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(H4SO4)
USES OF SULPHURIC ACID
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1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate and
potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily absorbed by
plant.
2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte.
3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificial silk-like fibers and rayon.
4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of their component
materials.
i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO2.
S(s)+O2(g)SO2(g)
sulphur
i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over vanadium(V)
oxide V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur
trioxide SO3.
2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)
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c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide
Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. Sulphur
dioxide and oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the
catalyst in the converter.
SO3(g)+H2SO4(l)H2S2O7(l)
Oleum
H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)
ii. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly into
water.
SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq)
iii. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the reaction
is very vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a result, a large cloud of sulphuric
acid fumes is produced, which is corrosive and causes severe air pollution.
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The Contact Process
Sulphur Oxygen
In the converter
S(s) + O2(g)SO2(g) 2SO(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Temperature: 450-500°C
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide Unreacted
Oxygen 2%so2 is
flowed back
to converter
together with
SO2(g) + H2SO4(aq)H2S2O7(l)
oxygen
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)
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4. Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produces sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which falls to the
earth as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily oxidized in the air to form sulphur
trioxide. Sulphur trioxide dissolve in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.
(NH3)
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USES OF AMMONIA
b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become alkaline. Thus
aqueous ammonia solution:
i. Turns red litmus paper blue.
ii. Reacts with acid to form only salt and watering neutralization reaction.
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1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber process. In this
process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas in
the volume ratio 1:3.
2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen
gas is obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalyzed reaction of natural
gas, CH4, with steam.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)
3. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under
controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas.
i. Temperature: 450-500°C
ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii. Catalyst used: Iron fillings
4. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia
gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst
again in the reactor chamber.
5. The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a
liquid in the cooling chamber.
Nitrogen Hydrogen
AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS
1. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are necessary
for growth and cell repair.
2. Most plant is not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is
abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from
soil through their roots.
3. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt
which are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.
4. Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.
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3. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by vibration. This
makes metal good conduct of heat.
4. The freely moving outermost electrons within the metal’s structure are able to conduct
electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors.
5. Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged orderly in a regular
layered pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of atom slide easily over one
another. These make pure metals soft, malleable and ductile.
Force
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b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)
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Alloy Composition Properties Uses
High carbon steel 99% iron Strong,hard and high Making of cutting
1% carbon wear resistance tools, hammers and
chisels
Stainless steel 80.6% iron Do not rust and Making of surgical
0.4% carbon tarnish, strong and instrument, knives
18%chromium durable forks and spoons
1% nickel
Brass 70% copper Hard, do not rust, Making of
30% zinc bright appearance ornaments,
electrical wiring
and plug.
Bronze 90% copper Hard, do not corrode For casting bells,
10% tin easily and durable medals, swords
and statues
Pewter 90% tin Ductile and Making of
2.5% copper malleable, white ornaments,
0.5% antimony silvery appearance souvenirs and
mugs
Duralumin 95% aluminium Light, strong and Making part of
4% copper durable aircrafts and racing
1%magnesium cars
Cupronickel 75%copper Attractive, silvery Making of silver
25%nickel appearance, hard and coins
tough
Composition, properties and uses of alloys
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WHAT ARE POLYMER
1. Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar units joined
together repeatedly are called polymer.
2. The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are caller monomer.
3. The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form a long chain
polymer is called polymerisation.
4. Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natural polymer is found
in plant and in animals for example of natural polymers are starch cellulose, protein and
rubber.
5. Two type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are additional
polymerisation.
6. Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition polymerisation.
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(PAN, Orlon, soluble in organic
CHCN)n– CH2=CHCN clothing
Acrilan) solvents
non-stick
Polytetrafluoroeth tetrafluoroethyl
resistant, smooth surfaces
ylene –(CF2-CF2)n– ene
solid electrical
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2
insulation
Poly(methyl methyl
–[CH2- lighting covers,
methacrylate) methacrylate hard, transparent
C(CH3)CO2C signs
(PMMA, Lucite, CH2=C(CH3)C solid
H3]n– skylights
Plexiglas) O2CH3
–(CH2- vinyl acetate
Poly(vinyl acetate) latex paints,
CHOCOCH3) CH2=CHOCOC soft, sticky solid
(PVAc) adhesives
n– H3
–[CH2- isoprene requires
cis-Polyisoprene
CH=C(CH3)- CH2=CH- soft, sticky solid vulcanization
natural rubber
CH2]n– C(CH3)=CH2 for practical use
Polychloroprene –[CH2- chloroprene
tough, rubbery synthetic rubber
(cis + trans) CH=CCl- CH2=CH-
solid oil resistant
(Neoprene) CH2]n– CCl=CH2
Uses of synthetic polymers
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WHAT ARE GLASS
1. Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many products
are made from glass because of its specials properties.
2. Glass is:
a. Transparent, hard but brittle.
b. A heat and electric insulator.
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack.
e. Easy to maintain.
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CERAMICS
1. Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay such as kaolin to
a very high temperature.
2. Ceramics have many special properties that make them one of the most useful materials
in our everyday life. That:
a. Are hard, strong but brittle
b. Have high melting point and remain stable at high temperature
c. Are heat and electric instrument
d. Are resistant to corrosion and wear
e. Are chemically not reactive
f. Do not readily deform under stress
3. Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as
a. Construction materials
i. Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement, sinks, and
toilet bowls.
ii. They are also used to make refractory bricks because high resistant to heat.
b. Decorative items
i. To make pottery, china plates, and porcelain vases since they do not tarnish
easily and are durable.
ii. They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles.
c. Electrical insulator
i. Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such as toasters,
fridges and electrical plug.
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WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS
REINFORCES CONCRETE
SUPERCONDUCTOR
1. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but 20% of the
electric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission.
2. Super conductors are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity at a
particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible.
3. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to levitate a
magnet. Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at
about 552 km/h).
4. Superconductors are used to make chips for smaller and faster supercomputer.
Superconductors also play an important role in high speed data processing in internet
communication.
FIBRE OPTIC
1. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light wave.
2. Fibre optic is used in
a. Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked by fibre optic cables.
b. Domestic cable television network
c. Closed circuit television security system.
3. Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number of instruments which
enable the investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery.
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FIBRE GLASS
1. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a refractory
rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre.
2. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire and water but
is brittle.
3. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new composite material fibre glass reinforces
plastic is formed.
4. Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is
a. Extremely strong
b. Light weigh
c. Resistant to fire and water
d. Can be molded, shaped and twisted
PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS
1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and a small
amount of copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, photochromic glass
is formed.
2. The photochromic glass has special properties. It darkens when exposed to strong
sunlight or ultraviolet.
3. Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.
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