Chapter 1

Introduction

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Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Our goal: Overview:
 get “feel” and  what’s the Internet?
terminology
 what’s a protocol?
 more depth, detail
 network edge; hosts, access
later in course
 approach: net, physical media
 use Internet as  network core: packet/circuit
example switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 security
 protocol layers, service models
 history
Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
 more about the pysical layer
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History
Introduction 1-3
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
PC  millions of connected Mobile network
server computing devices: Global ISP
wireless hosts = end systems
laptop
 running network
cellular
handheld apps Home network
Regional ISP
 communication links
access  fiber, copper,
points
wired
radio, satellite Institutional network
links  transmission
rate = bandwidth
 routers: forward
router
packets (chunks of
data)
Introduction 1-4
“Cool” internet appliances

Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

World’s smallest web server

http://www-ccs.cs.umass.edu/~shri/iPic.html Internet phones

Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
Mobile network
 protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs Global ISP
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype,
Ethernet
Home network
 Internet: “network of
networks” Regional ISP
 loosely hierarchical
 public Internet versus Institutional network
private intranet
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force

Introduction 1-6
What’s the Internet: a service view
 communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
 Web, VoIP, email, games,
e-commerce, file sharing
 communication services
provided to apps:
 reliable data delivery
from source to
destination
 “best effort” (unreliable)
data delivery

Introduction 1-7
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
governed by protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions protocols define (1) format,
taken when msgs (2) order of msgs sent
received, or other and received among
events network entities, and
(3) actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-8
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

Introduction 1-9
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
 more about the physical layer
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History
Introduction 1-10
A closer look at network structure:
 network edge:
applications and
hosts
 access networks,
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication links
 network core:
 interconnected
routers
 network of
networks Introduction 1-11
 The network edge:
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network” peer-peer
 client/server model
 client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
client/server
 e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server
 peer-to-peer model:
 minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
 e.g. Skype, BitTorrent
Introduction 1-12
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks

Keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-13
Residential access: point to point access

 Dialup via modem

 up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
 Can’t surf and phone at same
time: can’t be “always on”
 DSL: digital subscriber line
 deployment: telephone company (typically)
 up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
 up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
 dedicated physical line to telephone central office

Introduction 1-14
Residential access: cable modems

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream, 2
Mbps upstream
 network of cable and fiber attaches homes to
ISP router
 homes share access to router
 deployment: available via cable TV companies

Introduction 1-15
Residential access: cable modems

Diagram: http://www.cabledatacomnews.com/cmic/diagram.html Introduction 1-16

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-17
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

server(s)

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-18
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-19
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

FDM (more shortly):

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-20
Company access: local area networks
 company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge router
 Ethernet:
 10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
1Gbps, 10Gbps Ethernet
 modern configuration:
end systems connect
into Ethernet switch
 LANs: chapter 5

Introduction 1-21
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router router
 via base station aka “access
point”
base
 wireless LANs: station
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54 Mbps

 wider-area wireless access

 provided by telco operator
 ~1Mbps over cellular system
mobile
(EVDO, HSDPA)
 next up (?): WiMAX (10’s Mbps)
hosts
over wide area

Introduction 1-22
Home networks
Typical home network components:
 DSL or cable modem
 router/firewall/NAT
 Ethernet
 wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

Introduction 1-23
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Bit: propagates between  two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
 physical link: what lies  Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
 guided media:
 Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-24
Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 baseband:  high-speed point-to-point
 single channel on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-
 legacy Ethernet 100’s Gps)
 broadband:  low error rate: repeaters
 multiple channels on spaced far apart ; immune
cable to electromagnetic noise
 HFC

Introduction 1-25
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 no physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., Wifi)

 bidirectional  11Mbps, 54 Mbps

 propagation  wide-area (e.g., cellular)

environment effects:  3G cellular: ~ 1 Mbps

 reflection  satellite
 obstruction by objects  Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
 interference multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Introduction 1-26
1.x Transmission
(from Tanenbaum’s)

27
Transmission: Analog or Digital
• Analog signaling
 Analog data transmission is achieved
through modulations
 Covered later in this Chapter
(under the section “Modulation”).

