1

INTRODUCTION
For the value of Oil Analysis Condition Monitoring and Preventive Maintenance to be fully realised, the end
user must have a basic understanding of the lubrication process and the various lubricants used. They are
called on to perform many functions in today’s increasingly complex operating environments. As such,
lubricants themselves have evolved to a high state of technological development to ensure correct
performance and protection of the lubricated equipment.
This booklet serves to provide an insight on lubrication, broken into six phases of understanding.
1. The basics of oil analysis
1. Benefits of Oil analysis
2. Reading the Report
3. The Sample Description Sheet
2. Testing of Lubricating oils. Includes tests applicable to Engine Oils, Hydraulic Oils and Drive and EP
Gear Oils for Condition Based Oil Analysis
1. Moisture (water) Analysis (ASTM D6304)
2. Particle Size Distribution Analysis (ASTM D6786)
3. Retained Solids (ASTM D4898)
4. Total Acid Number (ASTM D975/D664)
5. Viscosity (ASTM D445)
6. Oxidation (ASTM E2412)
7. Nitration (ASTM E2412)
8. Wear Elements (ASTM D5185)
9. Contamination Elements (ASTM D5185)
10. Additive Elements (ASTM D5185)
11. Total Base Number (ASTM D2896)
12. Pentane Insolubles (Soot) (ASTM D4055)
13. Fuel Dilution (OL1007 – GC)
14. PQ Index (OL1029 – ANALEX)
15. Dispersancy (OL1004)
16. RULER (ASTM D6810/ASTM D6971)
17. Glycol content by GC- HSA (OL1105)
3. Basic explanation of how lubrication works
1. Friction
2. Maintaining Lubricant Performance
3. Additives
4. Filters
5. How do we know that the lubricant is performing as required?
4. Other Testing Requirements
1. Coolant
2. Diesel Fuel
5. Overall summary of oil requirements
1. Engine oil requirements
2. Transmission, Drive and Hydraulic oil requirements
3. Oil Sampling
6. Interpretation of the Analysis
1. Standard Deviation
2. Normalisation Factors
The benefit of this book is to show why it is important to undertake oil analysis and Condition Monitoring
of equipment through an effective Oil Analysis Program. Such a program is applicable to any industry or
environment that utilises lubrication. As the book progresses it delves deeper into the Oil Analysis
Program.
2
 Table of contents Page

1. The basics of oil analysis 3

1. Benefits of Oil analysis 3
2. Reading the Report 3
3. The Sample Description Sheet 5
2. Testing of Lubricating oils. Includes tests applicable to Engine Oils, 7
Hydraulic Oils and Drive and EP Gear Oils for Condition Based Oil Analysis
1. Moisture (water) Analysis (ASTM D6304) 7
2. Particle Size Distribution Analysis (ASTM D6786) 7
3. Retained Solids (ASTM D4898) 7
4. Total Acid Number (ASTM D975/D664) 8
5. Viscosity (ASTM D445) 8
6. Oxidation (ASTM E2412) 8
7. Nitration (ASTM E2412) 8
8. Wear Elements (ASTM D5185) 9
9. Contamination Elements (ASTM D5185) 9
10. Additive Elements(ASTM D5185) 10
11 Total Base Number (ASTM D2896) 10
12. Pentane Insolubles (Soot) (ASTM D4055) 10
13. Fuel Dilution (OL1007 – GC) 11
14. PQ Index (OL1029 – ANALEX) 11
15 Dispersancy (OL1004) 11
16. RULER (ASTM D6810/ASTM D6971) 12
17. Glycol content by GC- HSA (OL1105) 12
3. Basic explanation of how lubrication works 13
1. Friction 13
2. How is the lubricant forced between the surfaces? 13
3. Additives 16
4. Filters 16
5. How do we know that the lubricant is performing as required? 17
4. Other Testing Requirements 18
1. Coolant 18
2. Diesel Fuel 19
5. Overall summary of oil requirements 20
1. Engine oil requirements 20
2. Transmission, Drive and Hydraulic oil requirements 20
3. Oil Sampling 20
6. Interpretation of the Analysis 21
1. Standard Deviation 21
2. Normalisation Factors 21

3
SECTION 1

1.1. Benefits of Oil analysis

The costs are relatively small insurance premiums
for optimum serviceability of equipment.
Oil Analysis provides the benefits of :

Extending Equipment Life.

Fault Cause and Prevention Diagnosis.

Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis for
Warranty purposes.

Enhancement to the Service Log for Better
Resale Value.

Improved Safety Control

Effective Maintenance Scheduling and
Reduction in unscheduled Downtime.

Evaluation of maintenance systems.

Determination of Optimum Oil Change
Interval
1.2. Reading the Report (Hitachi Probe
used as an example)

The oil diagnostic analysis will provide each report

with:

A “satisfactory”, “monitor trend” or “take
action” rating.

A detailed trend analysis of the oil’s
characteristics, contamination levels and
histories.

A set of recommendations for “monitor
trend” and “take action” results.
The recommendations from previous reports are
included to assist with corrective action.
Customers are invited to call Oilcheck to discuss
any oil-specific issues contained in their reports.
The sample analysis report is a composite of
several key areas.

The key sample information

The results table

The customer and equipment information

Recommendations

Trending graphs

Did you know info and links

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4
Key Sample Information Customer and
Equipment Info
The Equipment details
are the most crucial to
the reporting process.
This area dictates
where the sample is
from and links in
previous samples to
This section of the report shows the basic logistics the current sample.
of the sample, for example the Sample Number
The Operation details
(which may be quoted in the event of any
give information to the
questions) ,received dates, hours on the oil and
Laboratory to
equipment, report and K numbers for the sample.
categorise the results
The Key Sample Information Sections also
by Oil grade and type.
includes the previous status of past samples.
Did You Know 60% of
Results Table
failures are due to the
wrong type of oil used
in the compartment?
The Customer Details
are also just as
crucial, without the
correct details, you
simply will not receive
the report.

Recommendations

A brief recommendation from the analysis

This section of the report shows values of the
specified tests. The results determine the
characteristics & contamination in the oil due to
wear or the introduction of contamination into the
oil such as;
• Moisture (contamination)
• Dust and dirt (contamination)
• Component wear (contamination)
performed on the sample will indicate where the
potential problems or in the event of failure where
the actual problems lie. The benefit of this is the
previous samples recommendations are also
available to assist you in what action you may
choose to take.
Authorised Signatory The report also contains
the contact details of the person who supervised
the analysis and wrote the recommendations

5
Trending Graphs

Trending is a very important part of the oil analysis

system. Using the trending graphs with the
analysis of your results will give you a far better
indication of how the compartment you have
sampled compares with the previous samples
results. The results on the graphed results will be
different to the results in the results table, this will
occur due to a normalisation factor applied to the
results (for more information on normalising
please refer to the Normalisation and standard
deviation Section.) In short the graphs give you
the ability to compare apples with apples by
adjusting the results to suit what we call standard
hours (engine 200 hours & Drive and Hydraulic
500 hours.)

1.3. Sample Description Sheet

The Sample Description Sheet can be broken
down into several key areas.
Page 1
• Machine Details
• Oil Details
• Report Recipients and Contact Details
Page 2
• Compartment Codes
It is ESSENTIAL that all the Information be filled
out Clearly and Correctly, this will ensure the
Probe data base is correct and the information you
receive is also correct. A sample with the wrong or
unidentifiable information is a waste of time.

