Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Syed Kamran
Table
of
Contents
Introducing
Ecosystems
...............................................................................................
6
Life
on
Planet
Earth
......................................................................................................
6
Bioaccumulation
..........................................................................................................
7
Cycles
of
Matter
in
Ecosystems
....................................................................................
7
Energy
in
Ecosystems
...................................................................................................
8
Food
Webs
...................................................................................................................
8
Ecological
Pyramids
......................................................................................................
9
Biomass
and
Fossil
Fuels
..............................................................................................
9
Biotic
and
Abiotic
Influences
on
Ecosystems
..............................................................
10
Symbiosis
...................................................................................................................
11
Ecological
Succession
.................................................................................................
11
Importance
of
Bio-Diversity
.......................................................................................
12
Matter
.......................................................................................................................
13
Physical
Changes
of
Matter
........................................................................................
13
Types
of
Properties
....................................................................................................
14
Chemical
and
Physical
Properties
....................................................................................................................
14
Qualitative
and
Quantitative
Properties
.......................................................................................................
14
Conversion
of
Mass
....................................................................................................
14
Energy
........................................................................................................................
15
WHMIS
......................................................................................................................
15
MSDS
.........................................................................................................................
15
HHPS
..........................................................................................................................
15
The
GUESSS
Method
..................................................................................................
16
Mass
and
Volume
......................................................................................................
16
Density
......................................................................................................................
16
Buoyancy
...................................................................................................................
17
Particle
Theory
of
Matter
...........................................................................................
17
Classification
of
Matter
..............................................................................................
17
Atomic
Theory
...........................................................................................................
18
Daltons
Atomic
Theory
The
Ball
Model:
1800s
....................................................................................
18
Thomsons
Discovery
of
Electrons
(Cathode
&
Anode
Experiment)
................................................
18
Thomsons
Model
....................................................................................................................................................
18
Ernest
Rutherfords
Gold
Foil
Experiment
1911
...................................................................................
18
Bohr
Planetary
Model
1912
............................................................................................................................
19
Syed Kamran Isotopes ..................................................................................................................... 19 Naming Isotopes ...................................................................................................................................................... 19 Atomic Mass .............................................................................................................................................................. 19 Atomic Structure ........................................................................................................ 20 Atomic Number ........................................................................................................................................................ 20 Mass Number ............................................................................................................................................................ 20 Atomic Notation ....................................................................................................................................................... 20 Periodic Table of Elements ......................................................................................... 21 Mendeleev Concept of Periodic Table ........................................................................................................ 21 The Current Periodic Table ................................................................................................................................. 21 Elements ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21 Valence Electrons .................................................................................................................................................... 21 Main Categories of the Periodic Table ........................................................................................................... 21 Groups and Periods ................................................................................................................................................ 22 Classes .......................................................................................................................................................................... 22 Ions ............................................................................................................................ 23 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 23 Cations ......................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Anions .......................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Why does this occur? ........................................................................................................................................ 23 Naming Ions ............................................................................................................................................................... 23 Chemical Symbols ...................................................................................................... 24 Counting Atoms in Compounds ........................................................................................................................ 24 Combining Capacity ............................................................................................................................................... 24 Building a Molecule ................................................................................................................................................ 24 Naming Compounds ............................................................................................................................................... 25 Double and Triple Bonds ............................................................................................ 25 Drawing Diagrams ...................................................................................................... 25 Bohr-Rutherford Diagram ................................................................................................................................... 25 Bohr-Rutherford Ion Diagram ........................................................................................................................... 25 The Cell ...................................................................................................................... 26 Electric Current ........................................................................................................................................................ 26 Circuit ........................................................................................................................ 26 Components ............................................................................................................................................................... 26 Types of Circuit ........................................................................................................................................................ 27 Current ...................................................................................................................... 27 Voltage (Potential Difference) .................................................................................... 27 Power ........................................................................................................................ 27 Electrical Resistance ................................................................................................... 28 Loads ............................................................................................................................................................................. 28 Conductors ................................................................................................................................................................. 28 Wires ............................................................................................................................................................................. 28 Superconductors ..................................................................................................................................................... 28 Safety ........................................................................................................................ 29
Syed
Kamran
Circuit
Breakers
.......................................................................................................................................................