• Digital signaling
 Harder to analyze/model
 Fourier Analysis
28
Theory of Data Communications
• Fourier Analysis
 Any reasonably behaved periodic function can be written as
Fourier series, in the form of n cosine & sine harmonics
(terms).
 A harmonic is a signal or wave whose frequency is an integral
(whole-number) multiple of the frequency of some reference
signal or wave. The term can also refer to the ratio of the
frequency of such a signal or wave to the frequency of the
reference signal or wave.
• Bandwidth-Limited Signals
 How fast a signal can be transmitted depends on the
bandwidth, general meaning of how much information can be
carried in a given time period (usually a second) over a
communication link, measured mostly by frequency range.
• Maximum Data Rate of a Channel 29
Theory of Data Communications
• The signal (for example, measured in
volts) can be viewed as

a) a function of time, g(t), or

b) a function of frequency, G(f).

30
Time-Domain Analysis
• Let g(t) denote the voltage on a wire at time t.
• A signal, g(t), is PERIODIC with period T
if g(t+T)=g(t) for all t.
• A signal is DISCRETE if it only takes on a
finite number of values.
• The FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY is the
inverse of the period, f = 1/T, and is measured
in cycles per second (Hz).

31
Frequency-Domain Analysis
• Any "reasonably-behaved" periodic function, g(t), can
be written as a Fourier Series - that is broken up into
components with different frequencies; theoretically
infinite number.
• Let f represent the main, or fundamental, frequency
of an alternating current (AC) signal, electromagnetic
field , or sound wave.
• This frequency, usually expressed in hertz, is the
frequency at which most of the energy is contained,
or at which the signal is defined to occur.
• If the signal is displayed on an oscilloscope, the waveform will
appear to repeat at a rate corresponding to f Hz

32
Digital Signal
• Digital signals are rectangular waves made up
of a large number of sine waves.
• Digital signal's waveform contains fundamental
waves whose frequency is the signal's cycling
frequency and harmonic waves whose frequencies
are integer-multiples of the fundamental wave's
frequency.
• The following illustrations show how the
addition of harmonic waves causes the
combined waveform to approach the shape of
rectangular wave.
33
 Digital Signal Approximation

• A binary signal (‘b’ = 01100010) and its root-mean-square

Fourier amplitudes.
34
(b) – (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
Digital Signal Approximation
(d) – (e) Successive approximations to
the original signal.

35
Bandwidth-Limited Signal
• Lets assume the time, T, required to
transmit a character which depends on:
a) the encoding method
b) the signalling speed or BAUD RATE; that is,
how many times per second the signal
changes its value (voltage).
• Baud rate is not necessarily the same as
bit rate. For example, if the values 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 are used in a signal, then
each signal value can represent 3 bits.
36
 Bandwidth-Limited Signal
• Lets only consider 2 voltage levels, so the bit rate is
the same as the baud rate.
 Let b = bit rate (measured in bits per second, bps).
 Then, it takes 8/b seconds to send 8 bits (one character).
 So, the period T = 8/b, and the fundamental frequency f is
b/8 Hz.
• A voice grade line is an ordinary telephone line and has
an artificial cutoff frequency, fc, of about 3000Hz.
So, the number of the highest harmonic that can be
passed through is 3000/(b/8) = 24000/b (highest
possible frequency divided by the fundamental
frequency).

