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- microwave signals will penetrate cloud and fog,in contrast to visible radiation.
- microwaves can continuously monitor ploar regions and tropical forests that are often in
darkness or covered in clouds.
- SAR is to be used to monitor natural disasters -floods,forest fires,earthquakes etc that are
often accompanied by poor optical visibility.
- fairly narrow beams can be obtained with resonably sized antennas to give acceptable
resolution.
Features of SAR
- a large effective antenna aperture is obtained by mounting the antenna on a moving
platform-an aircraft or a satellite.
- resolutions of down to 10m can be obtained,so that images of the earth’s surface can be
generated.
- complex signal processing is required to extract images,so that real-time operation makes
heavy demands on computer processing power.
- very large amounts of data are generated - as can be seen if say 10 items of information are
generated for each 10m2 of the earth’s surface.
[Exercise :Calculate the number if items of data,given that the earth’s radius is 6000km].
- particularly using satellites,large areas of the earth’s surface can be observed in a short time
so that changes can be observed.
- the range to the target is found from the time delay between the transmitted and returned
signal
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R = c. TR
2
- the range resolution is determined by the pulse duration τ .A 1uS pulse gives a range
resolution of 150m.
- Pulse Compression is used to improve the range resolution ,without the requirement for a
very short duration,high power pulses.a short pulse is generated to give a good range
resolution,but this is frequency modulated to give a longer,lower power pulse prior to
amplification and transmission.This is achieved using a dispersive filter.The received pulse is
compressed by passing it through a complementary dispersive filter so that it is effectively
shortened ,thereby achieving good range resolution.Range resolutions of about 10m can be
achieved,corresponding to an effective pulse duration of 70nS,
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- the angular resolution (or azimuthal resolution) of a conventional radar is determined by the
angular width of the main lobe of the antenna radiation pattern.This ,in turn,is determined by
the λ/D ratio for the antenna aperture.
- the linear resolution in the cross-range direction depends on the angular width of the
antenna beam and the range to the target area.
The conclusion is that the linear resolution in the range direction (about 10m using the pulse
compression) is acceptable,but the linear resolution in the cross-range (azimuthal) direction is
inadequate (19km).
The cross range resolution can be dramatically improved to about 10 using SAR which
comprises
- data from all echoes from a given target area are combined to form an image of the area.
Platform movement
Antenna
velocity v
La
Lc
Angular beamwidth in across-
track(range) direction
Ground track vertically
Radar footprint -
determined by antenna Across track
dimensions direction (range)
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SEASAT (1987)
altitude 800km
‘look’ (incidence) angle 23 degrees
Antenna size - along track 10.7m
- across track 2.2m
frequency 1.3GHz(λ = 23cm)
swathe width 100km
Satellite
10.7m movement
2.2m
θ2
θ1
Along track
23° 870km
800km
Across-track resolution
Across track Ground resolution
Swathe width (conventional radar)
This is the resolution of a conventional radar which can only determine whether or not a target lies
within the beam.
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SAR Principle
- the across-track position of a target is determined by a conventional delay-time measurement.
- the along-track position is determined by the Doppler shift of the echo signal.
θ1
φ
Vr = radial velocity of radar w.r.t to target = v.sinφ
Slant range R
targets
A B
x Along track
∆x
2v.sinφ ⎞
Change in radar frequency due to Doppler effect ∆f = ⎛⎜ ⎟ fo = f D
⎝ c ⎠
- the angular positions - or along-range positions - of two targets within the beam can be
determined by the Doppler frequencies of their echo signals.
- the angular resolution or along-track resolution of the target is determined by the frequency
resolution that can be obtained for the Doppler frequencies.
2v.sinϕ ⎞
f D = ⎛⎜ ⎟ fo
⎝ c ⎠
1
Now ϑ 1 is small (0.02 radians) & φ ≤ ϑ1
2
and f D = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ fo
x 2v x
∴ sinφ ≈ φ ≈
R ⎝ c ⎠⎝ R⎠
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Resolution
The ground resolution in the along-track direction ∆x (min) corresponds to the minimum change in
Doppler frequency that can be measured , ∆fD (min).
c ⎛ R⎞
∆x (min) = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ∆f D
⎝ 2v ⎠ ⎝ fo ⎠
↓
resolution
1
The minimum change ig f D that can be measured =
Tobs
1 v La
∴ ∆f D (min) = = .
Tobs R λ
c ⎛ R⎞ v ⎛L ⎞
∴ ∆x(min) = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎜ a ⎟ =
1
La ie from Seasat ∆x ≈ 5.4m
⎝ 2v ⎠ ⎝ fo ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠ 2
R. θ1
Speed v
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S a t e llit e t r a v e ls p e r p e n d ic u la r
t o t h is p la n e
A & B a r e p o in t t a r g e t s a t
the sw athe ed g es
C ro ss-T r a c k r a n g e a m b ig u ity
R2
R1
C r o s s - t r a c k d ir e c t io n
A B
S w a t h e w id t h
1 2 3
τ (PRF)
A B A B
1 2 3
τ‘ (PRF)
Higher PRF
A A
B
0 time
2R2
c
To avoid cross-track range ambiguity,signal from B must arrive earlier than that for A.ie
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2 R2 ⎛ 2R ⎞
< ⎜ 1 + τ ( PRF )⎟
c ⎝ c ⎠
1 c
( R2 − R1 ) < c. τ ( PRF ) or ( R2 − R1 ) <
2 2( PRF)
θ/2 θ/2
Along track
direction
fD(min) fo fD(max)
As beam moves over target Doppler frequency changes from fD(max) to fD(min).