6
Pre-Filled or Populated Sample Kilometres on the equipment clearly and
description Sheet carefully along with any other information.
4. At the bottom of the sample description sheet
there is now a facility to put in your own
comments about the sample. For example
“engine oil smells like it has fuel contamination
please check first and let me know ASAP” the
laboratory will instantly act on this comment.
Further to that the comment will also be printed
on your report this will help you maintain a
record of your findings.
What to Do
1. Check the information and change as
discussed
2. The purchased Oil analysis Kit will have a
blank Sample Description Sheet provided, in
the bottom left hand corner you will find a K
number Sticker. Remove the K number sticker,
the barcode is the proof of purchase, and place
on the printed pre-filled Sample Description
Sheet.
3. Pack up the Oil sample as you would normally
and send it to the lab as you normally would
with the pre-filled in Sample Description Sheet
enclosed.

The sample description sheet is also available as

an attachment to your email and can also be
available to be sent with the report on completion
of the analysis. This service is available to all at no
extra charge. Hitachi currently use this provision.
This facility enables you as the customer to ensure
the information is 100% correct and takes the
hassle out of filling in the sample Description
Sheet every time.Just a few points
1. If the sample information is not correct this is
the time to change it by simply crossing out the
information and writing it in the white space on
the back of the form (page 2 of the Sample
Description PDF)
2. Fill in any missing blanks that may be present,
as stated above this is the same information
provided in your last report and will be exactly
the same every time you receive a report
unless you change the info.
3. Use your saved time wisely and fill in the
Hours or Kilometres on the oil & the Hours or

7
SECTION 2 AUTOMATIC COULOMETRIC KARL FISHER
FOR WATER DETERMINATIONS (ASTM D6304)
Tests Performed for Condition Based Oil
Analysis
1) Moisture (water) Analysis (ASTM D6304)
2) Particle Size Distribution Analysis (ASTM
D6786)
3) Retained Solids (ASTM D4898)
4) Total Acid Number (ASTM D975/D664)
5) Viscosity (ASTM D445)
6) Oxidation (ASTM E2412) 2.2 Particle Size Distribution Analysis.
7) Nitration (ASTM E2412) Using a light scattering principle, particle size
8) Wear Elements (ASTM D5185) analysis for the various micron sizes are

Iron computed. A good Particle Size Analyser utilises a

Chromium laser scanner and can detect particles from 2 to

Copper 400 microns. Results are presented utilising SAE

Lead AS4059 or ISO 4406 cleanliness level codings.

Tin

Nickel An example of standard particle count ranges and

Aluminium the required limits areas are as per the diagram.
9) Contamination Elements (ASTM D5185) Establishing the level of cleanliness enables

Aluminium (contained in dirt) assessment of the filter effectiveness for clear

Silicon lubricants only. Engine oils, due to the dark

Sodium opaque nature obtained during use, cannot be

Potassium analysed in this manner.
10) Additive Elements(ASTM D5185)

Calcium PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS USING

Zinc LASER EXTINCTION

Phosphorus ASTM D6786

Sulphur

Molybdenum
11) Total Base Number (ASTM D2896)
12) Pentane Insolubles (Soot) (ASTM D4055)
13) Fuel Dilution (OL1007 – GC)
14) PQ Index (OL1029 – ANALEX)
15) Dispersancy (OL1004)
16) RULER (ASTM D6810/ASTM D6971)
17) Glycol content by GC- HSA (OL1105)

2.1 Water Content by Coulometric Karl

Fischer.(ASTM D6304)
Contamination of an oil based lubricant by water
can damage the metal-to-metal surfaces that the
lubricant is designed to protect. The local frictional
effects within the lubrication system be it hydraulic,
engine, transmission, etc, can cause temperatures 2.3 Retained Solids Content in Hydraulic Oils.
in excess of the boiling point of water which would
Retained or Total solids content of hydraulic oil is
in effect cause steam cleaning of the oil away from
also determined by filtration to 1 micron. By
the surfaces. The boiling of the water or moisture
passing the oil through a filter membrane all
can also promote oxidation in the oil and be
particles larger than 1 micron are retained. The
blamed for corrosion and poor lubrication on the
filter is then weighed and a weight of the filtered
metal surfaces. Moisture can be sourced from the
material will give us through a calculation the
atmosphere when the compartment is cooling
Retained solids content. Various applications of
down, engine blow by gasses and coolant leaks.
hydraulics will dictate acceptable solids content
but usually retained solids content in excess of