37
Bandwidth-Limited Signals

Relation between data rate and harmonics

for a voice grade telephone line. More
harmonics better is the reception. 38
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
• Noiseless channel: Nyquist’s Theorem
If the signal has V discrete levels over a
transmission medium of bandwidth H , the
maximum data rate = 2H log2 V bits/sec
 Example: a noiseless 3-kHz channel cannot transmit
binary signals at a rate exceeding 6000 bps (= 2 x
3000 log2 2).
• Noisy Channel: Shannon’s Theorem

maximum data rate = H log2 (1 + S/N) bits/sec

H: bandwidth, S: signal power, N: noise power39

Modulation
• The modulation is used to code digital
data into the analog signal.
 Amplitude: two different amplitudes are
used to represent 0 and 1.
 Frequency: different tones are used.
 Phase: the wave is systematically shifted
(45, 135, 225, or 315º).
• A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a
device that modulates outgoing digital
signals to analog signals. 40
Modulation

(a) A binary signal (c) Frequency modulation

(b) Amplitude modulation (d) Phase modulation 41
Modulation
• The number of samples/symbols per second is
measured in baud.
• In quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), the
four angles, usually out of phase by 90°, are
used to transmit 2 bits/symbol. The bit rate is
twice the baud rate.
• QAM-64 (Quadratrue Amplitude Modulation-
64) allows 64 different combinations, so 6 bits
can be transmitted per symbol.

42
Modulation

Constellation Diagrams:
(a) QPSK.
(b) QAM-16.
43
(c) QAM-64.
Modulation
• To reduce the chance of an error,
standards for higher speeds modems do
error correction by adding extra bits to
each sample. The schemes are known as
TCM (Trellis Coded Modulation).
• In V.32, 14,400 bps is achieved by
transmitting 6 data bits and 1 parity bit
per sample at 2400 baud. It uses QAM-
128.
44
Modulation
• Transmission rate (bps) =
bits_per_symbol x baud

• In V.34, the modem can run at 28,800

bps at 2400 baud with 12 data
bits/symbol or 33,600 bps at 2400 baud
with 14 data bits/symbol.

45
Modulation

(a) (b)

(a) V.32 for 9600 bps.

(b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps. 46
 Modulation
• On a telephone line
• V.90 provides 33.6 kbps upstream and 56 kbps
downstream
• V.92 provides 48 kbps upstream.

47
Traffic Directions
• A connection that allows traffic in
both directions simultaneously is
called full duplex.
• A connection that allows traffic
either way, but only one way at a
time is called half duplex.
• A connection that allows traffic only
one way is called simplex.
48
 Bandwidth, Baud Rate, Bit Rate
• The bandwidth of a medium is the range of
frequencies that pass through it with
minimum attenuation, measured in Hz.
• The baud rate is the number of
samples/sec made. Each sample sends one
symbol.
• The bit rate is the amount of information
sent over the channel and is equal to the
number of symbols/sec times the number
of bits/symbol. 49
 Errors
• Errors in physical layer:
• Attenuation (reduced signal)
• Distortion (wrong signal)
• Noise (Thermal, Crosstalk, Impulse, …)

• Influences to error:
Type of Media, Bit Rate, Distance, …

• The square waves used in digital signals have a

wide frequency spectrum (usually, high
frequency) and thus are subject to strong
attenuation and delay distortion. 50
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
 more about the physical layer
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History
Introduction 1-51
The Network Core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
 circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
 packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”

Introduction 1-52
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for “call”
 link bandwidth, switch
capacity
 dedicated resources:
no sharing
 circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-53
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces”  frequency division
 pieces allocated to calls  time division
 resource pieceidle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-54
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-55
Numerical example
 How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
 All links are 1.536 Mbps
 Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Let’s work it out!

Introduction 1-56
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream
divided into packets
 user A, B packets share
network resources
 each packet uses full link
bandwidth
 resources used as needed
Bandwidth division into “pieces”
Dedicated allocation
Resource reservation
resource contention:
 aggregate resource
demand can exceed
amount available
 congestion: packets
queue, wait for link use
 store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
 Node receives complete
packet before forwarding
Introduction 1-57
 Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

bandwidth shared on demand statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
Introduction 1-58
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link at R bps
 transmission delay = 15
 store and forward:
sec
entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link
 delay = 3L/R (assuming more on delay shortly …
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-59
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
 1 Mb/s link
 each user:
 100 kb/s when “active”
 active 10% of time

