KNEWTON KNOTES

GMAT Quantitative
STRATEGIES AND APPROACHES
First steps Timing strategies
Always be doing something! Once you’ve read the problem (20-25 seconds), • Aim to spend 2 minutes per question—less on easier questions, a little more
choose an approach and dive in! Some first steps that open up many questions are: on harder ones.
- Set up an equation - Factor/FOIL • If you’ve spent 3 minutes on a question, re-evaluate: Are you within 30 seconds
of a solution?
- Set up a system and solve - Apply exponent rules
- If you are, continue and solve quickly.
with substitution - Apply angle properties and look - If you aren’t, use the work you’ve done to make an educated guess and move on.
- Test Cases for right triangles • NEVER leave questions unanswered at the end of the exam.

Data Sufficiency Problem Solving

Strategies
• Testing Cases – This strategy is esp-
ecially useful on number properties/
inequalities/absolute value questions.
- When Testing Cases on Data
Sufficiency, use the constraints
to try to find conflicting answers
to the question in the prompt.
- Only test numbers that satisfy
the constraints in the prompt.
• Don’t Solve – Don’t solve equations
or do calculations if you don’t have to!
- A single-variable linear equation
is enough to find the value of the
variable.
- A system of independent linear
equations with as many equations
as variables is enough to find the
value of any variable.
Approaches
• Always know what you need to
determine before turning to the
statements.
• Always consider the statements
separately before combining.
• Remember that “No” can be sufficient:
If you have enough information to
answer “No” to the question in the
prompt, that is sufficient information,
and the answer cannot be E.
• Memorize the answer choices!
- Statement 1 alone
- Statement 2 alone
- Both statements combined
- Each statement alone
- Not even both combined
Strategies
PIN – If you see variables in the answer
choices and “in terms of” in the prompt,
you can use PIN.
• Procedure:
1. Choose number(s).
2. Solve problem with chosen number(s).
Find numerical answer.
3. Test all five answer choices. If multiple
answer choices return same value as
prompt, plug in new number(s) and repeat.
Plugging in the Answer Choices – If the
answer choices are numbers that can be
substituted for a value in the question, and
are steadily increasing or decreasing round
numbers, you can plug them into
the prompt.
• Start with B or D, then try the other—
this method can allow you to solve by
testing only two answer choices instead
of all five.
Testing Cases – On any Number
Properties question, you can Test Cases.
• Test any number that fits the conditions
in the prompt!
• Look for clue phrases:
- “could be true”
- “must be true”
- “could be false”
- “must be false”
Choice-driven questions – If you must
look at the answer choices to solve
(“Which of the following”-type questions),
start with E and work upwards.
Approaches
• Always be sure you know what you
are solving for (don’t solve for x when
the answer is 3x).
• Note that there is no extra information in
Problem Solving questions—you will need
to use every piece of information provided!

ALGEBRA
Inequalities Exponents and roots Roots: If -1 < x < 1, x is farther from 0 Polynomials:
1

• If you multiply or divide an inequality by
a negative number, you must flip the sign.
• NEVER multiply or divide an inequality
by a variable if you don’t know its sign.
Operation words
• “sum” is result of adding numbers
• “difference” is result of subtracting numbers
• “product” is result of multiplying numbers
• “quotient” is result of dividing numbers
Exponent rules: than x 2 is, and closer to 0 than x 2 is. • Factoring: x 2 + Cx + D = (x + a)(x + b)
• (ab) n = (a n)(b n) Even powers have both positive and means ab = D and (a + b) = C
• (a m)(a n) = a (m+ n) negative solutions (x2 = 4 x = ±2), • FOIL: First, Outside, Inside, Last
• (a m) n = a (mn) but √x is defined to be positive (√4 = 2). • (x + y)(x + y) = x2 + 2xy + y2
• (a b) = (a c) b=c • (x – y)(x – y) = x2 – 2xy + y2
ab
xy-plane • Difference of squares:
• ac = a (b –c) Distance formula: d = √(x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2
1
(x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2
Negative exponents: a –n = an Lines
• Slope formula: Systems with too few equations
Roots:
Negative bases: Negative numbers raised • Perpendicular lines have negative • Look for ways to solve for the value of
to odd powers stay negative ((-3)3 = -27), reciprocal slopes. an expression, or of a single variable.
but negative numbers raised to even • Parallel lines have the same slope. • Keep an eye out for dependent equa-
powers are positive ((-3)4 = 81). • Equation of a line: y = mx + b, where tions, especially on word problems.
1 n
Fractional exponents: a = n
m is slope and b is y-intercept.

STATISTICS AND FORMULAS NUMBERS AND ARITHMETIC

COMMON HIGHER DECIMAL/PERCENTAGE/FRACTION
MEAN: Average = “Percent of” translations:
10
POWERS EQUIVALENCIES: • 10% of x: ( 100 )x
• Weighted averages: • n% of x: ( n )x
Common 100
Powers of 2
Squares
= 0.5 = 50% = 0.2 = 20%
- using # of terms in each set: Combinatorics:
12 = 1 21 = 2 • General method: Draw blanks, fill in #
22 = 4 22 = 4 - using % of total in each set:
≈ 0.33 ≈ 33.3% = 0.4 = 40% of possibilities, multiply together.
32 = 9 23 = 8 MEDIAN: The number in the middle of a set, when the terms are put • Always begin with the blank with the
4 = 16
2
2 = 16
4
≈ 0.66 ≈ 66.6% = 0.6 = 60% in order. If there is an even number of terms in the set, the median is most restrictions.
52 = 25 25 = 32
the average of the two middle terms. • Combinations (order doesn’t matter):
6 = 36
2
26 = 64
≈ 0.16 ≈ 16.6% = 0.8 = 80%
72 = 49 27 = 128 MODE: The number that appears most often in a set. - Number of ways to choose k items
n!
82 = 64 28 = 256
≈ 0.33 ≈ 33.3% = 0.125 = 12.5% RANGE: The difference between the largest and smallest numbers in a set. from a set of n: k!(n − k)!
92 = 81 29 = 512
STANDARD DEVIATION: Measures how “spread out” the elements - Number of ways to choose 2 items
102 = 100 210 = 1,024
112 = 121 Powers of 3
= 0.5 = 50% = 0.25 = 25%
in a set are. {51, 50, 51, 51, 52} has a lower standard deviation than from a set of n: n( n2− 1)
122 = 144 31 = 3
≈ 0.66 ≈ 66.6% = 0.375 = 37.5%
{2, 6, 24, 25, 34}. - Number of ways to choose 1 item
132 = 169 32 = 9 from a set of n: n
INTEREST FORMULAS: For initial investment of P dollars at an annual
14 = 196
2
33 = 27
≈ 0.83 ≈ 83.3% = 0.5 = 50% interest rate of r percent. • Permutations (order matters):
152 = 225 34 = 81
• Simple interest: Amount of money in an account making simple - Number of ways to arrange k items
162 = 256 Common n!
= 0.25 = 25% = 0.625 = 62.5% from a set of n: (n − k)!
172 = 289 Cubes interest after t years: P + Prt
182 = 324 13 = 1
• Compound interest: Amount of money in an account where interest • Factorials: n! = n × (n – 1) × (n – 2) × ...
= 0.5 = 50% = 0.75 = 75%
192 = 361 23 = 8 ×3× 2×1
is compounded n times per year, after t years: P (1 + nr ) nt
202 = 400 33 = 27 Common factorials
= 0.75 = 75% = 0.875 = 87.5%
252 = 625 43 = 64 Common formulas - 0! = 1! = 1 - 4! = 24
302 = 900 53 = 125
• Distance = speed × time • Profit = revenue – cost - 2! = 2 - 5! = 120
• Work = work rate × time • Revenue = volume × unit cost - 3! = 6 - 6! = 720
KNEWTON KNOTES