8
500 parts per million by weight (0.05 %) is
considered unacceptable and will indicate that the
oil filtration system is either by-passing or
ineffective and requires attention.
2.4 Neutralisation Number or Total Acid
Number
The Neutralisation number of an oil is calculated
as the amount of acid OR base necessary to make
the lubricant chemically neutral. The main
Neutralisation Number value used is the Total Acid
Number (TAN) and this is a measure of the oils
acidity expressed in the same terms as the TBN
value (2.11).
TOTAL ACID NUMBER (ASTM D664)
AND TOTAL BASE NUMBER (ASTM
D2896) ANALYSIS BY AUTO-
TITRATOR
2.5 Viscosity for Liquid Lubricants.
Viscosity measurements of new and used oil
characterise the lubricant as to its grade. Viscosity
grades are listed as SAE or ISO.
The thickness of an oil is graded and calculated as
the Viscosity in mm2/s (Centistokes). ISO oils are
specified at 400C. SAE oils are specified at 1000C.
The Viscosity Index of the lubricant is a calculated
value based on the viscosity values at 400C and
1000C. Again, like the viscosity value itself, the VI
can be used to characterise or confirm the identity
of a lubricant as mono-grade or multi-grade.
AUTOMATIC CANNON VISCOSITY
DETERMINATIONS AT 40 AND 100oC
(ASTM D445)
2.6 Oxidation
Lubricants will oxidise when exposed to air or
products of combustion in engine oils. The
oxidation level can be determined using infra-red
signatures of the lubricant and any increase in
oxidation from the “new oil” value is a measure of
how the oil is standing up to the harsh
environment in which it must operate. The smaller
the number quoted in the report, the lower the
amount of oxidation. Conversely a high oxidation
level will indicate the likelihood of the oil thickening
and eventual failure of the lubricated component
due to a lack of effective lubrication. In
applications where the lubricant has only minimal
exposure to air such as sealed gear compartments
and hydraulic systems, the oxidation level would
not be expected to increase to the same extent as
occurs in engine lubrication. As such, the lubricant
life is generally longer in these compartments than
in engines. Oxidation preventing additives, called
oxidation inhibitors or anti-oxidants, are generally
incorporated into most formulations to counteract
the effect that oxygen and heat, the major cause of
the oxidation, have on the lubricant.
2.7 Nitration
A major component of air is the gas Nitrogen. In
extreme cases, it can react with the lubricant and
oxygen to produce an effect called Nitration. In
compartments such as gear boxes or hydraulic
systems, the nitration effect would be minimal
since the exposure to air and high heat (>300 deg
C) is rarely encountered. However, in the
combustion process in engines, the temperatures
exceed 600 degrees C. Oxygen, Nitrogen, fuel and
lubricating oil combine to form nitration products
including nitrogen oxides which by and large are
exhausted to atmosphere. Some can however,
find its way past the rings and into the crankcase.
Once in the crankcase the nitration product will
combine with soot, oxidation and sulphation
products The nature of the soot (carbon formed by
incomplete combustion of the fuel) is such that
nitrogen oxides and nitration products are
absorbed and retained in the sump oil. Again, as in
the case of oxidation, the infra-red signature of the
lubricant shows the extent of presence of nitration.
As would be expected, the value for a new oil is
low and would reflect the relatively small amount
of nitrogen based products formulated into the
lubricant as anti-oxidants. As the soot content of
the used oil increases, so does the nitration level.
9
 AUTO-FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRA-RED
ANALYSIS ASTM E2412
2.8 Wear Elements
Iron can be present as fine particles produced by
abrasion or wear, but also as iron oxides
associated with the presence of water or a
corrosive reaction to additives. Iron generally
comes from the liners in engines or from hydraulic
cylinders, pumps, lines and reservoirs in hydraulic
systems, and from planetary gears and carriers in
final drives and differentials.
Chromium is a very hard metal wear particle
produced by engine piston rings. Chromium
readings indicate that something harder than it is
present, namely silica or alumina (sand). It can
also be produced in new engines during the run-in
period, Chromium in hydraulic systems is typically
from valve spools or cylinder rods; it is also
produced by harder abrasives. Chromium is also
found in final drive and differential bearings.
Copper is a soft metal from bronze alloys that are
present in engines, hydraulic pumps, differentials,
final drives, and in cooler cores. In engines, its
presence could be caused by a coolant core or
water pump leak, but also from thrust washers in
the camshaft, rocker arm or piston wrist bushings.
When present with Glycol (in association with
potassium and sodium) it could be coming from
the oil cooler. When it is associated with lead
and/or tin, but without glycol traces, it is an
indication that it is being sourced from the
bearings/bushings. New oils can promote high
copper generation during run-in periods, ranging
from 10 to 100 parts per million or more, Larger
generation of copper is typically triggered by
water, silica (dirt), high temperature operation and
most importantly, by additive incompatibility from
fluid mixing. Copper is also found in final drives
equipped with park brakes and slip spin/diff lock
differentials, or from thrust washers.
Aluminum is a wear element that generally comes
from pistons in engines. High aluminum
10
associated with silica can indicate dirt. If
aluminum is found in hydraulic systems, it could
generally be assumed it comes from dirt ingestion.
Aluminum in final drives can only be dirt or sand.
Some bearings can include aluminium (eg
refrigeration compressor bearings and some main
engine bearings)
Tin is a metal used in soft alloys of bronze in
combination with lead. It is generally present in
small amounts in hydraulic pumps. However, when
tin is present in engines, it is usually associated
with lead and copper to indicate bearing wear.
Lead is a very soft metal used in alloys in
combination with tin for engine bearings and
bushings. Lead is present in hydraulic pump alloys
as well. Highly oxidized engine oils attack bearing
material, which increases lead readings.
Nickel it is seldom seen in oil analysis but when it
shows up it is an indication of turbocharger cam
plate wear.
Titanium is not a typical wear metal present in oil
analysis from construction equipment. Some
traces are possible from some alloys. Titanium in
the form of titanium oxides can be found in oil
analyses as a contaminant from operation in
bauxite mines. Some industrial equipment
reservoirs have in the past been painted. As
titanium dioxide is used as a paint filler, titanium in
oils may indicate break-down of the paint allowing
particles to be present in the oil.
2.9 Contamination Elements
Silicon is the principal component of dirt and it is
found in its natural and oxidative form as silica. It
is harder than any metal used in mobile equipment
and can scratch hard surfaces easily. In new
engines, its presence could indicate liquid silicon
material used as sealant during assembly. It
typically washes out after first oil change. Silica
(the oxidative form of silicone) appears in nature
associated with alumina in a typical 5 to 1 ratio.
Silicon up to approximately 10-15 ppm may reflect
presence of silicone oil based anti-foam additive.
Aluminum is generally present in association with
silica in a 1 to 5 ratio and enters together with dirt.
It enters the system in its oxidative form as
alumina, or in combination with silicon as
aluminium silicate and it is extremely hard.
Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the world.
Potassium may be present in coolant formulations
and it is not an additive for engine oils as such,
although some small readings of about 1 to 2 parts
per million (ppm) could sometimes be present.
When combined with other elements such as
sodium, molybdenum or boron it is an indication of
coolant contamination.
Sodium may also be present in coolant
formulations but also in many salts, or seawater. In
small amounts it may be found as an additive,
however, if its presence is associated with
potassium and/or boron and/or molybdenum it is a
generally an indication of coolant contamination.
2.10 Additive Elements
Boron is an EP (extreme pressure) additive but it
is also found in coolants. Boron without the
presence of potassium is an indication of an
additive.
Barium as barium petroleum sulphonate can be
used as a detergent in oil formulation as well as
corrosion inhibitors. Metals are analysed using an instrument called
Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission
Calcium as calcium petroleum sulphonate is a
Spectrophotometer (ICP-OES). Argon gas is
detergent. It cleans carbon deposits from engines
excited electrically and produces a plasma with a
and acts as a corrosion inhibitor and dispersant.
temperature of between10,000 and13,000oC into
When burnt, calcium additives have an ash
which the sample is sprayed. Elements all have
content of generally >1% in engine oil formulations
specific wavelengths the data collected is
Magnesium as magnesium petroleum sulphonate allocated to each of the wavelengths selected to
is also a detergent that leaves generally < 1% ash. give the metal content in parts per million.
It reacts with sludge and varnish to neutralize them
2.11 Total Base Number for Engine Oils.
and keep them soluble.
Corrosion inhibitors are added to counter acidic
Molybdenum may be present in some oil
effects on metals. In engine oils, reserve alkalinity
formulations as a solid lubricant additive
is included in the formulation to neutralise acids
(molybdenum disulfide) and may be used as an
formed by combustion. This is reflected by the
additive in grease. Soluble molybdenum additives
Total Base Number (TBN) of an engine oil.
are added to formulations in some cases also.
The TBN value of an oil is calculated from the
Sodium is found as an additive in some instances
amount of acid that is required to counteract its
as a detergent.
basic characteristics. The TBN is expressed as
Phosphorus is found in extreme pressure (EP) as the Equivalent mass in milligrams (mg) of
well as in anti-wear /anti-oxidant additives and potassium hydroxide (KOH) per gram of the oil.
friction modifiers in engine oils, hydraulic fluids and
gear oils.
2.12 Pentane Insolubles or Soot Content.
Sulfur is found in extreme pressure additives in
combination with phosphorus. The laboratory can also monitor the amount of
detrimental soot contained in an engine oil by
Zinc is part of ZDDP (Zinc Dialkyl Dithio
filtration of the material insoluble in a solvent
Phosphate) additive that acts as an anti-wear, anti-
called Pentane. This filtration is at 0.8 micron in
corrosive and anti-oxidant additive.
size, on the basis that material less than 0.8
micron would not be likely to cause problems. The
material removed is weighed and expressed as a
percentage of the oil. Values below 0.35 % by
weight are usually considered acceptable in the
normal service interval for a diesel engine.
Levels of at or above 0.35 % by weight indicate a
detrimental effect on the oil and reflects “elevated
sooting” which may be caused by poor ring seal.
Some of root causes of these detrimental effects
could be excessive periods of idle running, cold
running, or fuel washing the oil seal away in cases