N users
 circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
 10 users
 packet switching:
 with 35 users, Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active
at same time is less
than .0004
Introduction 1-60
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
 great for bursty data
resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit

switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-switching)? Introduction 1-61
 Internet structure: network of networks
 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., Verizon, Sprint, AT&T,
Cable and Wireless), national/international coverage
 treat each other as equals

Tier-1
providers
Tier 1 ISP
interconnect
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-62
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., A major ISP
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …
.
…
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-63

A Major ISP is also:
home to data mining equipment
Some advertisement
for data mining
hardware
If you have been searching for
a way to understand all your
Internet traffic, the search ends
here. Today it's not how you
get on the Net that matters. It's
what you do once you get
there. And if you don't know
what your customers are
doing, you don't know what
services they value, and how
to best provide and price those
services. We can help you do
that. In fact, we're already
helping the largest ISPs and
telephone carriers, portal sites,
and internet content providers
transform their customer data
into precise, meaningful, and
actionable information.
 Internet structure: network of networks
 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs
 Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other.
rest of Internet
 tier-2 ISP is
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-65
 Internet structure: network of networks
 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs
 last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-66
 Internet structure: network of networks
 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-67
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
 more about the physical layer
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History
Introduction 1-68
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link
capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-69
Four sources of packet delay
 1. nodal processing:
 check bit errors
 determine output link
 2. queueing
 time waiting at output
link for transmission
 depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-70
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical link
 L=packet length (bits)  s = propagation speed in
 time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R  propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-71
 Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 cars “propagate” at  Time to “push” entire
100 km/hr caravan through toll
 toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service car (transmission 12*10 = 120 sec
time)  Time for last car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to
2nd toll both: 100km/
 Q: How long until caravan
(100km/hr)= 1 hr
is lined up before 2nd toll
 A: 62 minutes
booth?
Introduction 1-72
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
 Cars now “propagate” at at 2nd booth and 3 cars
still at 1st booth.
1000 km/hr  1st bit of packet can
 Toll booth now takes 1 arrive at 2nd router
min to service a car before packet is fully
 Q: Will cars arrive to transmitted at 1st router!
2nd booth before all  See Ethernet applet at AWL
cars serviced at 1st Web site
booth?
Introduction 1-73
Nodal delay
d nodal = d proc + d queue + d trans + d prop

 dproc = processing delay

 typically a few microsecs or less
 dqueue = queuing delay
 depends on congestion
 dtrans = transmission delay
 = L/R, significant for low-speed links
 dprop = propagation delay
 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-74
more about routing (switching) methods

 Circuit switching
 Used for the phone networks

 Store and forward routing

 Used for the Internet

 Cut-through routing
 Used for HPC networks
A simplified cost model for routing (switching)

 Store and forward routing

 Tcomm. = Ts + (Tm*M + Th)*L

 Cut-through routing
 Tcomm. = Ts + Th*L + Tm*M

Ts : startup time (seconds)

M: packet or message size (bits)
Tm: transfer time (seconds/bit)
Th: per hop time (seconds)
L: number of hops
Packet switching vs message switching

 Fixed size blocks

 “packet switching”

 Variable size blocks

 “message switching”
Queueing delay (revisited)

 R=link bandwidth (bps)

 L=packet length (bits)
 a=average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
Introduction 1-78
“Real” Internet delays and routes

 What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

 Traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-end
Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-79
“Real” Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-80
 Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
Introduction 1-81
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which
bits transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server sendswith link
bits pipe capacity
that can carry link that
pipe capacity
can carry
file of
(fluid) F bits
into pipe fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec Rfluid at rate
c bits/sec
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-82
 Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-83
Throughput: Internet scenario

Rs
 per-connection
Rs Rs
end-end
throughput:
R
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: Rc or Rs Rc Rc

is often bottleneck Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-84
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-85
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
 many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers
Is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
 protocols Or at least our discussion
 hardware, of networks?
software

Introduction 1-86
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-87
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-88
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-89
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process data transport
transfer
 TCP, UDP network
 network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination link
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction 1-90
ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
presentation
specific conventions
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
 Internet stack “missing” these
layers! link
 these services, if needed, must physical
be implemented in application
 needed?