GMAT Quantitative
NUMBER PROPERTIES
Properties of 0: • Multiplication/division: Factors, multiples, divisibility: Prime numbers:
- Pos (÷/×) Neg = Neg (÷/×) Pos = Neg • In a list of n consecutive integers, exactly • A prime number is any number that
• 0 =0× n=0
n (different signs gives a negative result) one will be a multiple of n. only has 2 factors: itself and 1.
•n+0=n–0=n - Pos (÷/×) Pos = Pos (same sign gives • The sum or difference of two multiples of • 1 is not prime.
• n0 = 1 a positive result) a number is also a multiple of that number. • 2 is the only even prime.
• 0 is even. - Neg (÷/×) Neg = Pos (same sign gives • All of the following phrases are equivalent: • Prime numbers to know: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,
• 0 is neither positive nor negative. a positive result) - a is evenly divisible by b 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47.
Properties of 1: Absolute value: - b evenly divides a Integers:
- b divides a with no remainder
• n × 1 = n = n1 = n • Absolute value of a number is always • Integers are whole numbers, including
1 - b is a factor of a negative whole numbers.
• 1n = 1 greater than or equal to zero.
- a is a multiple of b • 0 is an integer.
Odd and even integers: • Equation with absolute value is really
• Divisibility rules: Use Venn diagrams to organize information
• Addition/subtraction: two equations: |x| = n x = n or x = – n.
- 3: digits add to a multiple of in sets problems.
- Odd + Even = Odd • Inequalities with absolute value: 3 (87 is divisible by 3 because
- Even + Even = Even | x| < n −n < x < n 8 + 7 = 15 and 15 = 5 × 3)
A B
- Odd + Odd = Even A B=x+y+z
| x| > n x < − n OR n < x - 4: last 2 digits alone are divisible x y z
• Multiplication: by 4 (24 ÷ 4 = 6, so 124 and 3,524 A B=y
Place value: Know the names of thousands
- Odd × Even = Even are divisible by 4)
through thousandths place.
- Even × Even = Even - 5: last digit is 5 or 0
- Odd × Odd = Odd tenths The ratio of a to b can be written as
- 6: divisible by 2 AND 3
hundredths or a : b.
Positive and negative integers: thousandths - 9: digits add to a multiple of 9
• Addition/subtraction: - 12: divisible by 3 AND 4 60 Direct and inverse proportions:
- Pos + Pos = Pos 1,234.567 • Use factor trees to find all the 12 • If x and y are directly proportional,
thousands 5
- Neg + Neg = Neg prime factors of a number. then x = cy, where c is a constant.
hundreds
- Pos − Neg = Pos tens 2 6 • If x and y are inversely proportional,
ones then xy = c, where c is a constant.
- Neg − Pos = Neg 2 3

GEOMETRY
Geometry shortcuts Quadrilaterals s

• On xy-plane problems, if you have any one of these, Squares: w

you can find any of the other 4: • All sides equal
s s
- Any linear equation containing both x and y • All angles 90°
- Slope-intercept form of a line • Area of a square = s2
- 2 points on a line Rectangles: s

- The intercepts of a line • Opposite sides equal w

• All angles 90° RECTANGLE

- The slope and one point on a line
• Area of a rectangle = ℓw
• On rectangle/right triangle geometry problems, if you
have any 2 of these, you can find any of the other 3: Combined figures are always combinations of familiar shapes. Find their areas
- Length of rectangle (a) and perimeters by combining the areas and perimeters of these familiar shapes.
- Width of rectangle (b) c Circles CIRCLE
- Length of diagonal (c) a
• A tangent and a radius make a 90° angle.
- Area of rectangle • Full angle of a circle is 360°.
- Perimeter of rectangle b sector
• Radius: any line from the center r
Triangles to the edge of the circle
base × height • Diameter = 2r
• Area of a triangle = 60˚
2 • Circumference = 2πr
• Angles in any triangle add to 180°. • Area of a circle = πr 2 INSCRIBED and CENTRAL ANGLES
arc length sector area central angle
Equilateral triangle: All sides equal, • Sector and arc: = =
circumference circle area 360°
all angles equal to 60°. 60˚ 60˚ x˚ x˚
x°
EQUILATERAL ISOSCELES • Inscribed angle has half the measure
Isosceles triangles: Two equal angles,
of central angle with same endpoints. y°
with sides opposite those angles also equal.