11
of defective injectors and this in turn could be
evidenced by increasing viscosity and depletion of
anti-oxidant and dispersant additive. An increase
in viscosity at 100oC can lead to deterioration in
the lubrication efficiency which can effect correct
operation of bearings, cams/lifters. Consideration
of change-out of the oil at this stage would be
recommended depending upon other results of
analysis. The soot content can be checked as
TOTAL SOOT by using a technique known as
THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS which is
commonly referred to as TGA Soot.
2.12 Fuel Dilution by Gas Chromatography.
Fuel dilution in an engine oil can be caused by
several factors. Determining the extent of the
contamination by fuel by accurate means is
essential for the effective monitoring of engine
performance. Gas Chromatography can precisely
determine the fuel dilution in a lubricant to as low
as 0.2% v/v by separating and quantifying the
actual fuel content. Other methods employed in
the past included approximation from flash point
values to an accuracy of + or - 4%. In instances
where the 2 stroke engine of the Detroit type are
used, the 4% margin can be the difference
between engine failure or not. This is due to
excessive fuel in the oil which can have the effect
of thinning it out to an unacceptable level.
Although indication of fuel dilution can be
determined from viscosity values in some
instances, “sooting”, another product of incomplete
combustion of the fuel, can have a thickening
effect of the oil and thereby disguise fuel dilution
problems.
PE Clarus Gas Chromatograph
12
2.14 PQ Index
When wear occurs in equipment, the particles
resulting from the wear process can be of several
types, namely:
Normal Wear - small wear particles due to typical
welding/breaking cycle as outlined in earlier
discussions
Significant wear - medium sized particles causing
gouging of metal and resulting in larger than
normal particles being generated. These in turn
become the cause of even larger particle
generation
Severe Wear - large particle occurrence which
may reflect presence of metal particles due to
fatigue fracture or pitting of the metal components.
This production of large metal chips can in turn
induce enough wear to cause further disintegration
and rapid onset of failure.
Since most of the metal fragments referred to in
the above wear scenarios are iron in nature, the
effect of the particles on a magnetic field can be
used to detect the type of wear. Small fragments
would, as expected, have the least effect on a
magnetic field, while the large chips of iron would
be expected to have a large effect. The instrument
used in the laboratory for determination of Particle
Quality (PQ), measures the effect of the wear
particles on a magnetic field. When calibrated on
known standards, an index or relationship number
can be produced and from this the criteria for
satisfactory, significant and severe wear can be
determined and reported as the PQ Index.
2.15 Dispersancy.
Dispersant additives are incorporated in engine oil
formulations to ensure that minimal accumulation
of contaminants that result in sludging will occur.
Sludging is the combination of mainly moisture
and soot or wear debris from the engine. It can
adversely affect the engine operation through filter
plugging, deposition on moving surfaces and by
thickening of the oil to an extent that incorrect
lubricant supply will result.
Dispersancy is simply assessed using the “blotting
paper” test and is adjudged as:
GOOD Satisfactory dispersant properties in oil.
FAIR Unsatisfactory dispersant properties. An oil
change is required. Normally, other parameters of
analysis will be adverse.
POOR Totally unacceptable or no dispersant
properties in oil. Oil in this state will be considered
overdue for change and will also be reflected in
adverse test results in other areas.
2.16 RULER measurement of Anti-Oxidant vapours collected are measured by gas
Content chromatography. Another method by Fourier
Oils, with the exception of EP Gear Oils, in general Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) analysis is unreliable
have one or more Anti-oxidants (AO) included into and subject to many interferences from oxidation
their formulation. AO’s are sacrificial additives in products in the oil as well as moisture.
that they are the first to be consumed in their
function of protecting the equipment that is
lubricated and more specifically the oil itself. It
stands to reason therefore that monitoring the AO
level in an oil (or grease) can provide data that
permits accurate determination of how much life
the oil still has. This saves money to maintainers
by using the oil until it can no longer satisfactorily
protect the lubricant (usually when the RULER AO
value is less than 30% of the new value) which
from past experience may be significantly longer
than the recommended service change-out. If the
AO levels are being severely depleted in a shorter
time frame than expected, then proactive
maintenance to rectify a potential problem can
also be reflected in saving by the reduction of
unscheduled down-time.

The RULER (Remaining Useful Life Evaluation

Routine) uses a small amount of the in-service
lubricant reacted with a special solvent based
chemical and then compared to a sample of new
lubricant of the same type and grade reacted with
the same type of special solvent based chemical.
The amount of remaining active Anti-oxidant
additive compared to the new sample give the %
of Remaining Useful Life (%RUL)

2.17 Glycol by gas chromatography method

Glycol contamination in an engine due to coolant
leakage is a major problem and requires accurate
and reproducible assessment. One method is by a
process called Head Space Gas Chromatographic
Analysis. A sample of engine oil is heated above
the boiling point of glycol (180-200oC) and the
13
SECTION 3
A BASIC EXPLANATION OF HOW
LUBRICATION WORKS
Lubrication
A dictionary definition of lubrication is “...the
process of smearing with oil, grease, etc to reduce
friction”. Probably as good, a definition as you
might find from conventional sources, but-

What is Lubrication?

What properties are required in a lubricant?
X 200 X 100

What can affect these properties and how
can these effects be monitored to
maximise lubricant and equipment usage? By adding motion, the asperities on the surfaces
3.1. FRICTION would generate enough heat to weld, the
Friction is an accumulation of Forces that tend to continued application of the force would cause the
prevent motion between surfaces that are weld to stretch and break leaving new, similar
designed to move relative to each other. The asperities generated on the surfaces. Metal
extent of these frictional forces directly relates to particles can also break off which can then act as
the load placed on the surfaces. The smaller the an abrasive leading to an accelerated process of
Area Of Contact , the greater the effect of the Load “wear”. It is obvious that the effects of these
per square millimetre On rough surfaces, this is surface peaks must be reduced. Lubrication
further increased. choice is critical to avoid asperities coming into
contact with each other, hence lowering friction
For example, consider the bearings in an internal and decreasing the amount of potential.
combustion engine, mating gear teeth in a gearbox
or the piston of a hydraulic ram. In each of these ADHESIVE WEAR WELD FRACTURES
WELD OCCURS AND GENERATES PARTICLES
cases, surface roughness is a critical factor. A
simple example of the effect of surface roughness
on motion is to place two files, one on top of the
other on a bench with a load on top of them. Try to
slide the top file out from beneath the load. It is ADHESIVE WEAR DEBRIS FROM A TRANSMISSION
difficult to achieve the desired motion. 120X MAGNIFICATION

If you take a very close look at even the

“smoothest” surfaces that would be encountered in
engineering applications, each surface would
consist of microscopic high and low spots. The
metal-to-metal contact would only be on these
high spots (called asperities) with the consequent
point loading similar to the “files example”. Point
loading leads to a High Coefficient Of Friction. viz.
look at the ball bearing surface. Under normal
vision the ball looks, and feels, very smooth. A
100X magnifications shows that the surfaces
shows “grooves on the surface which look more
pronounced at 200X magnification. The edges of
the grooves are the high spots (asperities) and
when mated with corresponding surfaces of the
inner and outer races with their asperities due to
surface roughness, friction can occur leading to
heat and wear.
14
There are three main types of friction-reducing
materials and these can be used singularly, or in
combination as the application requires
They are:

LIQUIDS

SEMI-SOLIDS

SOLIDS
The liquid type material is generally employed
where it can be easily contained and relatively
protected from external contamination. These
include Oils (vegetable, petroleum, synthetic), or
other fluids such as water or solvents in
combination with additives. For simplicity only,
consider all of these liquid lubricants as acting in a
similar manner.
A liquid can be considered as consisting of
“slippery balls” that are able to slip and slide over
each other but are nevertheless “stuck” together. If
the size of the balls can represent the thickness of
the lubricant (viscosity), the method of providing a
lubricant film can be explained.
0000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000
By forcing the “balls” between the surfaces which
are to move relative to each other, the asperities
effect can be overcome to varying degrees
depending on the “size” of the “balls”. If the
lubricant is too thin, the balls cannot fully support
the load and keep the surfaces apart sufficiently to
permit unimpaired motion. So if one of the two
surfaces is harder than the other, it is logical that
the softer material will be gouged away by the
asperities of the harder material. Microscopic
particles of the worn material will be picked up by
the lubricant and carried around the system.
Better surface separation can be achieved with a
thicker lubricant made of bigger “balls” that are still
small enough to slide over each other while still
being in contact with the surfaces at all times. The
surfaces are constantly “wet” with lubricant.
Even thicker lubricants can maintain a satisfactory
surface separation but the “balls” may be too large
to maintain constant surface “wetness” during
motion. With a fixed clearance dictated by the
applied load to the surfaces, the “balls” cannot
squeeze into the gap.
3.2. HOW IS THE LUBRICANT FORCED
BETWEEN THE SURFACES?
A lubricant film will adhere to surfaces upon which
it comes in contact. This is referred to as Boundary
or Thin Film lubrication. It is the main source of
lubrication in equipment upon starting from rest. In
this case the asperities can and will make contact
and wear occurs. As the relative motion between
the surfaces increases, particularly rotational
motion, the boundary lubrication film is increased
as the lubricant is forced between the surfaces.
This process is known as Hydrodynamic
Lubrication.
The fluid film, which develops pressures sufficient
to carry the load and hence permit motion, is
increased due to the “wetted” surfaces dragging
more “slippery balls” (molecules) between the
surfaces when these commence rotating.
A situation will be arrived at which the maximum
film thickness is achieved. The oil molecules can
be considered as a wedge that continually
supplies replacement lubricant to maintain this film
thickness. The faster the rotation, the greater the
separation un til a balance is acheived.
Conversely, as the rotation slows down the film
diminishes. The same principle applies to meshing
gears.
A term “Molecular Shearing” should be mentioned
at this point. The forcing of the lubricant molecules
between the surfaces causes a strain on the
molecules which are primarily long chain
hydrocarbons. If the strain applied is great enough,
usually associated with elevated temperatures,,
the molecule can break. With normal paraffin oils
the Shear Stability is good. The oil molecules
possess great bond strength. With Viscosity Index
(VI) improved oils however, this is not necessarily
the same. VI improvers are generally very large
molecules, considerably larger than oil molecules.
They may be considered as being “coiled up” in
the rest position. Under load and heat, the
molecule uncoils and stretches initially leaving it
weakened and further loading can cause the
molecule to “shear” into smaller coiled up
molecules. This results in a thinner oil with all its
consequences concerning boundary layer
thickness mentioned earlier. It follows that VI
improved oils may not necessarily be a good
option in areas of high shear potential such as
gear boxes and transmissions.
Consider now the semi-solid lubricant case.
Grease is the most common semi-solid lubricant
and is mainly comprised of oil that has been
artificially thickened with soap or clay earth such
as bentonite. Greases are generally employed
15
where problems associated with containment of a
liquid lubricant are encountered. Open gear
lubrication can also incorporate “tackifiers” to
make the lubricant adhere to the gear teeth during
their operation. The “ball” analogy previously
described for liquid lubricants is also applicable to
semi-solid lubricants.
The solid lubricant method of friction reduction
entails “filling-in” the surface imperfections with a
material that has a good load bearing capability
but can easily shear when motion is commenced.
Consider again the “file” example. Place two
plastic sheets between the files and relative
motion of the files is considerably easier to
achieve.
Typical examples of such solid lubricants are
Molybdenum Disulphide, and Graphite. Both of
these materials have structural characteristics that
can be portrayed as a deck of playing cards. The
deck can support a considerable top load, while
motion can still be achieved due to the low shear
strength of the material. Molybdenum Disulphide
has a load carrying capability greater than 5 times
that of steel and yet has a very low shear strength
that permits motion by layers of the Molybdenum
Disulphide sliding over each other while supporting
the load. Coatings such as these can be applied
by bonding processes for completely dry
lubrication applications, or they can be and are
successfully incorporated into formulated liquid
lubricants that combine the attributes of both solid
film and liquid lubrication. Mention should also be
made of the introduction between the rough
surfaces of plastic type materials such as “Teflon”
that have applications in some instances.
Extensive research has been carried out in liquid
lubricants, including those that incorporate the
advantages of solid lubricants. The main thrust of
such research has been in establishing the correct
lubricant thickness under varying environmental
conditions. Accordingly, recommendations of
lubricant Viscosity (the term used for lubricant
thickness) should be adhered to rigidly. While the
viscosity of the lubricant at one temperature may
be satisfactory to maintain the desired clearances,
it is the lubricant’s ability to maintain these
clearances at higher temperatures that determines
the lubricant’s suitability.
The variation of the viscosity of a lubricant with
temperature is called its Viscosity Index (VI). An
oil with the least amount of variation of viscosity
with temperature has the highest VI while
conversely the greater the variation the lower the
VI. In instances where wide temperature ranges
can be experienced such as internal combustion
16
engines, the VI is an important parameter. VI of
around 100 is indicative of a paraffin base which is
oxidation resistive. Lower VI’s can be tolerated
where the operating environment is not subjected
to the same amount of temperature variation or
possibility of external contamination such as in a
gear-box or hydraulic system. However, for the
stability factor among others, paraffin base oils are
preferred for these applications.
Fuel Dilution in engine lubricants can severely
affect viscosity measurements and hence will also
affect VI. The greater the fuel dilution level, the
greater the effect on viscosity. Moisture
contamination can also affect the viscosity values
to an unpredictable extent in some severe cases.
This will also affect VI. Solid contamination such
as soot will be encountered in most engine
operations. A small amount of soot (or Pentane
Insolubles) will not have any undue effect on the
oil viscosity but as this level increases the viscosity
and VI can be rapidly changed. It should be noted
that the effect of soot is more pronounced at
higher temperatures than at low.
If lubrication was only concerned with reducing
friction by selection of correct lubricant viscosity
and VI, the problem would be relatively clear cut.
However, in the service life of the lubricant other
factors are involved which cause varied oil
degradation. Some of these factors include:

Dust particles that by-pass seals & air filters.

Varnishes and gums formed in fuel
combustion.

Water formed by fuel combustion and
condensation.

Wear metals due to aspirate abrasion.

Burnt lubricating oils scraped from the cylinder
wall linings.

Fuel and carbon particles from incomplete
combustion.

