Honors Biology Review Guide

2nd Semester
By: Dan Pfeiffer, Conor Mack, Marty Calabrese, George Karkowski, David Teeghman, Keith Mier, and Marie Olsen
Reformatted and Hosted by Andy Schmitz, lardbucket.org

Genetics
Chapters 9, 11, and 12 and notes, and handouts
Genetics –
Genetics ~ the field of biology devoted to understanding how characteristics are
transmitted from parents to offspring.

Genetics was founded with the work of Gregor Johann Mendel, an Austrian monk who
experimented with garden peas. This section describes Mendel’s experiments and the principles of
genetics that resulted from them.

Relationship between a Chromosome, Gene, and a DNA molecule –

One chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule wrapped into a tightly coiled thread by using
many protein molecules; one gene is a short segment of a DNA molecule that contains the
instructions for one specific trait or feature in an organism.

Genetics Vocabulary –
Genotype vs. Phenotype –
Genotype is the type of genes on posses and phenotype is how the organism looks.
Homozygous vs. Heterozygous –
Homozygous is both of the genes are the same and Heterozygous is that the two genes
are different.
Allele –
Alternative expressions of one trait.
Dominant vs. Recessive –
Dominant is more readily expressed and recessive is usually hidden.
Sex-Linked Trait vs. Autosomal Trait –
Sex linked traits are more readily expressed in one sex and Autosomal traits are traits
that you get from your parents.

Common Human Traits –

Common Human Traits Dominant/Recessive Gametes
Tongue Rolling Dominant Rr
Hitchhiker’s Thumb Recessive Hh
Freckles Dominant Ff
Free Earlobes Dominant Ee

Biology Review Guide – p. 1

Punnet Squares –
Punnet Squares are a way to predict possible offspring or traits
Process for Solving Genetics Problems –
1. Read the problem carefully
2. Determine and record the appropriate symbols for the trait(s) involved
3. Determine and record the genotypes for the parents if they are described in the problem
4. Identify all possible gametes from each parent
5. Construct an appropriate Punnet Square
6. Determine the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring

Complete Dominance –
Parents: Ff x Ff Genotypic Ratio- 1:2:1
Gametes: F F Phenotypic Ratio- 3:1
f f Possible Genetic Make-Ups
Punnet Square:
F f What the children could look like
F 75% Freckles : 25% No Freckles
FF Ff

f Ff ff

There is a 25% chance that any additional children will not have freckles.
Incomplete Dominance with Multiple Alleles –
Sherry Jeff
Parents: IAi x IBi Genotypic Ratio- 1:1:1:1
Gametes: IA IB Phenotypic Ratio- 1:1:1:1
i i
Punnet Square:
IA i
B
I
IAIB IBi

i IAi ii

There is a 25% chance that Sherry and Jeff’s children will have either Type A blood, Type B
blood, Type AB blood, or Type O blood.
Sex-Linked Traits –
Alfred Natalie
Parents: XVY x XVXv Genotypic Ratio- 1:1:1:1
Gametes: XV XV Phenotypic Ratio- 2:1:1
XV Y
Y Xv
Punnet Square: XV
XVXV XVY

Xv
XVXv XvY
Alfred and Natalie can expect all of their girls to have color
vision, but there is a 50% chance that any boys they have will
be color blind.

Biology Review Guide – p. 2

Sex Determination –
A person’s sex is determined by the X and Y chromosomes. A pair of XX would be a female, and a
pair of XY would be a male. Because females have only X’s, the dad is the one who determines
whether it is a male or female because he can give either an X or a Y.

Twins –
Fraternal twins are twins that were born at the same time, but will not look at each
other. They do not have to be the same sex either. Identical twins look alike and have to
be the same sex. This happens because the embryo splits in two early in development.

Constructing and Interpreting a Pedigree –

-Female without trait -Female with trait -Marriage

-Male without trait -Male with trait -Offspring

Common Genetic Diseases –

Cystic Fibrosis –
Cystic Fibrosis is caused by a lethal autosomal recessive gene in Caucasians mostly.
Causes mucus in body to be very thick and cause breathing problems. Average life
expectancy is 27 years.