Similar triangles: If two triangles have all the Angles y =

x
2
same angles, their side lengths will all be in x y • Angles that make a full rotation around a point add to 360°.
the same ratio to one another, and vice versa. • Supplementary angles add to 180º. FULL ROTATION PARALLEL LINES with TRANSVERSALS
a°+b°+c°+d°+e° = 360°
Triangle Inequality: Any side must be shorter z • Complementary angles add to 90°.
y˚ x˚
than the sum of the other two sides, and longer |x − y| < z < (x + y) c • Parallel lines with transversals: x˚ y˚
a
than the difference of the other two sides. TRIANGLE INEQUALITY - Big angles (y) all equal
y˚ x˚
a° x˚ y˚ CYLINDER
Right triangle: One 90° angle, across from - Small angles (x) all equal e°
b°
the longest side (hypotenuse). b - Big + Small = 180° d°
c°

• Pythagorean theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
RIGHT TRIANGLE
3D shapes h

• Special right triangles: Cylinder: volume of cylinder = π r 2 h

45˚
r
• surface area of cylinder = Bases + Lateral Area = 2π r 2 + 2π rh .
- 45-45-90 (with side lengths x, x, x√2 ) x
60˚
x 2x Rectangular solid: volume of box = ℓwh CUBE BOX
- 30-60-90 (with side lengths x, , 2x) x
• surface area of box = 2ℓw + 2wh + 2ℓh.
- Pythagorean triples: 3-4-5, 6-8-10, 9-12-15, 45˚ 30˚ s h
x Cube: volume of cube = s 3
30-40-50, 5-12-13, 10-24-26, 8-15-17
• surface area of cube = 6s 2
SPECIAL RIGHT TRIANGLES s w
s