Sulphur and nitrogen oxides from combustion
of fuel.

Organic acid formation by oxidation of oil
during operation.

Trapped air due to agitation.

Coolant leakage through leaking or cracked
gaskets, heads or liners.
While the majority of these contaminants
generated by fuel combustion are exhausted
through normal operation, a certain proportion will
find its way past the rings and into the crankcase
and monitoring this may enable appropriate early
warning of severe damage to be made.
Hydraulic and transmission oils do not have such a
problem of massive assault by possible external
contaminants, but some of the above are most
pertinent. Moisture by condensation caused by
systems “breathing” moist air on cooling is a major
problem in hydraulics, transmissions and drives.
The discrete particles of water can vaporise due to
operating temperatures induced by fluid film and
metal to metal friction and force lubricant away
from the surfaces requiring lubrication. It is also a
cause of corrosion in the compartments. Dust
ingress through breathers and poor seals is also
damaging due to its abrasiveness. Accurate
monitoring of these contaminants is the key to
planning maintenance effectively.
3.3. ADDITIVES
To counteract the majority of ill-effects that
contaminants cause, additives are incorporated in
the oil formulations.
3.3.1 Detergent additives clean deposits from
inside engines while the dispersant additive
keeps what is cleaned separated to avoid
“sludging”, particularly when moisture is present.
3.3.2 Anti-Oxidant (AO) additives are widely
used in oil formulations to provide chemical
protection to oil wetted surfaces as well as
providing protection to the base oil of the lubricant
to permit it to continue its major function of
carrying the additives to the areas that need them
and maintaining the fluid film gap between the
moving surfaces.
3.3.3 Anti-foaming additives prevent bubble
persistence that may cause lack of lubricant to
critical locations.
3.3.4 Anti-wear additives chemically treat the
metal surfaces and make them “slippery”.
3.3.5 Pour Point Depressants In some
instances, cold temperatures can be experienced
that could freeze lubricants, consequently an
additive is incorporated that enables the oil to pour
at low temperatures.
3.3.6 Corrosion inhibitors are added to counter
acidic effects on metals. In engine oils, reserve
alkalinity is included in the formulation to neutralise
acids formed by combustion. This is reflected by
the Total Base Number (TBN) of an engine oil.
3.3.7 Oxidation inhibitors are also necessary to
prevent deterioration of the lubricant due to the
action of moisture, air and temperature on it.
FUEL SULPHUR EFFECT ON ENGINE OILS
Mention should also be made of the effect that the
sulphur content makes on the TBN of the oil.
Sulphur is becoming less prevalent in engine fuels
due to the environmental concerns of the exhaust
emissions from diesel fuelled engines. The sulphur
removal by legislation at the refinery has
effectively reduced the sulphur level to 50 parts
per million (ppm) (0.0050%) and a sulphur level of
10 ppm or 0.0010% has been mandated. for 2009.
. The effect of sulphur oxides from combustion
entering the crankcase area is, therefore, greatly
reduced and as such the conventional diesel oil
TBN value of up to 8 is quite suitable in providing
the required protection in a correctly operating
engine. When the TBN has dropped to 50% of
its original value, the lubricant’s reserve alkalinity
is considered to be reduced to an unacceptable
level requiring that the oil be changed. This 50%
reduction, by virtue of the lower fuel sulphur, will
rarely be met in modern diesel engines. A better
gauge of how long the oil should remain in service
is by monitoring of the AO level in the oil by
RULER.
In short, the modern lubricant has been designed
and formulated to meet the harsh environment of
modern equipment. Contaminants, including most
after-market additives can “Unbalance” the
lubricant and can result in less than optimum
performance in its duty.
3.4. FILTERS
Removal of contaminants is necessary to extend
the service life of lubricants. This is achieved by
filtration. There are many types of filters on the
market and most employ cellulose or paper
elements as the filtering medium. Some of these
mediums claim filtration to 0.1 micron. Cotton is
also used in by-pass filters with filtration rates of 2-
5 microns being generally quoted. External
“kidney-loop” filtration has become a viable means
of maintaining a clean compartment and extending
the life of the equipment lubricated as well as the
lubricant itself.
All filters will reduce the solid matter contamination
to the appropriate micron size without detriment to
the properties of the lubricant, that is they cannot
remove the additives from the oil formulations.
Even polymers employed as viscosity index
improvers and tackifiers will pass through the
filters as they are dissolved in the oil base. A good
rule of thumb to use when considering filtration is:
“If It Can Be Removed By Filtration It Shouldn’t
Be There”.
A detergent/dispersant additive in an engine
lubricant formulation works Physical Attraction to
contaminants such as particulate matter and
water. When a filter medium stops particles of a
size greater than its rated size, some
detergent/dispersant may be initially, temporarily
held back due to its adherence to the particle.
However, this adhesion may be broken by the oil
flow through the filter, leaving the particle
17
entrapped in the medium. The detergent is then
free to continue its function.
With modern engine lubricants, the filters will halt
only particles of size greater than its micron rating
due to the strong concentration of dispersancy
resulting in good adherence to particulate matter.
Ideally, a filter rated at 5 microns or less is
required to protect the 5-10 micron fluid film
thickness normally encountered in the lubricated
region. However, this fineness of filtration may
cause oil flow problems and these filters are
generally placed in a by-pass mode with the
normally rated 25 micron filter left in full flow.
Protection of a system from premature wear can
be attained by filtering out particles of as small a
size as possible and should be exercised where
appropriate.
As filtration of Hydraulic, drive and Transmission
oils is also utilised, the life of filters and lubricants
should also be monitored for effective control of
maintenance in these compartments. The work of
the NASA programmes for fluids used in aircraft
applications has provided the general lubricant
market with a Cleanliness Rating Level which can
allow decisions to be made about oil cleanliness
and filter effectiveness. ISO (International
Standards Organisation) codes have also followed
suit.
Society of Aerospace Engineers Aerospace
Standard (SAE AS) 4059 particle size analysis
levels up to 10 are generally acceptable for normal
operation in most applications of Hydraulic and
Transmission Fluid. Greater than level 10 could
indicate that the filters are blocked and should be
replaced. Continued usage at levels greater than
10 could result in premature wear in the respective
areas. For drive applications, the cleaner the
system the better but achievement of the levels
expected of hydraulic systems and transmissions
is difficult. Ideally, Condition Monitoring
Programmes should include Particle Size
Distribution analysis for Hydraulic, drives and
Transmission systems that incorporate forced
lubrication and filtration.
3.5. HOW DO WE KNOW THAT THE
LUBRICANT IS PERFORMING AS REQUIRED?
To analyse a lubricant for all the additives it
contains is not an easy task even in the unused
state. Of more importance is to analyse the
lubricant to check the:

PHYSICAL properties of the lubricant e.g.
viscosity and viscosity index
18

CHEMICAL properties of the lubricant e.g.
TBN or TAN value,

AO levels (%RUL) to ensure proper levels
of protection are maintained

LEVEL OF CONTAMINATION of the
lubricant e.g. Water content, Dirt content,
Acidity Values

EXTENT OF WEAR METAL
PRODUCTION e.g. Iron, Copper, Lead,
Aluminium, Chromium, Tin etc.
The individual analysis of a lubricated
compartment will provide a significant amount of
information concerning the operation of the
lubricant and more importantly, the condition of the
equipment lubricated. If conducted on a regular
basis, Trends will appear that will typify individual
items of equipment.
Trends established for “normal” operation are a
useful guide in interpretation of results. Actual
trends developed from several (at least three)
analyses on the same equipment compartment will
establish criteria for “Normalcy” of that specific
compartment. For this important reason, accurate
timing, top-up quantities, lube type and operating
location information is essential in providing you
with an effective service.
Although the lubricant is still considered the
cheapest replaceable item in large plant and
equipment, the oil has a finite cost, both to
purchase as well as dispose of, and to obtain full
value, the oil should be changed out only when it
can no longer effectively protect the oil and the
moving surfaces. The additive in the oil formulation
that provides this protection is the ANTI-OXIDANT
which can be measured using RULER.