Tay Sachs Disease –

Tay Sachs Disease is caused by a lethal autosomal recessive gene that makes it so the
body doesn’t make an enzyme. Appears often in European Jews and Pennsylvania Dutch.
Causes seizures, blindness, loss of movement, and mental deterioration

Huntington Diseases –
Huntington Disease is caused by a dominant lethal gene. Symptoms begin to appear in
30’s and 40’s and include jerky, uncontrollable movement and slurred speech

PKU –
PKU is caused by a recessive gene in descendants of Norway and Sweden. Must have
diet void of phenalyanline or severe mental retardation will result.

Biology Review Guide – p. 3

 Sickle Cell Anemia –
Sickle Cell Anemia is caused by a recessive gene Hs that causes misshaped red blood
cells that cannot go through capillaries and causes blood clots all over body causes
Sickle Cell Anemia.

Common Chromosomal Disorders –

Down Syndrome –
Extra chromosome 21 causes very slow poor motor skills, problems on face, and possible
heart defects.

Turners Syndrome –
Only 1 X chromosome; no menstrual period sterile immature genitals.

Edwards Syndrome –
Extra chromosome 18; head abnormalities, missing thumbs, webbed hands, heart
defects, and severe mental retardation.

Klinefelter Syndrome –
XYY; tall male with difficulties with language.

Karyotype –
Karyotyping ~ process of testing your chromosomes for defects

Amniocentesis –
A needle is inserted through the mother’s abdomen and the amniotic fluid is taken and
examined for chromosomal abnormalities.
Chorionic Villi Sampling –
The physician obtains a sample of the chorionic villi, a tissue that grows between the
mother’s uterus and the placenta, between the eigth and tenth week of pregnancy. The
villi have the same genetic makeup as the fetus because fetal DNA coded for them both.
Tissue samples from the villi can be used to produce a karyotype.

Biology Review Guide – p. 4

 Viruses, Bacteria, Disease, Immunity, and the Immune System
Chapters 24, 25, and 48 and notes, and handouts
Structure of a Virus –
All viruses have two essential features—a nucleic acid and a protein coat surrounding it. Viral
nucleic acid may be either DNA or RNA, but not both. The shape of the nucleic acid may be
helical, a closed loop, or a long strand, depending on the virus. The protein coat surrounding the
nucleic acid is a called a capsid. Some viruses have a membrane-like structure outside the capsid
called an envelope. The envelope, which is made mostly of lipids, is taken from a host cell
membrane during replication. The envelope allows new viruses to infect host cells during the first
stage of viral replication. Enveloped viruses include influenza, chickenpox, herpes, simplex, and
HIV.

Retrovirus and Reverse Transcriptase –

Some RNA viruses, known as retroviruses contain an enzyme called reverse transcriptase in
addition to RNA. Reverse transcriptase uses RNA as a template to make DNA. The viral DNA is
integrated into the ost genome. The DNA then makes an RNA transcript of itself. This RNA is then
translated into proteins that become part of new viruses. Reverse transcriptase is so named
because it reverses the normal process of transcription, in which DNA serves as a template for
producing RNA.

Lytic Cycle vs. Lysogenic Cycle –

Lytic cycle –
During the lytic cycle, a virus invades a host cell, produces new viruses destroys the host
cell, and releasesnewly formed viruses. Viruses that undergo the lytic cycle are called
virulent because they cause disease.

Biology Review Guide – p. 5

 Lysogenic Cycle –
Some viruses can infect a cell without causing its immediate destruction. Viruses that
stay in their host cell for an extended period of time—days, months, or years—are in a
lysogenic cycle. A virus that replicates through the lysogenic cycle and does not kill the
host cell immediately is called a temperate virus.

Common Viral Diseases –

Disease Transmitted by… Symptoms
Chickenpox air currents Rash, fever, blisters forming scabs
Blotchy rash, high fever, congestion
Measles air currents
in nose and throat
Rubella air currents Rash, swollen glands
Mumps air currents Swollen salivary glands
Headache, muscle aches, sore
Influenza air currents
throat, cough
High fever, pustules on skin; often
Smallpox air currents
fatal
Fever, chills, nausea, swollen liver,
Infectious hepatitis Contaminated food or water
jaundice, pain in joints
Headache, stiff neck, possible
Polio Contaminated food or water
paralysis
Nausea, fever, aches, liver cell
Yellow Fever Mosquitoes
destruction; can be fatal
AIDS Sexual Contact Immune system failure; fatal

Pathogens –
Pathogen ~ an organism that causes disease

Structure of a Bacterial Cell –

Cell Wall –
With a few exceptions, both eubacteria and archaebacteria have a cell wall. Unlike plant
cell walls, eubacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan. Peptidoglycan is composed
of short chains of amino acids, or peptides, and carbohydrates.
Cell Membrane and Cytoplasm –
The bacterial cell membrane, which is composed of a lipid bilayer, is similar to the
eukaryotic cell membrane.
Capsules and Pili –
Many bacterial species produce an outer covering called a capsule. The capsule is made
of polysaccharides that cling to the surface of the cell and protect it against drying or
harsh chemicals.