29
Fuses
.............................................................................................................................................................................
29
Wall
Outlets
...............................................................................................................................................................
29
GFCI
...............................................................................................................................................................................
29
Surge
Protector
........................................................................................................................................................
29
Human Conductivity and Resistance .......................................................................... 29 Resistance of human body .................................................................................................................................. 29 Direct and Alternating current ................................................................................... 30 Alternating Current ................................................................................................................................................ 30 Direct Current ........................................................................................................................................................... 30 Electricity flowing to your house ................................................................................ 30 Electrical Production .................................................................................................. 30 Non-renewable Resources .................................................................................................................................. 30 Fossil Fuels .................................................................................................................................................................. 30 Nuclear ......................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Renewable Resources ........................................................................................................................................... 31 Solar .............................................................................................................................................................................. 31 Wind .............................................................................................................................................................................. 31 Hydro-electric Electricity ..................................................................................................................................... 31 Tidal Energy ............................................................................................................................................................... 32 Electricity Production in Canada ...................................................................................................................... 32 The Future .................................................................................................................................................................. 32 Nuclear Fusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 32 Geo-Thermal .............................................................................................................................................................. 32 Static Electricity ......................................................................................................... 32 Insulators .................................................................................................................................................................... 32 Conductors ................................................................................................................................................................. 32 Laws of Electric Charges ............................................................................................. 33 Electrostatic Series ..................................................................................................... 33 Charging ..................................................................................................................... 33 Friction ........................................................................................................................................................................ 33 Contact ......................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Induction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Semiconductors ......................................................................................................... 34 Grounding .................................................................................................................. 34 Lighting ...................................................................................................................... 34 Circuit Diagrams ......................................................................................................... 34 The Universe .............................................................................................................. 35 Distance in Space ....................................................................................................... 35 Astronomical Unit (AU) ........................................................................................................................................ 35 Light Year .................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Galaxies ..................................................................................................................... 35
Syed
Kamran
Spiral
.............................................................................................................................................................................
35
Elliptical
.......................................................................................................................................................................
35
Irregular
Galaxies
....................................................................................................................................................
36
Constellations ............................................................................................................ 36 Our Solar System ....................................................................................................... 36 Sun ................................................................................................................................................................................. 36 Mercury ....................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Venus ............................................................................................................................................................................ 36 Earth ............................................................................................................................................................................. 36 Mars .............................................................................................................................................................................. 36 Jupiter ........................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Saturn ........................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Uranus .......................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Neptune ....................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Poor old Pluto ........................................................................................................................................................... 37 Best of wishes on the Exam :D!! ................................................................................. 37
Syed Kamran
Ecology
Notes
Introducing
Ecosystems
Ecosystem:
All
the
living
and
non-living
organisms
of
a
certain
region
or
area
interacting.
Example
of
ecosystems
include:
Forests,
Swamps,
and
Coral
Reefs.
Living
Components
of
an
ecosystem
are
called
Biotic
and
non-living
are
abiotic.
Population:
All
the
individuals
of
a
single
species
in
a
certain
region
or
area
make
a
population.
Community:
Individuals
from
all
populations
of
a
certain
region
or
are
form
the
community.
This
does
not
include
abiotic
factors.
Characteristics
of
an
Ecosystem:
Organisms:
Organisms
vary
from
ecosystem
to
ecosystem.
Temperature
Range:
The
weather
patterns
of
each
ecosystem,
depicts
what
organisms
live
there.
Precipitation:
The
amount
of
rain
and
snow
fall
controls
the
climate
of
an
ecosystem.
Sustainability:
Sustainability
is
the
ability
to
maintain
ecological
balance;
today
most
ecosystems
are
sustainable.
This
means
that
their
characteristics
will
remain
the
same
over
a
long
period
of
time.