RULER.
4. OTHER TESTING REQUIREMENTS
4.1. Coolant
A significant proportion of engine failures are
attributed to the cooling system and therefore it is
prudent to analysis the coolant from the cooling
system. Other compartments are, in some cases,
cooled and analysis of this coolant should also be
considered by the maintenance planners. Coolants
are tested for
Glycol Content – A measure of the
glycol content in the coolant to ensure the
anti-freeze capability is intact. This is
analysed using Refractive Index and is
generally in the range of 25 and 55%.
pH Value – A measure of the acidity of
the coolant which typically should be
between 8 and 11.
Total Dissolved Solids – Salts and
corrosion products are dissolved in the
coolant and will increase during the service
life of the coolant. There can come a time
where the coolant is saturated and
deposits start occurring in the system. This
can lead to localised hot spots as the
hardened sludge is a poor conductor of
heat. Additionally, pitting corrosion can
happen under this scale or hardened
deposit which can rapidly cause holes in
liners. Values greater than 3% dissolved
solids can cause problems. The Total
Dissolved Solids content is determined by
evaporation of filtered coolant and
weighing the residue.
Metals – Coolants are checked to
determine the metal content by ICP-OES
as for oils. Of particular interest are the
Calcium and magnesium contents as these
contribute to scale formation and are
present in the water content of the coolant.
Corrosion elements such as copper, from
radiator cores, lead from water pump
bearings, iron from crankcase and cylinder
liners and aluminium from some engine
heads should be monitored regularly to
ensure mo abnormal levels of corrosion is
occurring which may be due to low pH
values, other introduced corrosive agents
or depleted anti-oxidant and corrosion
inhibitors.
IONS – Chloride ions from water and
sulphate ions from depleted sulphite anti-
oxidants and calcium ions from water
hardness can combine to form scale in
conjunction with other metals. Other ions
that are monitored on a regular basis are
the additives in the coolant such as nitrate,
nitrite borate, silicate and molybdate salts
of sodium and potassium that protect the
system from oxidation and corrosion.
These contamination ions are determined
using an Ion Chromatograph which
identifies the type and quantity of each of
the ions using electrochemical procedures
against standards. Caution levels of
contamination ion levels are
Chlorides 100 ppm
Sulphate 50 ppm
Calcium 5 ppm
Chlorides can cause corrosive products
while calcium and sulphate form insoluble
salts that are the pre-cursor to scale
formation.
19
 ION CHROMATOGRAPH FOR
COOLANT ANALYSIS
4.2. Diesel Fuel Tests
Appearance – The appearance of the
diesel fuel will give an immediate indication
of the cleanliness of the fuel. Having
shaken the fuel sample it is then visually
observed for signs of solid contamination
and free water. Any haziness indicates
some contamination which is then
quantified in further testing.
Colour – Diesel fuel has a specified colour
according the colour standards at the
laboratory. Diesel fuel typically has a colour
of 1.0 or less when new but as it ages the
colour can darken to greater than 3.0. This
does not necessarily mean that the fuel is
unusable, but does require characteristic
testing to determine its suitability or
otherwise for use in diesel engines.
Density – The density of the fuel is
specified to be between 0.82 and 0.85
Kg/litre which is deemed to be the range
within which the fuel power is optimised
when aligned with the Clean Air Act for
particulates and noxious gaseous
emissions.
Distillation – Diesel fuel is a mixture of
aromatic, olefin and paraffin hydrocarbons
that are designed to, after ignition, burn
progressively to deliver the power over the
ignition component of the fuel cycle. The
progressive burn evens out the combustion
process and does not put too great a stress
on the engine components compared to an
instantaneous combustion of all the fuel.
Accordingly, a good quality check on fuels
20
is to perform the distillation of the fuel to
verify its composition. Contaminants such
as solvents, kerosene etc will show up as
abnormalities in diesel fuel distillation
testing.
Water - Water affects lubricity in injector
pumps and injectors if it can get by the fuel
filter. Water, in sufficient quantity can block
fuel filters and starve the engine of fuel. If
allowed to reside in bulk tanks, particularly
marine applications, the water fuel
interface can promote growth of bacteria
and fungus which again can cause rapid
fuel blockage and in some cases corrosion
in the fuel system itself. Checking the fuel
for water content is essential for assessing
fuel quality and the value typically should
be no more than 200 mg/l (ppm) for
efficient engine running.
Retained Solids – Solid contamination can
be present in fuel system in the form, of
scale from storage tanks or dust ingested
through breathers. While the vast majority
of solids would be captured by filtration, the
presence of solid matter of any more than
100 mg/l (ppm) may be detrimental and if
present should be filtered out using
external filtration.
Microbiological Activity - The bacterial
and fungal infestations mentioned above
should be checked frequently to determine
whether or not the fuel requires treatment
with a biocide. There should be no fungal
growth results for satisfactory condition and
only slight amount of bacteria permitted
(usually airborne and not resident in the
fuel as such).
Flash Point – The flash point of diesel fuel
is specified with a minimum of 61.5oC but is
typically in the range of 70 oC to 80 oC. If
higher than 80 oC the fuel may be harder to
ignite, and if it less than 61.5 oC the product
would have to be classified as dangerous
goods.
Cetane Index – An indicator of fuel ignition
delay is the Cetane Index. Ignition delay is
the time period elapsed from injection of
the fuel to the start of ignition. Cetane
Index is calculated from density
measurement and the recovery
temperatures at 10% recovered, 50&
recovered and 90% recovered during the
distillation test. The higher the Cetane
Index, the shorter the ignition delay.
Conversely the lower the Cetane Index the
longer the ignition delay which can lead to
 rough running of the engine and increase
the likelihood of sludge formation due to
presence of unburnt or partially burnt fuel.
Cloud Point – Diesel fuel will freeze into a
gel-like substance if the temperature falls
too low. A precursor to this gellification is
called the Cloud Point which is the
temperature at which the fuel commences
to go hazy due to the formation of the
crystalline structure of some fuel
components which start to fall out of
solution imparting a “cloudiness” to the
fuel. It is important to monitor this
characteristic if there is a possibility of
encountering low temperatures.
Biodiesel Content – With the push to
utilise renewable fuels, the introduction of
biodiesel into diesel fuel is underway. The
presence in the fuel of up to 20% biodiesel
is being recommended in some circles,
however, there is currently no specification
that covers this type of fuel (called Diesel
B20). It has been established that 5%
biodiesel will not affect the diesel fuel and
should meet all the diesel fuel
specifications. Biodiesel will burn
effectively.
SECTION 5 – LUBRICANT REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Engine lubricant must:
1. Clean engine surfaces to prevent build-up
of contaminants.
2. Disperse these contaminants.
3. Provide correct lubrication film thickness
throughout the temperature ranges
encountered to lubricate and remove heat
from the sites of potential wear.
4. Provide a slippery coating of anti-wear
material on moving surfaces.
5. Counteract corrosive materials in the oil.
6. Rapidly eliminate the possibility of air
entrapment caused by agitation or in some
cases cavitation.
7. Remain fluid at normal cold start
conditions.
5.2 Transmission, Drive or Hydraulic
lubricant must:

Provide correct lubrication film
thickness throughout the temperature
ranges encountered to lubricate and
remove heat from the sites of potential
wear.