Biology Review Guide – p. 6

 Endospores –
A bacterial endospore is a dormant structure that is produced by some Gram-positive
bacterial species that are exposed to harsh environmental conditions. Endospores consist
of a thick outer covering that surround the cell’s DNA. Although the original cell may be
destroyed by harsh conditions, its endospores will survive.
Movement Structures –
Many bacteria use flagella to move. Flagella, which are made of protein, turn and propel
the bacterium in an erratic, “run-and-tumble” motion.

Types of Bacteria –
Coccus –

Bacillus –

Spirallum –

Diplo – pairs strepto – chains straphylo – clusters

Common Bacterial Diseases –

Disease Transmitted by… Symptoms
Fatigue, persistent cough, bleeding
Tuberculosis Airborne water droplets
in lungs; can be fatal
Diphtheria Airborne water droplets Fever, sore throat, fatigue
Scarlet Fever Airborne water droplets Rash, fever, sore throat
Swollen glands, bleeding under
Bubonic Plague Fleas
skin; often fatal
Typhus Lice Rash, chills, fever; often fatal
Tetanus Dirty Wounds Severe, prolonged muscle spasms
Severe diarrhea, vomiting; often
Cholera Contaminated Water
fatal
Headaches, fever, diarrhea, rash;
Typhoid Contaminated Water and Food
often fatal
Nerve damage, skin lesions, tissue
Leprosy Personal Contact
degeneration
Lyme Disease Ticks Rash, pain, swelling in joints

Advantages and Disadvantages of Bacteria and Viruses –

Advantages of Bacteria–
• Helps make vaccines
• Used to process cheese, sourdough bread, yogurt, pickles, sauerkraut, and buttermilk
• Clean up oil spills
• Can be used to make pharmaceutical products
• Decomposes organisms
• Help to digest food
• Only 1% cause disease
Disadvantages of Bacteria –
• Some can be fatal (E. coli, anemia. Tuberculosis, STD’s, cholera, scarlet fever)
• Agricultural crop damage
• Contaminate food and water causing to be unhealthy

Biology Review Guide – p. 7

 Advantages of Viruses –
• Used in gene therapy to introduce corrected genes into a victim of a genetic defect
• Used as vaccinations
Disadvantages of Viruses –
• Cancerous genes may also be triggered by lysogenic viruses
• Cause destruction of plant crops
Aspects or Parts of the Immune System –
Bone Marrow –
B cells and T cells originate here. B cells continue to develop in the bone marrow.
Thymus Gland –
The t-cells are processed in this gland as represented by the “t”.
Macrophage –
Removes foreign materials and dead or dying cells in the body; also attracts t-cells to
foreign organisms. A scavenger.
Helper T-Cells –
Identifies foreign cells in the body; stimulates other cells to fight infection.
Killer T-Cells –
Kills cancerous cells in the body; also kills body cells that have been invade by
pathogenic organisms.
Suppressor T-Cells –
Slows down or stops the activity of b-cells and other t-cells once the danger of infection
has passed.
B-Cells –
Produces antibodies. Some remember the identity of foreign proteins(memory cells).
T-Cells –
Part of the cellular immune response; processed in the thymus gland, it produces cells to
kill microorganisms and foreign tissues. Produces memory cells.
Antibody –
A “y” shaped protein molecule that rushes to a site of infection where it neutralizes the
enemy or identifies it for attack by other cells or chemicals.
Antigen –
The non-self entity that stimulates an immune response.
White Blood Cells –
The immune system has the job of fighting off invading pathogens and preventing the
growth and spread of cancers. The immune system consists of several organs and the
white blood cells found in these organs, as well as white blood cells in the blood and
lymph. The organs of the immune system are scattered throughout the body; they include
the bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, and spleen.

Phagocytes – are a type of white blood cell that ingests and destroys pathogens- a
specific type of phagocyte is the macrophage known as the giant scavenger- a collection
of dead pathogens, dead macrophages and various body fluids collect at the site of
infection to form pus.