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Knewton Knotes
GMAT Sentence Correction
SC APPROACH - MOST/ALL OF SENTENCE UNDERLINED
If most or all of the sentence is underlined, there are probably several errors among the answer
choices. Likely, at least one answer choice contains a modifier or structure error.
1) Read through the entire sentence for meaning. 4) Repeat the process for choices C-E.
2) Use clues to determine which rule(s) may Continue to use differences between options lined portion may connect two clauses, be
have been violated. If you find an error in to spot potential errors.
the original, eliminate A. 5) If more than one choice still remains, plug clues to determine what the error may be.
Note: awkwardness alone is NOT ENOUGH each underlined portion back into the original 2. If you’re having trouble figuring out what is
to eliminate an answer choice. The choice sentence; choose the option that clearly and being tested, use the differences between the
must violate a grammatical rule. unambiguously expresses the intended answer choices to guide you; for example,
3) Read through choice B, and, by using the meaning of the sentence.
clues you have already found and by noting 6) In a 50/50 guessing situation, favor the
the differences between A and B, determine more concise option - the one without
the type of error you’re looking for. If you extra pronouns or prepositional phrases.
spot an error, eliminate B.
sUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
RULE: Clauses must each contain a subject-verb pair. A verb must agree with its subject
in number.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the main subject-verb pair does not agree.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which a subject-verb pair in an adjective clause or other depend-
ent clause does not agree.
RULE: The GMAT injects filler between a subject-verb pair. Ignore this filler.
• The subject of a sentence will never be inside of a prepositional phrase.
-- If the subject is plural, the GMAT often puts a singular noun next to the verb to make
the error more difficult to identify. With singular subjects, the GMAT often puts a plural
noun next to the verb.
prep. phrase adjective clause “trick” plural noun
88 WRONG: The start of the races that will be run by the best athletes are at 6 pm.
99 RIGHT: The start of the races that will be run by the best athletes is at 6 pm.
RULE: The GMAT uses particularly tricky nouns as subjects. Unusual nouns rules:
• Collective nouns refer to a group as a unit, and, on the GMAT, they are almost always ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the adjective clause does not describe the noun or noun
singular. Ex: Team, jury, committee, company, cluster, group
• Indefinite Pronouns fall into three categories:
-- Singular: each, every, anyone, everyone, nobody
- Plural: both, few
-- Depends on the noun to which it refers: all, some, most, majority
• Compound Subjects connected by “and” are almost always plural.
• Noun Clauses beginning with “what” (“what the doctors have found is startling”)
are usually singular.
• Gerunds, nouns that end in –ing (“collecting cards is my favorite hobby”), are singular.
• Inverted Sentences disguise agreement by placing the verb after the subject. When
a verb is preceded only by modifiers (prepositional phrase, participial phrase, etc.),
the subject must come after the verb, and the verb must agree with its subject.
prep. phrase relative clause
88 WRONG: In my closet, which is in the front hall, is all of my toys.
99 RIGHT: In my closet, which is in the front hall, are all of my toys.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, check for S-V agreement:
• Answer choices differ by the use of singular/plural verb.
• Sentences are full of adjective clauses and prepositional phrases.
• “Unusual nouns” are used as subjects.
PRONOUNS
RULE: Every pronoun must have a specific antecedent. The GMAT doesn’t often use
gendered pronouns, so look specifically for it/its/they/them/their.
RULE: Every pronoun must agree in number with its antecedent.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that contain a pronoun but do not contain a noun that agrees in
number for the pronoun to logically replace.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not CLEARLY use a pronoun to refer to one, specific noun.
RULE: When the subject of a dependent clause is a pronoun, this pronoun’s antecedent
should be the subject of the main clause. When a sentence contains two independent
clauses and the subject of the second clause is a pronoun, this pronoun’s antecedent
should be the subject of the first clause.
88 WRONG: Because it was robbed last month, the door to the house is locked.
(“it” is the subject of the dependent clause, so it must be illogically referring to “door.”)
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, look for pronoun-antecedent agreement:
• EVERY TIME you see a pronoun, find its antecedent
• Unusual nouns (especially collective nouns): the GMAT uses the same unusual nouns
to test S-V and P-A agreement
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SC APPROACH - ONLY A FEW WORDS UNDERLINED
If only a few words are underlined, the question is likely testing one very specific rule.
1. Read the entire sentence to determine what if one choice uses “as” but another uses “than,”
role the underlined portion plays. The under- look for a correctly formed comparison.
3. Choose the option that uses the correct word
part of an idiomatic expression, etc. Use or phrase in the context of the sentence.
4. If you’re down to two options and one contains
an extra pronoun or awkward prepositional
phrase, opt for concision and clarity.
MODIFIERS
RULE: An adjective or a phrase or clause that acts as an adjective must describe a noun.
Adjectival modifiers follow strict placement rules.
RULE: An adverb or a phrase or clause that acts as an adverb can describe a verb, adjec-
tive, or another adverb. The placement of adverbial modifiers is often somewhat flexible.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which adjectival modifiers DO NOT describe a specific noun.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the placement of the modifier is incorrect.
Adjective Clauses begin with relative pronouns: “which,” “that,” “who,” “whose,” “whom.”
RULE: An adjective clause must describe the noun or noun idea immediately before it.
When no new subject is introduced, the verb in the clause must agree with the noun
described by the clause. If a “noun + prepositional phrase” makes up a “noun idea,” the
clause can describe either the noun before the prepositional phrase or the object of the
preopositional phrase. The verb in the clause must agree with the logically modified noun.
99 RIGHT: The books on the desk, which was the most expensive item in the furniture
store, are open. (“which” logically refers to the noun “desk.”)
99 RIGHT: The books on the desk, which include a history textbook and a fiction novel,
are open. (“which” logically refers to the noun idea “the books on the desk.”)
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the adjective clause refers to an abstract idea.
88 WRONG: Taylor broke her leg, which kept her from competing in the race.
idea immediately before it.
Participial Phrases begin with present participles (-ing words) or past participles (usually –ed)
words. They must describe a logical noun.
RULE: A participial phrases at the beginning of a sentence must modify the first noun after the comma.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the first noun after the comma is not the noun described
by the phrase.
88 WRONG: Wanting to finish its project by Monday, the team’s meetings were on Saturday
and Sunday. (The team wanted to finish the “project,” not the “meetings.”)
99 RIGHT: Wanting to finish its project by Monday, the team held meetings on Saturday
and Sunday. (The “team” is correctly modified by the participial phrase.)
Note: A pronoun inside of a modifying phrase (seen above) must refer to the noun being modified.
RULE: A participial phrase that is set off by a comma, but is not at the beginning of a sen-
tence, is more flexible with its placement, as long as it is clear what is being modified. If the
participial phrase is not set off by a comma, it must describe the noun before it.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS in which the participial phrase within the sentence does not clearly
describe the specific noun it should logically describe.
88 WRONG: The manager hired the new employee, excited for the future of the company.
(Unclear as to who is excited, the “manager” or the “employee.”)
99 RIGHT: The manager hired the new employee, who was excited for the future of the
company. (Relative clause clarifies that the “employee” is being modified.)
99 RIGHT: The manager hired the new employee, believing that the candidate’s prior work
experiences were valuable. (Logically, the participle must describe the “manager.”)
Summative modifiers begin with “a” or “an” and a noun that re-names or summarizes
the gist of the previous clause. Summative modifiers often fix other modifier errors because
they don’t need to describe a specific noun.
88 WRONG: The researchers hypothesized that the old method is flawed, which is likely
to cause a great deal of controversy.
99 RIGHT: The researchers hypothesized that the old method is flawed, a proposal that
is likely to cause a great deal of controversy.
Prepositional Phrases begin with a preposition (of, to, for, in, with, etc.) and end with a
noun. They can be adjectival or adverbial.
RULE: A prepositional phrase that describes a noun follows the same rules as a participial
phrase (see above).
RULE: When a prepositional phrase describes actions, its placement in the sentence
is flexible, as long it is clear what it describes.
99 RIGHT: Until last week, the professor had never missed a day of work.
99 RIGHT: The professor had never missed a day of work until last week.
99 RIGHT: The professor had, until last week, never missed a day of work.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, look for logical modification:
• The words “which” and “that” are at the beginnings of clauses
• A describing phrase is at the beginning of a sentence
• Sentences that have a lot underlined and jumble the order of phrases and clauses
Knewton Knotes
GMAT Sentence Correction
Parallelism/Comparisons
RULE: Ideas within the same clause must be connected correctly. Connected items
include those in lists, those linked by correlative conjunctions, and those in comparisons.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not form correlative conjunctions correctly. When items are
linked by correlative conjunctions, eliminate options that do not pair the first word in the
construction with the correct FANBOYS conjunction.
MEMORIZE THE CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS:
Either…or Between…and Not only…but also
Neither…nor At once…and Just as…so
Both…and Not…but Whether…or
88 WRONG: In the final round, the judges had to choose between the smartest compet-
itor or the most attractive one.
99 RIGHT: In the final round the judges had to choose between the smartest competitor
and the most attractive one.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not properly separate items in a list using a conjunction.
88 WRONG: The new employee impressed the boss, a man named Jim, made an
impression on the CEO.
99 RIGHT: The new employee impressed the boss, a man named Jim, and made an
impression on the CEO.
RULE: Items connected by “and” must be the same part of speech. The word “and” is a
huge clue that items are in a list. Look to the word or phrase after the “and,” and match
it to an earlier word or phrase that is the same part of speech. If no such word or phrase
exists, then the option does not contain a parallel list. Make sure the list does in fact con-
nect items that play the same role in the sentence.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not link items that are the same part of speech when
a sentence contains a list, a pair of correlative conjunctions, or a comparison.
88 WRONG: The exam testing natural intelligence and that one has work ethic will be
given tomorrow. (The item after “and” is a “that clause” – there must be another
“that clause” earlier)
sentence structure
RULE: An independent clause contains the main subject-verb pair; a sentence is incom-
plete without at least one independent clause.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that are fragments because all clauses are dependent or because
they contain a clause in which a subject’s verb is “stolen” by an adjective clause.
88 WRONG: The company’s business proposal is not ready because the manager, who The Past Perfect tense, or “had + past participle,” can only be used when the verb in
has not yet edited it.
99 RIGHT: The company’s business proposal is not ready because the manager has The Present Perfect tense, or “has/have + past participle,” describes an event that
not yet edited it.
RULE: Clauses must be connected correctly. Two independent clauses must be connected
using a semicolon or using a “comma + coordinating conjunction” (coordinating conjunc-
tions are FANBOYS words: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).
Ways to correctly connect clauses:
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + FANBOYS + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + SEMICOLON + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
DEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + DEPENDENT CLAUSE
(Sometimes there is no comma when the dependent clause comes second)
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use a comma only or a coordinating conjunction only to con-
nect clauses that are independent.
88 WRONG: This winter has been unusually cold and last summer was unusually hot.
99 RIGHT: This winter has been unusually cold, and last summer was unusually hot.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that contain an incomplete clause on one side of a semicolon or a
“comma + FANBOYS” construction.
88 WRONG: New computers have been purchased for the entire office; although most Wordy and Awkward Constructions
employees can use only the old system.
99 RIGHT: New computers have been purchased for the entire office; however, most
employees can use only the old system.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, make sure that clauses are connected correctly:
• “Comma + FANBOYS” or (;)
• Some options contain adjective clauses while others do not
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99 RIGHT: The exam testing natural intelligence and work ethic will be given tomorrow.
88 WRONG: The television program neither impressed viewers nor critics.
(“impressed” and “critics” are not the same part of speech)
99 RIGHT: The television program impressed neither viewers nor critics.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not form comparisons correctly. Commonly used comp-
arison terms are:
MEMORIZE THE COMPARISON FORMATIONS:
as…as
more/less/greater/higher…than
like/unlike (must compare two nouns)
88 WRONG: The new SUV uses gas more quickly as the small sedan does.
99 RIGHT: The new SUV uses gas more quickly than the small sedan does.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that do not form logical comparisons.
RULE: In comparisons, “that” can be used to replace a singular item compared, and
“those”can replace a plural item. A possessive can be used if the item belonging to the
possessive is the other item compared.
88 WRONG: The couches in the living room are smaller than that in the den. (“that” is
singular, but it refers to the plural noun “couches”)
99 RIGHT: The couches in the living room are smaller than those in the den.
88 WRONG: Unlike the head chef, whose dishes are always healthy, the assistant chef’s
are quite unhealthy. (the implied “assistant chef’s dishes” are being compared to the
“head chef”)
99 RIGHT: Unlike the head chef’s dishes, which are always healthy, the assistant chef’s
are quite unhealthy.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, check for parallelism:
• The word “and”
• Any correlative conjunction pair
• Comparison words: “as,” “than,” unlike,” “like”
VERB TENSE
RULE: Events that take place at the same time should be in the same verb tense. When
there is a time shift in a sentence, the verb tenses used should correctly reflect this shift.
RULE: Use the past perfect and present perfect tenses correctly; the GMAT commonly
tests these tenses.
this tense took place in the far past, before another event in the more recent past.
began at a point in the past and may continue. The word “since” is a great clue that
a sentence may need the present perfect.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use different verb tenses to describe two events that take
place during the same time period. The word “when” links events that take place at the
same time, and verbs that are linked in lists or by correlative conjunctions must typically
be in the same tense.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use the past perfect when the event in this tense did not
come before another past tense event.
88 WRONG: By the time the movie had started, we were waiting in line for an hour.
(Logically, we waited before the movie started.)
99 RIGHT: By the time the movie started, we had been waiting in line for an hour.
ELIMINATE OPTIONS that use the present perfect to describe an event that took place
at a specific point in time; events in the present perfect span a non-specific period of time
that began in the past.
88 WRONG: In 1960, the family has moved to Canada. (The action happened at a
specific point in history.)
99 RIGHT: In 1960, the family moved to Canada.
SUMMARY: When you see THESE CLUES, look for tense agreement:
• Prepositional phrases that describe a time: “since 1960,” or “in 1960” for example.
• “Had/Has/Have + past participle”
RULE: When you’re choosing between options that do not contain concrete violations
of grammatical rules, choose options that do not contain the following:
being having been
“preposition + the + -ing of” extra or unnecessary pronouns
88 Awkward: With the finishing of the construction of the building, the architects went
out to celebrate it.
99 Better: Because they finished the construction of the building, the architects went
out to celebrate.
Knewton Knotes

