of sandwich construction. Fig.2.1 shows vacuum bag technique set up.
Fig.2.1. Vacuum bag technique
consolidation, while at the same time removing entrapped air, thus reducing the
finished void content. Structures fabricated with traditional hand lay-up techniques
can become resin rich and vacuum bagging can eliminate the problem. Complete
fiber wet-out can be accomplished if the process is done correctly. Improved core-
composites. The RTM process is to inject resin under pressure into a mold cavity.
RTM can use a wide variety of tooling, ranging from low cost composite molds to
capable producing rapid cycle times. Fig.2.2 shows typical RTM process for
composites manufacturing.
The reinforcement is positioned in the mold and the mold is closed and
clamped. The resin is injected under pressure, using mix/meter injection equipment,
and the part is cured in the mold. The reinforcement can be either a perform or
pattern cut roll stock material. Preforms are reinforcement that is pre-formed in a
separate process and can easily be placed in a mold. RTM can be done at room
temperature; however, heated molds are required to achieve fast cycle times and
press clamping.
laying up reinforcement material dry inside the mold, any combination of materials
and orientation can be used, including 3-D reinforcements. Fast cycle times can be
achieved in temperature controlled tooling and the process can range from simple
to highly automate.
Counter mould and other mould in the required shape of the component is
taken by making the mould with cast of forged steel, cast iron, and cast aluminum.
The molding material is preheated and placed in a open mold cavity and the molding
material becomes soft. A counter mold is used for applying pressure, for the
compaction of fibers and resins. Heat and pressure are maintained until the molding
It is one of the lowest cost molding methods compared with other methods
fibers in the epoxy matrix is used. The UD laminates are prepared by epoxy LY556+
HT972 epoxy based resin with carbon T-300 fiber. Carbon-epoxy laminates of
Mechanical testing
of
Composites
the cutting machine with circular diamond cutter as per marking. The Specimen
sizes required for performing different tests are shown in the Table.1 as per ASTM
standards. Care was taken, such that laminates are perfectly cut with out any
delamination and change in fiber orientation. Cutting was carried out in warp
direction.
Make : INSTRON, UK
Model : 1185
The Universal Testing Machine is shown in the Photo 3.3.1. Comprised of the
following [4]:
fixture.
4. Control panel with MTest software: A total control of UTM with loading and a
properties. The tensile test gives a measure of the Young’s modulus of the
material as well as the tensile strength. In order to give reproducible results, the
tensile bars should not have notches or burrs on their edges and should be free of
scratches. The experiments must be carried out as per ASTM D3039 specifications.
Apparatus
4. Number of sample : 6
Procedure
3. Measure and enter the Dimensions of the specimens, required Cross head
4. Place the sample between the upper grip jaws & tighten.
specimen.
7. After the specimen fails, load vs. elongation graph and peak load is
8. Tensile strength and Modulus are calculated from the results obtained
10. The calculations were carried out from the data as follows.
Calculations
FL+ = P / A
Where,
E= ∆ P/∆ e
Where,
e = Strain
applied perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. The stresses induced due to the
come into play, the relative properties of bending and shear forces being function of
span to depth ratio of the beam and E/G (young’s modulus/modulus of rigidity) ratio
used. The specimen rests on two supports and is loaded by means of specimen
Apparatus
The specimens were cut from the laminates to the desired dimensions.
According to the standard (ASTM D790) the support span is 16 times of the
thickness of the specimen. Thickness of the specimen is 3 mm and the width of the
specimen is 12.7 mm
4. Number of samples :6
Procedure
3. Measure and enter the Dimensions of the specimens, required Cross head
4. Determine the support span, which should be sixteen times the thickness
of the specimen.
5. Mount the specimen on three point bending fixture by aligning the sample
midway between the supports.
6. Lower the upper roller using the jog controls so that it almost touches the
Compression arm.
7. Start the test. Load on the specimen is applied gradually. At the same time
graph is generated through M-Test software for load and deflection of the
specimen.
8. After the sample has failed, load vs. deflection graph and peak load is
Calculation
1. Flexural Strength: The flexural strength was calculated from the data as
follows
Where,
L = support span, mm
b = width of specimen, mm
d = thickness of specimen, mm
2. Flexural Modulus: The Flexural Modulus is the ratio (within the elastic
Where,
L = support span, mm
b = width of specimen, m
d = thickness of specimen, mm
∆P = change in Load, N
∆l = Deflection, mm
The stresses acting on the interface of two adjacent lamina are called
inter laminar stresses. The inter laminar stresses are illustrated in the below Figure.
where σ T′ is the inter laminar normal stresses on plane ABCD and τ T′ L and τ T′ T
are the inter laminar shear stresses. These cause relative deformations between the
lamina 1 and 2. If these stresses are sufficiently high, they will cause failure along
plane ABCD. It is, therefore, of considerable interest to evaluate inter laminar shear
mode. If the span to depth ratio is short enough, failure initiates and propagates by
inter laminar shear failure, and the test can be used to evaluate inter laminar shear
strength.
A bar of rectangular cross section is used for ILSS test. As show in
the Fig No 42 three point loading system, with center loading in a simply supported
beam is used. The specimen rests on two supports and is loaded by means of
specimen loading nose midway between the supports. ILSS test was conducted as
Apparatus
The specimens were cut from the laminates to the desired finished dimensions, the
4. Number of samples :6
Procedure
3. Measure and enter the Dimensions of the specimens, required Cross head
4. Determine the support span, which should be Five times the thickness of
the specimen.