Lymphocytes – accumulate in the lymph and lymph nodes, but lymphocytes are also
found in the spleen and blood. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B cells and T
cells.

Biology Review Guide – p. 8

Inflammatory Response –
Active immunity – results from exposure to the foreign antigens of a pathogen
1. You get the infection, develop antibodies, and form memory cells for protection
from additional attacks by this specific pathogen
2. You receive a vaccination which is a weakened form of the pathogen is injected into
your body, which triggers the production of necessary antibodies and memory cells
to provide immunity
Passive Immunity - results from passively acquiring the necessary antibodies
1. Natural passive immunity is when antibodies are transferred from mother to child
across the placenta or in mother’s milk
2. Artificial passive immunity is when antibodies formed in another human or animal
are injected into your body

Cellular Immunity vs. Antibody Immunity –

Cellular Immunity –
Pathogen is engulfed by macrophage resulting in self-nonself antigen complex displayed
on macrophage’s surface. This stimulates helper T cells, which stimulate cytotoxic T
cells producing memory T cells and active cytotoxic cells.
Antibody Immunity –
Bacteria invade the body, and the body reacts to their antigen. Macrophages ingest the
pathogen, break them down, and present pieces of them to their cell membrane. Helper
T cells have receptor sites that recognize and bind to the antigens on the macrophage. T
cells become activated and release chemicals that affect B cells. The chemicals cause B
cells to divide, forming plasma cells and memory B-cells. Plasma cells secrete
antibodies. An antibody molecule has four chains organized into a Y shape. Sections at
the top of the Y are variable, allowing the molecule to recognize and bind with specific
antigen. Memory B cells and antibodies attack and mark antigens for macrophage
destruction. Memory B cells persist in the circulatory system ready to eliminate the same
pathogen antigen if it invades the body again.

Antibiotics –
Medicine used to kill bacteria and some fungi. They are very specific in their effectiveness-there
is no general purpose antibiotics that will stop bacteria. The first antibiotic was identified in 1928
by Alexander Fleming. Antibiotic use over the past 70 years had saved millions of lives and cured
many people and animals of bacterial infections. Overuse of antibiotics has fostered the evolution
of antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria. It takes the scientific community several years to
develop a new antibiotic, while new strains of bacteria can form in a matter of days or weeks.

Histamines and Allergic Reactions –

Sensitivity to specific substances (antigens) can cause discomfort to the body. The body will
produces histamines in response to specific substances, which in turn creates a series of symptoms
such as Hay fever. Asthma is a serious type of allergy.

Complement Proteins and their Role in Immunity –

Known as interferons; they are used to treat viral infections and some cancers by preventing the
replication of viruses.

Biology Review Guide – p. 9

Storing Food in the Refrigerator –
Tips for storing food –
• When buying dry or canned goods, make sure any dates on the packages or cans have not
expired. Do not purchase cans that are bulged or swollen. Store unopened dry foods in
their original packages and keep opened a products in airtight containers.
• Keep your refrigerator temperature between 34 and 40 degrees. Keep foods wrapped or
placed in airtight containers, unless otherwise noted, to keep food from drying out and
odors from transferring to other foods. Meats should be kept in the coldest part of the
refrigerator and vegetables in the crisper.
• Keep your freezer set at 0 degrees for storage that is longer than a period of one to two
weeks. Always wrap foods in heavy-duty foil or freezer paper, or place in freezer
containers to guard against freezer burn.
• Label and date all foods that go into the freezer so it is easy to identify the packages and
use within the recommended dates. For larger freezers, make an inventory list that
includes the date each item was placed in the freezer. Then post it on the freezer door for
quick reference.

Bacteria Lab Experiences –

Lab 1 – collecting bacteria in the classroom
Bacteria are found everywhere. In the first lab, each group collected bacteria with a
piece of tape from three different places (Ex. Doorknob, table, and white board). The
experiment proved bacteria to be found everywhere in the classroom.
Lab 2 – effectiveness of household cleaning products
I don’t know the results of your lab but my partner and I tested hydrogen peroxide,
bleach, and rubbing alcohol. Our bacteria did not grow as expected but if it had grown
the one which worked the best would have been the one with the least number of bacteria
on it. Antiseptics and disinfectants are suppose to destroy bacteria and germs.
Lab 3 – effectiveness of antibiotics
Once again my results may be different than ours but we tested Bacteracin, tetracycline,
and Erythromycin. In our lab either bacteracin or erythromycin worked the best. We
could tell because it had no growth. The intended use of antibiotics is to kill and
suppress the growth of bacteria.
Lab 4 – how an epidemic spreads
The purpose was to demonstrate how one person can carry the bacteria and pass it on to
many others. The bacteria in my group spread to everyone. It was possible to tell by the
bacteria growth on the agar. Before the experiment it was important that everyone
sterilize their finger and afterwards sterilize it again as to not become sick.