GMAT Reading Comprehension

RC BASICS KNEWTON STRATEGIES
• Spend 2-3 minutes actively reading and • Don’t spend time re-reading a complex
1. RC tests your ability to locate, under- 3. Four passages appear on every test, MAPping the passage, and 4 to 5 minutes idea or sentence; most details in a pas-
stand and paraphrase ideas in a passage. each with 3-4 questions. answering the questions. An entire passage sage will not be tested, and if a confus-
2. Passages: 250-400 words. The passage 4. Bring no prior knowledge to this section; should take 6-8 minutes. ing detail is tested, revisit and decipher
appears on the left; questions, one at all the information that is needed to • Read the entire passage only once, and as needed.
a time, on the right. answer the questions is contained in then re-visit sections of the passage as • Passages often include lists, long
or implied by the passage. the questions dictate. sentences, complex and convoluted
• Read actively: focus on the main idea phrasing, or scientific or academic
and structure, not on complex details. jargon. Take note of where these

Passage Categories/Additional Reading Points of View The Ideas That Matter:

BUSINESS: Wall Street Journal, New York
Times, Economist, Businessweek, US News
and World Report
Science: New Scientist, Science, Popular
Science, Wired
Humanities: New Yorker, Atlantic Monthly,
New Republic
Use MAPS to Understand the Passage
MAIN IDEA: What is being said. Often called
the “primary concern”
ATTITUDE: How it is said. The feeling or
opinion of the author, often called the “tone”
PURPOSE: Why it’s being said. Purpose is
usually expressed as a verb on the GMAT,
• “defend,” “compare,” or “illustrate”
STRUCTURE: How the passage is organized.
Briefly note a description of each paragraph.
• Write down as much or as little as is -- Words of Contrast: However, Although, the author’s opinion about them
needed in order to understand the main Despite, etc.
ideas and structure of the passage.
• Passages with more than one POV: keep Take note of the “conventional wisdom” (“Many say…,” “most agree”). Note comparisons
track of who agrees with which theory. or similarities between two ideas (“Unlike,” “Alternatively,” “Another proposed solution”).
• Keep in mind: the author may have a differ-
PAY ATTENTION TO: DON’T WORRY ABOUT:
ent POV than do the sources in the passage.
Relative numbers or dates Specific numbers or dates
• Passages rarely use the first-person; POV
must be spotted through context. (“before 1920…”) (“On July 14, 1882…”)
Use tone words: Unknown words or terms that are Unknown words or terms that appear
-- Negative Words: unfortunately, prob- repeated or defined in the passage only once
lematic, failure, complicating, short- Conflicting opinions, and why they conflict Determining which opinion is “right”
comings, unrealistic, unresolved, etc. or which provides better reasoning
-- Positive Words: practical, fortunately,
thoughtful, clever, set a new standard, Problems and their proposed solutions Whether a given solution seems
useful, effective, successful, etc. effective or logical
-- Words of Emphasis: Important, Signifi- Divisions between entities (“While all Lists of entities (“Corporations, public
cant, Best, etc. corporations must… only industries utilities, consumer agencies and politi-
-- Words of Continuity or Causation: with strict hierarchies will profit from…”) cal organizations all…”)
Moreover, Because, Therefore, Thus, etc. Policies, theories or processes and Complex details of an economic policy,
theory, or scientific process
Any proper names and what they Committing names or theories
believe (“According to Harris,…”) to memory.