Introduction 1-91
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-92
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-93
Network Security
 The field of network security is about:
 how bad guys can attack computer networks
 how we can defend networks against attacks
 how to design architectures that are immune to
attacks
 Internet not originally designed with
(much) security in mind
 original vision: “a group of mutually trusting
users attached to a transparent network” 
 Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
 Security considerations in all layers!

Introduction 1-94
Bad guys can put malware into
hosts via Internet
 Malware can get in host from a virus, worm, or
trojan horse.

 Spyware malware can record keystrokes, web

sites visited, upload info to collection site.

 Infected host can be enrolled in a botnet, used

for spam and DDoS attacks.

 Malware is often self-replicating: from an

infected host, seeks entry into other hosts

Introduction 1-95
Bad guys can put malware into
hosts via Internet
 Trojan horse  Worm:
 Hidden part of some  infection by passively
otherwise useful receiving object that gets
software itself executed
 Today often on a Web  self- replicating: propagates
page (Active-X, plugin) to other hosts, users
 Virus Sapphire Worm: aggregate scans/sec
in first 5 minutes of outbreak (CAIDA, UWisc data)
 infection by receiving
object (e.g., e-mail
attachment), actively
executing
 self-replicating:
propagate itself to
other hosts, users
Introduction 1-96
 Bad guys can attack servers and
network infrastructure
 Denial of service (DoS): attackers make resources
(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic
by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
1. select target
2. break into hosts
around the network
(see botnet)
3. send packets toward
target from target
compromised hosts

Introduction 1-97
The bad guys can sniff packets
Packet sniffing:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all
packets (e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B
 Wireshark software used for end-of-chapter
labs is a (free) packet-sniffer
Introduction 1-98
The bad guys can use false source
addresses
 IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
A C

src:B dest:A payload

Introduction 1-99
The bad guys can record and
playback
 record-and-playback: sniff sensitive info (e.g.,
password), and use later
 password holder is that user from system point of
view

C
A

src:B dest:A user: B; password: foo

Introduction 1-100
Network Security
 more throughout this course
 chapter 8: focus on security
 crypographic techniques: obvious uses and
not so obvious uses

Introduction 1-101
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-102
Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:
theory shows  ARPAnet public demonstration
effectiveness of packet-  NCP (Network Control Protocol)
switching
first host-host protocol
 1964: Baran - packet-
 first e-mail program
switching in military nets
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
 1967: ARPAnet conceived
by Advanced Research
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

Introduction 1-103
 Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for internal changes required
interconnecting networks to interconnect networks
 best effort service model
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox
PARC  stateless routers
 decentralized control
 ate70’s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA, define today’s Internet
XNA architecture
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Introduction 1-104
Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

 1983: deployment of  new national networks:

TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail NSFnet, Minitel
protocol defined  100,000 hosts
 1983: DNS defined connected to
for name-to-IP- confederation of
address translation networks
 1985: ftp protocol
defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control
Introduction 1-105
Internet History
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
 Early 1990’s: ARPAnet Late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet  network security to
(decommissioned, 1995)
forefront
 early 1990s: Web
 est. 50 million host, 100
 hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson
million+ users
1960’s]  backbone links running at
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
Gbps
 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web

Introduction 1-106
Internet History

2007:
 ~500 million hosts
 Voice, Video over IP
 P2P applications: BitTorrent
(file sharing) Skype (VoIP),
PPLive (video)
 more applications: YouTube,
gaming
 wireless, mobility

Introduction 1-107
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of material!
You now have:
 Internet overview
 context, overview,
 what’s a protocol?
“feel” of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 layering, service models
 security
 history
Introduction 1-108