Biology Review Guide – p. 10

 Ecology
Chapters 19-23 and notes, and handouts
Ecology –
Ecology ~ the study of interactions between organisms and the living and
nonliving components of their environment.

Levels of Organization –

Biosphere – the broadest, most inclusive level of organization. It is the thin volume of
Earth and its atmosphere that supports life. All organisms are found within the biosphere.

Ecosystem – smaller units that the biosphere is composed of. It includes all of the
organisms and the non-living environment found in a particular place.

Community – all the interacting organisms living in an area. Less inclusive than an
ecosystem but is still very complex and may contain thousands of species.

Population – focuses on the members of a single species.

Organism – the level that concentrates on the adaptations that allow organisms to
overcome the challenges of their environment.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors-

Ecologists separate the environmental factors that influence organisms into two classes.
The living components of the environment are called biotic factors while the nonliving
factors are called abiotic factors. The biotic factors include all of the living things that
affect an organism. Abiotic factors are physical and chemical characteristics of the
environment such as temperature, oxygen concentration, and the amount of sunlight.
Abiotic and biotic factors are not independent; organisms change their environment and
are influenced by those changes.

Biology Review Guide – p. 11

Feeding Relationships in a Community-
Producers vs. Consumers –
Producers are autotrophic organisms that capture energy to make organic molecules
while consumers are heterotrophic organisms that obtain energy from organic molecules
made by other organisms. So basically, producers make their own food and consumers
find their food.

Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs –

Autotrophs are organisms that use energy to synthesize organic molecules from
inorganic substances while heterotrophs are organisms that obtains organic food
molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.

Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and saprovores –

Herbivores primarily consume producers such as plants (plant eaters). Carnivores
primarily consume other consumers (meat eaters). Omnivores consume both producers
and consumers. Saprovores are organisms that feed on dead organic material
(decomposers).

Food Chains and Food Webs-

Food Chains-
Food Chain ~ a single pathway of feeding relationships in an ecosystem

Food Webs
Food Web ~ an interrelated food chains in an ecosystem

Because feeding relationships in an ecosystem are usually far too complex to be shown in
a chain, they must be shown in webs.

Biology Review Guide – p. 12

 Trophic Levels –
An organism’s trophic level indicates the organism’s position in the sequence of energy
transfers.

Flow of Energy vs. Flow of matter –

Although predators will eat most of the entire matter of the animal, only about 10 percent
of the total energy consumed in one trophic level is incorporated into the organisms in
the next level. The ability to maintain a constant ody temperature, the ability to move,
and a high reproductive rate are functions that require a great deal of energy. The kings
of organisms that have those characteristics will transfer less energy to the next trophic
level than organisms that do not.

Chemical Cycles –
Water Cycle –
Water is crucial to life. The availability of water is one of the key factors that regulate
the productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. Bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, streams,
and the oceans contain a substantial percentage of the Earth’s water. The atmosphere
also contains water – in the form of water vapor. In addition, some water is found below
ground. Water in the soil or in underground formations of porous rock is known as
ground water. The movement of water between these various reservoirs is known as the
water cycle.

Biology Review Guide – p. 13

 Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen Cycle –
Together, photosynthesis and cellular respiration form the basis of the carbon cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle –
All organisms need nitrogen to make proteins and nucleic acids. The complex pathway
that nitrogen follows within an ecosystem is called the nitrogen cycle.

Species Relationships –
Predation –
Predation ~ predators capture, kill, and consume the prey. It influences where an how
species live by determining the relationships in the food web.

Example: Wolf hunts down, hills, and eats deer. Wolf is the predator and the deer is the
prey.

Biology Review Guide – p. 14

 Parasitism –
Parasitism ~ species interaction that resembles predation in that one individual is harmed
while the other individual benefits; the parasite feeds on the host.