Provide a slippery coating of anti-wear
material on moving surfaces.

Counteract corrosive materials in the
oil.

Rapidly eliminate the possibility of air
entrapment caused by agitation or in
some cases cavitation.

Remain fluid at normal cold start
conditions.

By constant monitoring of the “life
blood” of the compartment, adverse
changes can be detected early. In
many instances it can permit avoidance
of a catastrophic failure by attending to
a less major problem.
5.3 SAMPLING OF LUBRICANTS
Sampling method is one of the most important
factors contributing to effective scheduled oil
analysis. To achieve consistent and meaningful
data, samples must:

Be taken at regular intervals.

Be free from external contamination.

Be taken at normal operating temperature.

Be sampled in the same manner every
time.
5.3.1 When to sample? Unless specific
information on sampling intervals is supplied in
your operating manual or other brochures, use the
following guide to determine sampling intervals.
5.3.1.1 Engines:
Consult the operator’s manual for recommended
oil change intervals (usually every 250 hours).
Sample just prior to draining the oil.
5.3.1.2 Transmissions, Differentials, Final
Drives and Hydraulics:
Initially sample at 250 hour intervals and just prior
to an oil change as indicated by the operator’s
manual. If the results indicate no abnormalities
after 1000 hours of equipment usage, the intervals
may be extended to every 500 hours.
5.3.2 Where to sample?
Always draw the sample from the same point in
the compartment.
5.3.2.1 Engines:

Draw sample from dipstick retaining tube.
5.3.2.2 Transmissions, Differentials, Final
Drives and Planetries:

Draw sample through oil level point or dipstick
retaining tube, whichever is provided.
5.3.2.3 Hydraulics:
21
Draw sample from the ‘oil fill’ port of the system
reservoir, ensuring the sample is taken from the
mid-level of the reservoir.
5.3.3 What is an Effective
Technique?
Ensure all compartments to be sampled are at
normal operating temperature.
Oil must be well circulated when sampled (within
15 minutes of shutdown)
To avoid external contamination, clean all lubricant
access areas prior to sampling.
Complete the sample description sheet prior to
drawing the sample. (Use the guide)
Section 6 - Interpretation Tools
normal distribution of data.A normal distribution of
data means that most of the examples in a set of
data are close to the "average or mean" while
Sampling relatively few results head to the outer
extremes.We are looking at the data set for an
Excavator Pump drive and the information we are
doing the study is on Iron (Fe). We need to look at
the typical data that we have extracted from the Oil
Analysis. Like most data, the outcome from the
results will turn out being normally distributed. That
means that the Iron analysis will be close to the
“mean” while less Iron results will be lower or
higher than the
“mean”.

6.1 Normalisation
Establishing Testing BenchmarksIntervals need
to be specified to compare “apples with apples”
across the useful life of the equipment.
Oilcheck uses 200 hours or 10,000 Kilometres as
a standard on engines and 500 hours or 25,000
Kilometres on all other compartments.The results
of each oil analysis are weighted proportionately to
fit into the specified category to achieve a
The x-axis (the horizontal one) is the value in
“normalised” set of data as shown in the table.
question... Iron, Copper or even viscosity of the
Results (raw) for Formulae for Normalised
Hrs on oil IRON normalisation result for IRON oils, for example. And the y-axis (the vertical one)
(91 ppm x 200 hrs) is the number of data points for each value on the
235 91 ppm 235 hrs 77 ppm
(82 ppm x 200 hrs) x-axis... in other words, the number of EX1800
216 82 ppm 216 hrs 75 ppm
(93 ppm x 200 hrs)
pump drives that generate x amount of Iron.Now,
182 93 ppm 182 hrs 102 ppm not all sets of data will have graphs that look this
perfect. Some will have relatively flat curves others
The corresponding graph compares “raw” and will be steep. Sometimes the mean will lean a little
“normalised” data. bit to one side or the other. However, all normally
The “normalised” data is then compared with the distributed data will have something like this same
standard deviations to determine the status of the "bell curve" shape.The standard deviation is a
oil. statistic that tells you how tightly all the various
examples are clustered around the mean in a set
of data. If you can imagine the centre of this target
being the mean then all the shots taken around the
centre are spread out in proportional groups 68%
ended up in the middle 27% just out of centre and
1%on the extreme.
When the examples are tightly bunched together
and the bell-shaped curve is steep, the standard
deviation is small. When the examples are spread
apart and the bell curve is relatively flat, that tells
you, you have a relatively large standard
deviation.

6.2. Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is kind of the "mean of the
mean," and often can help you find the story
behind the data. To assist in this we use the term
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 Element Mean St dev 0.5 SD 1 SD 2 SD 3 SD
IRON 160.6 113.3 217.2 273.9 387.2 500.5
CHROMIUM 2.7 1.2 3.3 3.9 5.1 6.2
LEAD 29.2 27.1 42.7 56.3 83.4 110.5
COPPER 4.2 3.1 5.7 7.3 10.4 13.6
ALUMINIUM 6.7 4.2 8.8 10.9 15.1 19.3
SILICON 26 13.4 32.7 39.4 52.8 66.2
SODIUM 7.2 4.2 9.4 11.5 15.7 19.9

68%
27%
One standard deviation away from the mean in
4%
either direction on the horizontal axis (the red area
on the graph) accounts for somewhere around 68
percent of Iron results in this group.
Two standard deviations away from the mean (the
red and green areas) account for roughly 95
percent of Iron results.
Three Standard Deviations (the red, green and
blue areas) account for about 99 percent Iron
results.If this curve were flatter and more spread
out, the Standard Deviation would have to be
larger in order to account for those 68 percent or
so Iron results. So that's why the Standard
Deviation can tell you how spread out the results
are in a set from the meanThe computer will
calculate the mean and three levels of Standard
Deviation as shown in the table.
The analysis results are compared with the
Standard Deviation benchmarks to determine the
condition of the oil.The recommendations such as
1xSD, 2xSD, 3xSD 4xSD are valid in some
instances, yet in others a tighter or looser spread
of SD may be selected. For simplicity here, look at
the following:
1. If the results are less than 1 Standard
Deviation, the outcome is analysed as being
“Satisfactory”. For example, having an Iron
result less than 273.9.
2. If the results are between 1 and 2 Standard
Deviations, the result is assessed as being
“Slightly Elevated”. For example, having an
Iron score between 273.9 and 387.2.
3. If the oil has a value exceeding 2 but less than
3 Standard Deviations it is assessed as
“Elevated”.
4. A value greater than 3 Standard Deviations is
assessed as “High”, with values greater than 4
Standard deviations (not shown) would be
approaching Critical stage..

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