5. Mount the specimen on three point bending fixture by aligning the sample
6. Lower the upper roller using the jog controls so that it almost touches the
Compression arm.
7. Start the test. Load on the specimen is applied gradually. At the same time
graph is generated through M-Test software for load and deflection of the
specimen.
8. After the sample has failed, load vs. deflection graph and peak load is
Calculation
The inter laminar shear strength was calculated according to the following
formula
ILSS = 3P/4bd
Where,
P = Maximum load, N
L = Span, mm
properties
chemical properties for assessing the quality of composites like solid resin content,
fiber volume fraction, density on the specimens as per the ASTM standards. The
Archimedes principle.
Procedure
2. Place the Balance-Bridge across the pan without touching the sides of the pan and
the beam attached to it.
3. Hook and suspend the wire with sinker on to the Balance-Beam and weigh in air
(A gm).
4. Take approx. 1.0 - 2.0 gm of cut specimen (with regular sides) and tie along with
the sinker of the suspension wire, weigh in air (B gm) using Balance-Beam and take
5. Separate the above specimen from sinker and immerse into the molten paraffin
6. Tie the wax coated specimen onto the sinker with suspension wire and weigh in
8. Place distilled-water filled beaker onto the Balance-Bridge. Care should be taken
that the beam attached to the pan does not touch the beaker.
9. Hook and suspend the wire containing wax coated specimen + sinker onto the
Balance-Beam into distilled water and weigh in distilled water (W4 gm)
10. Remove the suspension wire containing wax coated specimen + sinker from the
beaker.
12. Take weight of suspension wire + sinker in distilled water (W3 gm).
The average density is calculated from six samples by using the equation
W1
Density = -------------------------------
(W2+W3-W4) (W2-W1)
----------------- ---------------
D d
D = Density of water
digestion medium like Nitric Acid which doesn't attack the fibers excessively. This
test is mainly carried out to determine the fiber volume fraction of the composite
material.
Apparatus: Balance
0.0001gm accuracy
Procedure
3. Take a
4. Take
5. Put 30ml of Conc. Nitric Acid(70% aqueous) into the beaker and cover with
watch glass
6. Heat the beaker with contents on hot-water bath for 5hrs or till the digestion is
complete
7. Remove the beaker from hot-water bath and cool to room temperature. Wash
the fibers three times with distilled water followed by Acetone once. Ensure that
8. Cool the
(B - A)
(W2-W1)
Results
and
Discussions
5. Results and Discussion
In the present study polyimide resin is used as matrix which is purchased from
M/s. ANABOND Ltd, Chennai, and which is synthesized from a soluble polymeric
precursor. Carbon fabric is used as reinforcing agent, purchased from M/s. Nikunj
Eximp Enterprises, Mumbai (Torayca make) with 12k roving or in the form of bi-
directional fabric. The fibers/ fabric is fabricated from poly acrylo nitrile (PAN)
precursor.
ii).Laminate preparation
Epoxy resin (LY556) and Hardener (HT972) are mixed in the 27:10 ratio and
the solution is applied on the bi-direction carbon fabric and 320x320x2mm thickness
Carbon fabric layers of size 320mm x 320mm are taken from fabric role by
cutting with the help of template of size 320x320 mm. Epoxy resin (LY 556) is
mixed with hardener (HT972) in the weight ratio 27:10 in a beaker. The moulds are
cleaned with acetone and then wax is applied to the moulds for easy removal of the
cured laminate. Resin impregnated carbon fabric layers are placed in the mould by
hand lay up technique. The laminate preparation sequence is shown in Fig.5. Three
laminates are prepared by different process parameters i). No vacuum and pressure
ii). With vacuum iii). With vacuum and pressure. The corresponding cure cycles,
vacuum levels and pressure application steps are given as cure cycle-1, curecycle-2
Cure cycle-1.
Cure cycle-2
Cure cycle-3
(Laminate-1), ii). Vacuum and pressure (Laminate-2) and Vacuum only (Laminate-
The material properties are standardized based on the epoxy resin content,
fiber volume fraction and void content of the samples. Density, resin content and
fiber volume fractions are determined by acid digestion and Archimedes principles
The specimens are cut in the required dimensions as per the ASTM standards
using a diamond wheel cutting machine as shown in the Fig.5.1. The samples are
tested for tensile, flexural and inter laminar shear strength properties using universal
testing machine (UTM) as per the ASTM standards ASTM 3039, ASTM7264 and
ASTM D2344 respectively. The specimen samples are shown in Fig.5.2 to 5.4. For
each test 6 samples are tested and the average value of the test results is considered
consolidation thickness, density and fiber volume fraction. From table it is obvious
tensile strength, flexural strength due to high fiber volume fraction. The effect on
If the resin content is more, the strength of the composite will be lower
because strength depends on the fiber volume fraction. Hence Laminate-1 cured
with vacuum and pressure condition is having high resin content due to vacuum
suction and pressure application. Therefore it exhibits good interfacial strength due
the trapping of gases in the component is minimum in laminate-3. Hence the voids
formed in the component are low. If the component is having low void content, it
exhibit high tensile, flexural and ILSS values. Pressure application may cause
trapping of volatiles between the fabric layers. Hence high void content is observed
in the laminate-1.
volume fraction should be high and which reduces the final component thickness
due to good tensile and flexural properties. The effect of three different processes on
ILSS is marginal.
Conclusions
6. Conclusions
1. High fiber volume fraction is achieved in the laminate-3 with only vacuum curing