Example: A tick gets on a deer. The tick is the parasite and the deer is the host.
Commensalism –
Commensalism ~ an interaction in which one species benefits and the other is not
affected.

Example: A dung beetle eats the dung from another animal that had walked through.
Beetle benefits because it gets food and the other animal is not affected.
Mutualism –
Mutualism ~ a cooperative relationship in which both species derive some benefit.

Example: Some ants build a home in an acacia. The ants get food from the plant and the
plant is protected from herbivores.
Competition –
Competition ~ results from fundamental niche overlap – the use of the same limited
resource by two or more species.

Example: Both an eagle and a hawk are in search of food. The better hunter will get
more food than the other.
Symbiosis –
Symbiosis ~ the five major types of close interaction

Ecological Succession –
Disturbances such as fires, landslides, hurricanes, and floods trigger a sequence of changes in the
composition of a community. Certain species flourish immediately after the disturbance, then are
replaced by other species, which are replaced by still others. Over time, the composition of the
community changes.

Primary Succession –
Primary succession often proceeds very slowly because the minerals necessary for plant
growth are unavailable. It needs to develop a community in an area that has not
supported life previously, such as bare rock.
Secondary Succession –
Secondary succession occurs where an existing community has been cleared by a
disturbance, such as agriculture, but the soil has been left intact. In secondary
succession, it commonly takes about 100 years for the original ecosystem to return
through a series of well-defined stages.

Disturbance factors to succession –

Succession can be disturbed by various acts. One of the biggest disturbances is
agriculture. When farmers come in and take a plow to the natural ecosystem, is greatly
disturbs the process of succession. Mining and industry also disturb it. Not all
disturbances are human caused though, if there were to be a tornado, fire, or hurricane,
it would also disturb ecological succession.

Biomes –
Biome ~ very large terrestrial ecosystems that contain a number of smaller but related ecosystems
within them.

Biology Review Guide – p. 15

 EXAMPLES OF BIOMES
Tropical Rain Forest Brazil, mid-Africa, *Abundant rainfall Big, heart shaped leaves, Very interesting types of
southeast Asia *Warm-hot temperatures compete with other plants for animals, 8 million different
*Year-round growing sunlight, evolved to grow very types in this biome alone,
season tall arboreal (live in trees)

Epiphytes, fruit trees Sloth, parrots, toucans, snakes

Tropical Deciduous Southeast Asia *20-25 inches of rainfall Tall trees, drop leaves during
Forest per year dry season
Snakes, tigers, monkeys
Epiphytes, fruit trees
Temperate Rain Forest Northwest coast of U.S. *60-200 inches of rain Broad-leaved evergreen trees, Live on or near ground, beetles
per year adapted to cool winters burrow in moss, birds eat
*Seasonal variation insects
*Winters drop to Hemlock, cedar, spruce, fir,
freezing redwood Woodpeckers, beetles, deer
Savanna Mid-Africa *Some rainfall Can deal with prolonged Can deal with prolonged
*Alternating wet and dry periods with little to no rain, periods with little to no rain,
seasons some shed leaves to preserve able to get away from predators
water
Cheetahs, zebras, lions, giraffes
Grasses, clumps of trees
Chaparral Costal California, *Generally hot and dry Evergreen, small leaves, grow Adapted to hot, dry weather, all
Mediterranean region weather in dense thickets have their own specific way of
*Warm, wet winters keeping cool
*Long dry summers Shrubs
Coyotes, rabbits, deer, honey
bee
Global Environmental Issues –
Human Population Growth –
The human population is growing exponentially at an alarming rate. This is a major
issue because the more humans, the more resources are used. A lot of these resources
are running low.
Air Pollution –
Causes of air pollution include emissions from vehicles and factories, forest fires, home
heating, and power plants. The CO2, hydrocarbons, and soot from air pollution can have
a devastating effect on the environment. Possible resolutions include using scrubbers in
power plants, more use of unleaded fuel, or find alternate fuels.
Water Pollution –
Causes of water pollution include agricultural run-off, sewage, industrial run-off, and
soil erosion. If water becomes too polluted, the fish that live in the water will die and
drinking water will become contaminated. In order to solve this problem, we should
decrease the rate of deforestation, find another place to dump our sewage, and possibly
find a way to install filters that will prevent industrial wastes from entering the water.
Global Warming –
Global warming is caused by the usage of fossil fuels and deforestation. Global
warming will cause the polar ice caps to melt faster, shorelines to flood more often, and
increase of temperature, and the extinction of species. To solve the problem of global
warming, we could find alternate fuels for vehicles or decrease the rate of deforestation.
Greenhouse Effect –
The greenhouse effect is cause by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include CO2 and
CFC’s. The greenhouse effect is what is causing global warming because the sun’s light
enters through the Earth’s atmosphere, transferred to heat, but then cannot get back out
because of the “greenhouse” that has formed around Earth. The best way to stop the
greenhouse effect is to reduce the use of fossil fuels.