READING COMPREHENSION QUESTION TYPES

READING IN REGULAR LIFE READING ON THE GMAT
Global Purpose Questions • Some ask why the author included
• Refer to the entire passage; info should a certain detail; these questions are Every sentence is important. Many sentences are unimportant.
come from your MAPS. almost always used either to exemplify
one of the author’s points or to provide We stop to look up unknown words. Gather the meaning of words through
• Main Idea Questions: Choose the answer a counterargument. context.
that describes the entire passage. Avoid
choices that refer to one detail of the • Re-read the entire paragraph in which We compare what we’re learning while Bring NO outside information to bear on
passage and neglect bigger issues. the detail is included. reading to what we already know. the passage.

• Primary Purpose Questions: Use the lead • Difficult inference questions combine We take time to stop, reread, and Skim complex details and descriptions,
verb in the answer choices to eliminate several details; you may need to re- unravel complex details. and only return to them if they are asked
incorrect answer choices. read all relevant sections that refer to about.
the topic at hand.
-- e.g.: if purpose is positive, eliminate We know who wrote what we’re reading Determine the author’s purpose, tone
answers that say “dispute” or “recom- Argument/Application Questions and can take that into account while and perspective without knowing who
mend against.” • Ask you to understand an argument reading. he or she is.
Detail Questions and to strengthen, weaken, or apply We trust the author to present points Actively MAP the purpose and structure
it to a specific case. clearly, because it is his or her respon- of the passage to understand the overall
• Ask you to locate, understand and para-
phrase a specific detail from the passage. • Ask you to apply passage ideas to sibility to be understood. ideas.
hypothetical situations not described
• Use your MAPS to locate the relevant in the passage.
section, and then re-read.
• Do not overextend the analogy; the
• Take the time to understand context correct answer will not require a large WRONG ANSWER CHOICES
when answering detail questions; read logical leap. Some types of incorrect answer choices appear many times on the Reading Comprehension section:
the sentence before and after the sen-
tence referred to in the question. • Often require you to determine a rule,
restriction or category described in the
• Avoid answer choices that distort details passage. STANDARD WACs DIFFICULT WACs
from the passage or create paraphrases
-- e.g. If a passage states that “Sung’s Too Broad Goes beyond subject Incorrect Erroneously compares
that exaggerate claims from the passage.
1972 study claims that when invest- in Scope of passage Comparisons two entities
Inference Questions ments surpass personal savings, eco- Too Narrow Addresses overly Distorted Detail Uses passage
• Ask you to determine which answer nomic recessions are likely,” a question in Scope specific subject wording incorrectly
choice is most strongly implied, but might ask for a situation most likely to
engender an economic recession; the Opposite States reversal Could be True Possibly true but
is not explicitly stated, by the passage.
correct answer would provide these of correct fact not inferable
• Do not stray from passage logic; an
exact required conditions. Extreme Overshoots answer/
inference must be true according to Many answer choices pull eye-catching
the passage. Note: On EXCEPT questions, begin with the extreme language
answer choices and find the corresponding details from the wrong section of the pas-
• Avoid extreme answer choices or answer section of the passage, one by one, eliminating Irrelevant Topic Addresses new sage; use your MAPS to eliminate these
choices that could be true according to them as you go. Watch out for distorted details subject erroneously answers immediately.
the passage but are not definitely true. and extreme answer choices.
Knewton Knotes

GMAT Reading Comprehension

Common wisdom in finance for the last three decades states that small commercial banks have little It can be inferred 1 from the passage that proponents of the “alternative view” about small
influence on the status of a national economy. 1 Fiscal policy is usually written to favor large com- commercial banks 2 would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements?
mercial banks, based on the assumption that large banks play a critical role in most aspects of national
economic health, including consumer lending rates, government interest rates, home mortgage rates, The conflicting definitions of “small bank” disguise the limited economic role played by
and the extension of credit. 2 However, evidence has recently emerged suggesting that some small such institutions. 3
commercial banks outperform their larger counterparts, especially during unusual economic periods.
3 Perhaps the best example of this is 4 during recessions, when some small commercial banks, Small, local banks are more likely than are large commercial banks to support legislation
which have limited assets and thus more stringent credit requirements, incur a far smaller debt burden that offers aid to small businesses. 4
than do dangerously over-leveraged large banks. Although no research has proven definitively that Some geographic and financial limitations on small commercial banks become advantageous
small commercial banks are more active providers of loans and credit during recessions than are large during economic recessions. 5
commercial banks, some economists 5 are claiming that small banks step into leading roles when Fiscal policy should be overhauled to favor 6 the economic needs of small commercial banks.
necessary to keep national economies afloat.
Economic recessions would be avoided 7 if only a larger number of commercial bank
Thus, an alternative view has emerged, claiming that small commercial banks are a necessary hedge employees knew their clientele personally 8 .
against depressions. 6 First, 7 small banks tend to be restricted to a single locale; bankers are more
likely to know their clientele personally and to provide emergency small-business assistance without
bureaucratic delays. Small banks also pump money back into local communities at times when their
residents face high levels of unemployment and malaise. Lastly, small banks must always ensure ad-
equate reserves of capital in preparation for a bank run, which inherently limits their ability to acquire
heavy risk.

However, 8 such claims about the role played by small banks are based primarily on economic
theory sometimes lacking solid empirical support. The issue is complicated by the fact that 9 policy
makers utilize conflicting definitions of a “small bank.” The US Federal Reserve, for example, 10 states
that any domestically chartered bank not among the 25 largest nationwide can be considered a “small
bank”- this group includes federal banks that are far larger than the local, personal banks cited by
economists.