2v ϑ
f D(max) = f D(min) = . . fo (ϑ is small)
c 2
λ
ϑ = L a = antenna length (along track)
La
2v λ v
Doppler frequency bandwidth = . . fo =
c 2 La La
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Limits on PRF
La
Along track resolution ∆x =
2
∴ PRF * ∆x ≥ 2v
2v
PRF ≥ sampling theorem - to avoid phase ambiguity
La
From these results a suitable compromise must be reached between
- swathe width
- antenna area
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Focussed SAR
To attain highest along-track resolution of La/2 the observation time Tobs = time taken for
beam to sweep across the target.But in this time the Doppler frequency changes from
+fD(max) to - fD(max).
The solution is to process the SAR data so that it focusses on each along-track target position
in turn.
xo x
Satellite path
∆R
Closest-approach
Ro range
Ro
Slant-plane Geometry
Constant range line within
Target swathe
2π
∆φ = - 2⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ∆R
⎝ λ ⎠
1
Ro + ∆R = [ R 2o + (x − xo ) ]
2 2
∴ ∆R ≈
(x − xo )2 since x - x o <<R
2 Ro
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The change in phase with satellite position x for a target at closest approach xo is given by
(
⎧⎪ 4π x − x 2 ⎫⎪
f ( x ) = exp ⎨− j.
o )
. ⎬ Differentiate phase term
⎪⎩ λ 2 Ro ⎪⎭
Phase term
∂θ 1 ∂θ
f = rate ofchange of phase θ = 2πft + φ ; = 2πf ∴f = .
∂t 2π ∂t
To determine the scattering from the target position associated with xo we find the correlation
between this reference function for fD;over the range of positions for which data is collected
for xo,with the actual returns to the satellite at these satellite positions.
This must be done for all ranges Ro across the swathe and for each resolution cell along the
swathe.
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Applications of SAR
Studies of
- Ploar ice.
- Ocean waves.
- Surface/subsurface mapping.
- soil moisture.
- Forest ecology.
- Ship’s wakes
Each type of study dictates different aspects of the
(1) Experimental requirements width, eg frequency,polarisation ,angle of
incidence,swathe resolution.
(2) System performance resolution eg EIRP,dynamic range,data
rate,quantisation resolution.
(3) Platform design eg altitude,launch date/time,mission
duration,orbit
Surface interactions of electromagnetic waves
Characteristics of reflected electromagnetic waves Surface parameters
Surface/subsurface scattering
normal refraction
Example Libyan desert - no vegetation,very smooth surface
1 -2 m of sand on bedrock.
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Bragg scattering
θ
θ
Ln
- for large angle of incidence the total scattering is a combination of Bragg scattering and
specular scattering.
- natural surface are represented as a series of facets upon which the small-scale surface
roughness is superimposed.
σo
Facet scattering
Bragg scattering
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Ocean waves
- information is used to develop ,ocean wave forcast models which are important for
weather forecasting and the prediction of changes in the global climate
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Geology
- Bragg scattering is used to intepret the scattering from sparsely vegetated rock terrains.
- the rock type and age can be inferred from the surface roughness.
Eg sedimentary rocks will be more weathered-and hence rough than igneous rocks older
rocks will be more weathered than rocks
sedimentary and igneous rocks can be distinguished to some extent by the brightness of the
scattering they give.
- the penetration of radiation into a medium - and hence the extent to which volume scattering
is important - depends on the skin depth δ of the medium.
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δ = σ is the conductivity ofthe medium; f is the microwave frequency
π . µ. σ . f
- the penetration of the signal into the region,and hence the volume sampled
- the ability of the radar to distinguish different materials within the region
because their scattering cross-section depends upon the frequency.
- the polarisation changes distinguish bewteen returns which arise from single
scattering and multiple-scattering.
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Polar Ice
- different types - and hence ages - polar ice can be distinguished by the scattering they give.
- as with vegetation scattering ,more information about the distribution and development of ice
floes is obtained by comparing the images formed at different microwave frequencies.
- studies of the polar regions are important in investigations of global warming (due to,for
example carbon dioxide emissions) because the effects could be most severe there.
- the growth of sea-ice is a primary mechanism for the removal of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
- knowledge of the position of ice is important for fishing and navigation in the polar regions.
SEA LEVEL
RIDGE
SURFACE
SCATTERING
GLACIER
ICE
LAKE ICE
VOLUME
SCATTERING
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- more information about the distribution and development of ice floes is obtained by
comparing the images formed at different microwave frequencies
102
T =-10°C
10 Pure Ice
ε = 3 - j0.03
1
Multi-year
ice
Pentration
depth First year
(m) ice
10-1
ε = 3.3 - j0.25
10-2
1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
Frequency (GHz)
- studies of the polar regions are important in investigations of global warming (due to,for
example,carbon dioxide emissions) because the effects could be most severe there
- the growth of sea-ice is a primary mechanism for the removal of carbon-dioxide from the
atmosphere .
- knowledge of the position of ice is important for fishing and navigation in the polar regions.
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Soil Moisture
- the moisture content of soil varies the relative permittivity of the soil and hence it’s
microwave scattering backscatter cross-section.
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ε‘
16
14
S O IL M O IS T U R E
a t L -B A N D
D ie le c t ric 12
C o n st a n t
10
2 ε ‘’
10 20 30
S o il M o istu re ( % )
70 ε‘ L iq u id
W ater
60
50
R eal p art, ε‘
40
D ie le c t r ic 30
C o nstant I m a g in a r y P a r t
20 , ε ‘’
10 ε ‘’
0
100 30 10 3 1 0 .3 0 .1
W a v e le n g t h ( c m )
Dependance of complex dielectric constant on (a) Soil moisture at L-Band; and (b) Radar
wavelength. (Ulaby et al,1982)
- knowledge of the water content of soil is important for the development of models for the global
hydrological cycle.
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