Biology Review Guide – p. 16

Deforestation –
Humans are cutting down trees in the forest at a very high rate. Deforestation causes
global warming because the trees that once converted CO2 to oxygen, are now gone. It
also causes water pollution because the soil can erode faster without trees to slow it
down. The obvious solution is to stop cutting down trees!
Species Extinction –
Global warming and humans cutting down forests are the main causes for species
extinction. Both cause a loss of habitat and/or nutrients. This is a serious issue because
not only are we getting rid of plants that could possibly be of medicinal value, we are
losing some very interesting creatures of the Earth. To stop this, we need to put an end to
global warming and stop cutting down the forests.

Biology Review Guide – p. 17

 Animal Kingdom
Chapters 34-45 and charts, and information sheets
Animal Kingdom –
Features of all Animals –
• Do not have cell walls
• Heterotrophic
• Some kind of digestive process or system
• Form from a zygote which develops into a multicellular embryo
• Most are motile (can move on their own)
• Respond to their environment

Types of Symmetry –
Asymmetrical – no particular shape
Radial Symmetry – a numerous to infinite amount of lines of symmetry
Bilateral Symmetry – one line of symmetry that will create to mirror halves

Germ Layers of Tissue –

Endoderm and ectoderm are first to layers to develop. The Cnidarians are the first to be
at the tissue level of organization.

Endoderm – forms lining of digestive tract and respiratory system, liver, pancreas, lining
of urinary bladder and urethra
Ectoderm – forms skin and nerve tissue
Mesoderm – forms the skeleton and muscles, reproductive organs, excretory and
circulatory system

Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes –

If indentation of endoderm becomes the mouth, the organism is a protostome. If
indentation becomes the anus, the organism is a deuterostome.

Biology Review Guide – p. 18

Porifera –
Features –
Cellular level, asymmetrical, sessile, among oldest animals. Eat tiny plants and animals.
Reproduce sexual/asexually, regeneration. Framework-spicules. Water goes through
sides and up through top osculum.
Habitat –
Fresh and salt water.
Ecological Importance –
Provide homes and food source for other marine organisms.

Cnidaria –
Features –
Radially symmetrical, gelatinous, case shaped form of polyp. Two cell layers; between
two layers is the gastrodermis. All have cnidocytes, which are stinging cells.
Habitat –
All live in the water.
Advancements –
Tissue level of organization.
Ecological Importance –
Most are predators and heterotrophs. Some provide homes for other animals (corals).

Playhelminthes –
Features –
Perform gas exchange through diffusion. Most are parasitic. They have three germ
layers. All are bilaterally symmetrical. They have no body cavity (acoelomate). They
reproduce sexually and asexually.
Advancements –
First appearance of a kidney.
Ecological Importance –
They serve as scavengers, decomposers, or parasites to the environment.

Nematoda –
Features –
Perform gas exchange through diffusion. Most are parasitic. All are bilaterally
symmetrical. They reproduce sexually and asexually.
Advancements –
Formation of a pseudocoelm (false body cavity).
Ecological Importance –
Assist in controlling populations.
Annelida –
Features –
They have three germ layers, are bilaterally symmetrical, segemented, and rely on
diffusion. Reproduce sexually with internal fertilization. Hermaphrodites.
Advancements –
Organ level of organization. First appearance of a closed circulatory system. First
appearance of a true body cavity.
Ecological Importance –
Decomposers and parasites.