MENTAL NOTES PHYSICAL NOTES

(Inner monologue while reading the passage) (Sample scratch work of notes about the passage)

1 The “common wisdom” is almost always going to be contradicted at some point

in the passage.
2 Lists of entities are rarely important on their own; skim them and go back only if asked.
M: Small banks- important for an
3 The word of contrast at the beginning of this sentence indicates a reversal of
economy?
the conventional wisdom.
4 Take note of examples that support certain points in the passage. Some will be A: Even-handed, sees both sides
explicitly highlighted with the word “example” or “exemplify.”
5 This sentence starts with a contrast word, and states the notable point of view P: Present “alternative view”
of “some economists.” This sentence plays the role of the “thesis” of this passage. about small c. banks
6 The word of continuity in this sentence indicates that the second paragraph is
a continuation and extension of the first.
S: P 1- Big banks more important?
7

The words “first” and “lastly” indicate an enumerated list of reasons; thus, the second
paragraph provides evidentiary examples to illustrate and expand upon claim made in Maybe not
the first sentence.
8 The third paragraph has a final reversal, indicated by a word of contrast.
P2-Small banks might be
9 A “complication” is likely to introduce a new fact not yet described. better, esp. in recession
10 This is an implicit comparison, as opposed to many explicit comparisons made in this
passage (small vs. big banks, common wisdom vs. new theory). The Federal Reserve P3-Not enough evidence,
uses one definition, and those that subscribe to the “alternative view” use another.
definition problems

HOW TO READ A QUESTION

(Question stems and wrong answer choices contain valuable clues)

1 The word “inferred” means that the correct answer will not be explicitly stated,
but must be true according to the passage.
2 The proponents of the “alternative view” are discussed in the second paragraph,
as per the MAP.
3 This choice states the opposite of what the proponents of the “alternative view”
believe: that the economic role played by small banks is large, not “limited.”
4 “Legislation that offers aid to small businesses” is an irrelevant topic. It is similar, but
not equivalent to emergency small-business assistance without bureaucratic delays.
5 This choice paraphrases the second paragraph and is correct. Small banks are “local”
(a geographical limitation) and “must keep adequate reserves” (a financial limitation) and
these qualities help in a recession economy .
6 This choice is extreme; the words “overhauled” and “favor” are unsupported by the passage.
7 The word “avoided” is extreme here; although small banks may be a necessary hedge
against depression, the personal connection may not, in itself, help economies avoid
recessions.
8 This use of direct passage wording is intended to trap test-takers. Notice that the
correct answer primarily paraphrases the passage and does not quote directly.

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Knewton Knotes

GMAT Critical Reasoning

CRITICAL REASONING APPROACH

1. Read the question stem to determine 2. Identify the conclusion of the argument 3. Identify any assumptions clearly present 4. Make a categorical pre-phrase to deter-
question type. Doing so tells you what and the evidence presented in the in the argument. mine the qualities of a correct answer.
you’ll be asked to do. argument.

DEFINITION OF TERM

Argument – Two to five sentences that
lay out a set of logical premises and
usually draw a conclusion based on
these premises.
Premises – The claims upon which a
conclusion is based; these consist of
evidence and assumptions.
Assumption – Unstated, but necessary, Conclusions – Opinions, predictions, Entity – A noun used in an argument; a
premises of an argument. Assumptions recommendations, or general principles person, place, group, rate, rise in profit, etc.
often bridge a gap in reasoning between that are drawn based on the premises of
evidence and conclusions. Every GMAT an argument. Conclusions can be found Evidence – Statements that are explicitly
argument contains multiple assumptions. anywhere in an argument. Conclusion key- stated in an argument. Evidence is used
words: thus, therefore, so, due to this, to draw a conclusion in an argument.
Inference – A logical conclusion that Evidence keywords: because, given that,
for this reason, will result in, should, this
must be true based on the premises of since, due to the fact that, in the past
change will/would, apparently, clearly.
an argument but is not explicitly stated year, last month.
in an argument.

CRITICAL REASONING QUESTION TYPES

The three most common CR question types (constituting over 60% of all test questions, on average) require test-takers to identify the evidence,
conclusion, and assumptions provided in an argument.
• WEAKEN (~30% of all CR questions) • DETERMINING RELEVANT INFORMATION (~8%)
Many CR questions ask test-takers to weaken an argument, or to find evidence that -- Some questions ask test-takers to determine which answer choice provides relevant
undermines a prediction or recommendation made in the argument. Weaken questions information with which to evaluate the conclusion of an argument.
are the most common CR question type. Test-takers can weaken an argument by: -- The answer choices in this question type sometimes assume unusual forms;
-- Invalidating an assumption on which the conclusion depends. for example, they may be questions or may begin with the word “whether,”
-- Identifying an additional piece of evidence that makes the conclusion itself less as in “Whether the new strategy will cost more than the previous one did.”
likely to be valid. -- Locate the key feature that connects the evidence and the conclusion of an argument
-- Remembering that the correct answer does not have to invalidate or disprove the to locate the correct answer.
argument to be an effective weakener.
• EXPLAINING OBSERVED EVENTS/PARADOX (~8%)
-- Keeping in mind that there are several ways to weaken a causal argument (an argument
which concludes that a certain cause has a certain effect. (X Y): Some CR questions present an observation and then ask test-takers to identify the
piece of evidence that would best explain it. In a Paradox question, the observed event
• Identify an alternative cause for the observed effect (Z Y)
seems to conflict with the evidence. That is, the evidence leads away from the conclusion.
• Suggest reverse causation; that the effect in fact caused the proposed To resolve a paradox, the answer will be either a connecting piece of evidence or
cause (Y X) a piece of evidence that explains both evidence and conclusion.
• Strengthen the chance that the cause and effect are correlated but not causally
related (X and Y, not X Y) • ROLE OF STATEMENT (~5%)
• Negate the existence of the cause or effect (~X, ~Y) At times, a CR question will include two boldfaced statements and ask test-takers to
identify the role that the statements play in the argument. Identify the conclusion of
• STRENGTHEN (~20%) the argument and any evidence provided to support it, as well as any counterarguments.
Many CR questions ask test-takers to strengthen an argument, or to find evidence In most cases, the statements are either evidence or conclusions.
that supports a prediction or recommendation made in the argument. A strengthener
• FLAW (<5%)
does not have to prove the argument; it simply must make the conclusion more
likely to be valid. A strengthener may provide a detail that is directly relevant to the Flaw questions ask test-takers to identify a logical flaw. Common Flaws include:
situation described in the argument or a general principle that applies to the argument. -- Unrepresentative samples
-- Confusing correlation and causation
• ASSUMPTION (~15%) -- Overlooked possibilities
Some CR questions ask test-takers to identify an assumption upon which an argu- -- Confusing sets and their members
ment depends. Assumptions either: -- Confusing necessity and sufficiency
1. Fill a logical gap in the argument: If you have trouble coming up with assumptions,
try creating a sentence that links the evidence with the conclusion. • METHOD OF REASONING/PARALLEL REASONING (<5%)
2. Negate a potential argument weakener: An answer choice may introduce and On rare occasions, test-takers will be asked to explicitly describe how an argument is
immediately refute a piece of additional evidence that, if true, would weaken the constructed, or to find an analogous situation that uses the same logical construction
argument. Refuting a weakener shows that the original argument continues to as the original.
be valid.
If you get stuck...
The Negation Test can be used to identify or check the answer on Assumption questions
1) Take Your Time
(see next page for Negation Test strategy).
Critical Reasoning prompts contain logical traps and demand close reading. CR ques-
• INFERENCE (~10%) tions often take far longer than SC or RC questions do - two and half minutes or more
-- Some CR questions ask test-takers to infer a statement based on a series of pieces is not too long for a tough CR question.
of evidence in an argument. 2) Draw a Diagram
-- On Inference questions, the correct answer must be true. Wrong answers are either Some students find it helpful to draw diagrams of the argument, using letters or
entirely false or could be, but are not necessarily, true according to the argument. pictures to represent entities and their relationships. Doing so can help untangle
-- There are two ways to form a valid inference: complicated arguments.
• Paraphrase: In a long, complicated inference question, the correct answer
3) Eliminate Wrong Answers for a Reason
will often paraphrase one idea in the prompt.
When stuck between two answer choices, identify the exact reason why either answer
• Logical Bridge: Most inference questions ask test-takers to connect two choice is incorrect. Look for distortions and shifts in terms, irrelevant comparisons,
pieces of evidence in the argument. extreme language, and other common traps.