Biology Review Guide – p. 19

Mollusca –
Features –
Second largest diverse group. Mollusks have a mantle. Formation of a complete digestive
system, have an open circulatory system and early stages of a kidney. Reproduce
sexually.
Gastropods –
The name Gastropoda comes from Greek words meaning belly and foot. Gastropods
seem to crawl on their bellies, but actually they use a large, muscular foot. The foot
spreads beneath the body, and its muscles move in a rippling motion that makes the
animal move forward. Most sea snails and some land snails have a lidlike part called an
operculum on the back of the foot. When danger threatens, the snail draws back into its
shell and the operculum closes the shell opening.
Cephalopods –
The word Cephalopoda comes from Greek words meaning head and foot. A cephalopod
seems to be made up of a large head and long arms that look like feet. Octopuses and
squids have dome-shaped "heads" surrounded by arms. Octopuses have eight arms, and
squids have eight arms and two tentacles. The arms grow around hard, strong, beaklike
jaws on the underside of the head. These jaws tear the animal's prey, and are far more
dangerous than the arms. Octopuses use their arms and squids use their tentacles and
arms to capture prey and pull it through their jaws. Octopuses and squids eat fish, other
mollusks, and shellfish.
Bivalvia –
Have a strong, muscular foot. Many kinds of these animals move about by pushing the
foot out and hooking it in the mud or sand. Then they pull themselves up with the foot.
Some bivalves, such as the geoduck and razor clam, use the foot to dig holes. They push
the foot downward into mud or sand. First the foot swells to enlarge the hole, and then it
contracts and pulls the shell into the burrow. The Pholas clam can dig holes even in
hard clay or soft rock.

Arthropoda –
Features –
All have an exoskeleton. Specialized gas exchange structures. Pairs of jointed legs.
Complete digestive track. All have a nervous system and an open circulatory system.
Specialized appendages. Reproduce sexually.
Ecological Importance –
Play a role as a predator, decomposer, or a pollinator.
Insecta –
3 pairs of legs, 3 body regions (head, thorax, abdomen). Have wings.
Arachnida –
4 pairs of legs, 2 body regions (cephalothorax, abdomen). Have poison glands.
Chilopoda –
Highly segmented. 1 pair of legs per segment. First pair modified stingers.
Diplopoda –
Highly segmented. 2 pairs of legs per segment.
Crustacea –
5 pairs of legs, 2 body regions, largest of all arthropods (first to pairs are claws).

Echinodermata –
Features –
Members are radially symmetrical, have tube feet, have a very short digestive track, and
reproduce having separate sexes in separate bodies. They have no head, brain, or
excretory organs.

Biology Review Guide – p. 20

 Advancements –
Members have strong powers of regeneration and a water-vascular system.
Ecological Importance –
Play role as a predator or filter feeder.
Chordata –
Features –
Members have a notochord, gill slits in the neck region, and have a brain. This is the
most advanced phylum. They are at the organ system level of organization.
Ecological Importance –
Members play a role as a predator, prey, scavenger, or herbivore.
Classes of Sub-phylum vertebrata –
Agnatha – commonly known as jawless fish, members do not have a true jaw. Their
skeletons are made of cartilage; they use tail and body motion for movement, and are
predators of fish. Examples include the lamprey eel and the hagfish.

Chonorichthyes – commonly known as cartilage fish, members have a true jaw with a
skeleton made of cartilage. They have several pairs of uncovered gills and a two-
chambered heart. Most are efficient predators. Examples include sharks, rays, and skates.

Osteichtheyes – commonly known as bony fish, members have true scales covering their
body which is supported by a skeleton of true bone. They have paired fins and tails used
for swimming. Examples include the bluegill, guppy, and goldfish.

Amphibia – commonly known as amphibians, members live on both sides of life (water
and land). Some even show metamorphosis. Examples include frogs, newts, and toads.

Reptilia – commonly known as reptiles, members have dry, tough, and scaly skin. They
use lungs for gas exchange with the environment. Most are predators. Examples include
turtles, snakes, alligators, and crocodiles.

Aves – commonly known as birds, members have skin covered with feathers and a
skeleton of true bone. Have a four-chambered heart. Most are predators, herbivores, or
scavengers.

Mammailia – commonly known as the mammals, members have skin covered with fur
or hair. Distinction made by an issue of quantity. They use lungs for gas exchange and
are warm-blooded. Examples include humans, horses, bears, bats, and monkeys.

(This was merely a summary of the Sub-phylum vertebrata. For thorough information,
review your charts.)
Examples of Animal Kingdom –

Butterfly Deer Frog

Phylum Arthropoda Phylum Chordata Phylum Chordata
Class Insecta Sub-phylum Vertebrata Sub-phylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia Class Amphibia

Biology Review Guide – p. 21