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 Knewton Knotes

GMAT Critical Reasoning

KNEWTON CR STRATEGIES

Use the Negation Test Paraphrase Create a Categorical Prephrase Notice Multiple Points of View
• Negating a valid assumption will • Critical reasoning questions often use • A categorical prephrase is a general • Some CR arguments express a point
invalidate an argument. Negate overly complex or convoluted language expectation of the logical features a of view other than that of the author.
each answer choice in turn: if just to confuse test-takers. correct answer must contain. Take notice of who is citing each piece
negating an answer choice invali- • Translate complicated arguments into • Some prephrases can be specific (“If the of evidence or drawing the conclusion
dates the argument, that answer simpler language as much as possible, alarm didn’t deter criminals, it would not in an argument.
choice is correct. and make mental abbreviations of long make the neighborhood safer.”) but most • Role of Statement questions often
• The Negation Test can be used on entities. are abstract definitions of the missing express two opposing arguments
Assumption questions, but not on • Many arguments and answer choices piece of the argument (“I need something simultaneously in one CR stem.
Strengthen questions. contain double and triple negatives. that would lead to a safer neighborhood.”)
Translate these into simpler sentences. • Categorical prephrases are useful for
weaken, strengthen and assumption
question types.

WRONG ANSWER CHOICES COMMON CR LOGICAL PATTERNS

• Opposite - Answer choices that have • Distorted Details - Answer choices • Comparisons -- In these cases, never assume that
the opposite effect of the correct that repeat argument wording, but --Many critical reasoning arguments the similar conditions necessarily
answer, including “strengthen” answers introduce errors, including false or and answer choices use complex imply similar results; the correct
on “weaken” questions and vice versa. irrelevant comparisons, chronological comparisons. answer often explains how the sit-
-- if one answer is the opposite of another, errors, or references to the wrong --Make sure that both the entities and uations are less similar than is implied
chances are good that one of them is group or idea the criterion on which the entities in the argument.
correct. • Could be true - Answer choices that are being compared are clear and -- The citation of a similar situation in
could possibly be true according to the consistent. an answer choice is usually incorrect.
• Scope Errors - Answer choices that
are too specific or too broad to address argument but, that cannot be inferred • Causation or Correlation • Absolute vs. Relative Quantities/
the issue at hand, or that slightly shift as definitely true. Groups vs. Members of Groups
-- CR arguments often cite one or two
the focus of the question away from -- Some wrong answer choices are pieces of correlated factual evidence -- Some arguments confuse absolute
what is being asked factually accurate, but if an answer and draw a causal conclusion. and relative quantities, or confuse
choice is not directly supported by percentages with real numbers.
• Extreme Errors - Answer choices that -- Test-takers are often asked to either
the prompt, it is wrong.
overstate claims, often through the use strengthen or weaken this causal --Arguments may state that because
of extreme language (only, never, must, • Irrelevant Topic - Answer choices that conclusion with additional evidence. a number of groups is rising, the
cannot, all) when there are no matching refer to subjects that are tangentially number of total members within those
• Similar Conditions do not imply Similar
claims in the argument. related to the topic of the argument but groups is also rising. This is not nec-
Results
-- Extreme answer choices are almost are irrelevant to the question at hand. essarily true, and the correct answer
-- Many CR arguments draw conclusions may point out the fact that this only
never correct on Assumption Ques- • Irrelevant Comparisons and Distinctions -
about one situation based on the results occurs if the num ber of members per
tions, but extreme terms can be found Answer choices that compare entities in
of another situation. group decreases.
in the correct answer of many “Which a way that does not address the argument
of the following, if true...” questions. correctly. (this includes comparing a quantity
to “the average” when such a comparison
does not have an effect on the argument.)

SAMPLE QUESTION STEMS

• WEAKEN • PARADOX
‘Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens (undermines, calls into question) Which of the following, if true, most helps to explain this surprising finding?
the argument presented above?
• ROLE OF STATEMENT
• STRENGTHEN In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
Which of the following, if true, would provide the most support for (strengthen, provides
the strongest grounds for, etc.) the lawmaker’s prediction? • FLAW
The economist’s argument is flawed because it fails to consider
• INFER CONCLUSION
Which of the following must be true on the basis of the statements presented above? This argument is most vulnerable to the objection that it fails to

Which of the following can properly be inferred regarding tax rates from the statement • METHOD OF ARGUMENT
above? The researcher replies to the CEO’s argument by
• DETERMINING RELEVANT INFO • BLANK STEMS (~5%)
In evaluating the argument, it would be most useful to determine (or “most important Some arguments have no question stem, but end with a blank. These tend to be either
to know”) “explain events/paradox” questions (“However, these facts do not prove that the virus
causes infection, because ______” ) or “infer conclusion” questions (“Thus, it can be
• ASSUMPTION
expected that __________”).
Which of the following is an assumption made in drawing the conclusion above?
• EXCEPT STEMS
• EXPLAINING OBSERVED EVENTS
Any of the following, if true, would strengthen the manager’s conclusion EXCEPT
Which of the following hypotheses best accounts for the finding of the experiment?

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