Human
actions
can
disturb
the
biotic
and
abiotic
factors
of
an
ecosystem,
thus
reducing
its
sustainability.
Some
actions
can
damage
an
ecosystem
to
a
point
where
it
is
no
longer
sustainable.
E.g.
Oil
Spills.
Man-Made
Ecosystems:
Most
ecosystems
are
not
mad
made,
however
ecosystems
such
as
parks
are
mad
made.
These
ecosystems
require
constant
management
and
are
usually
not
sustainable.
i.e.
If
you
left
a
farm
for
three
years
would
it
look
the
same
when
you
came
back.
The
Spheres
of
Earth:
The
earth
has
three
spheres
surrounding
it.
Unlike
the
moon,
the
Earths
gravity
is
strong
enough
to
hold
gases
close
to
the
surface.
Atmosphere:
Layer
of
gases
extending
upward
for
hundreds
of
kilometres,
and
consists
of
78%
nitrogen
(N2),
21%
oxygen
(O2)
and
the
remaining
1%
is
argon,
water
vapour,
CO2,
etc.
This
is
crucial
to
life
on
Earth,
and
acts
like
a
blanket
providing
moderate
temperatures.
Lithosphere:
The
rocky
outer
shell
of
Earth
containing
rocks
and
minerals.
It
is
50-
150
km
in
thickness.
Hydrosphere:
All
the
water
on
the
Earth
(above
and
below
the
surface).
This
includes
all
oceans,
lakes,
ice,
clouds,
etc.
The Biosphere: All the life forms that exist within all the three spheres of Earth (Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere)
Syed Kamran
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation: A process in which materials, especially toxins, are ingested by an organism at a rate greater than they are eliminated. Biomagnifications: The process, in an ecosystem, in which a higher concentration of a substance in an organism is obtained higher up the food chain.
Carbon is cycled through the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Carbon is an important element, it is the basic building block of living things. Carbon is recycled by photosynthesis and respiration. 3. The Nitrogen Cycle: The series of processes in which nitrogen compounds are moved through and abiotic environment. Nitrogen is taken from the atmosphere by soil bacteria by nitrogen fixation a process that converts nitrogen gas into nitrogen containing compounds. Nitrogen is than available to producers, which animals eat. Decomposers feed on dead animals, while Denitrifying bacteria release the nitrogen back into the atmosphere. 4. The Phosphorus Cycle: Phosphorus starts in rocks, which break down into soil. Plants use the phosphorus in the soil; the plants are eaten by animals, which are decomposed by bacteria, which release the phosphorus back into the soil.
Syed Kamran
Energy
in
Ecosystems
Types
of
Energy:
Radiant
Energy:
Energy
that
travels
through
empty
space.
o 70%
of
radiant
energy
from
the
Sun
is
absorbed
by
the
hydrosphere
and
lithosphere,
and
converted
into
Heat.
51%
Absorbed
by
land
and
oceans
19%
Absorbed
by
Atmosphere
and
Clouds
o 30%
of
the
radiant
energy
is
reflected
back
into
space.
Light
Energy:
Visible
forms
of
radiant
energy
Thermal
Energy:
The
form
of
energy
transferred
during
heating
and
cooling
(warms
the
atmosphere,
evaporates
water,
produces
winds)
Photosynthesis:
The
process
in
which
the
Suns
energy
is
converted
into
chemical
energy
(Glucose/Sugar).
This
occurs
only
in
producers,
an
organism
that
makes
its
own
energy
rich
food
compounds
using
the
Suns
energy.
Plants
use
chlorophyll
to
capture
light
energy.
The
formula
of
photosynthesis
is
!"#$%& !"#$"!% + !"#$%
!"#!! !"!#$%
!"#$% + !"#$%&. In oceans algae and cyan bacteria use chlorophyll to capture light energy for photosynthesis. Cellular Respiration: The process by which sugar is converted into carbon dioxide, water and energy. Organism use released energy for any of the activities carried out by its cell. The formula of cellular respiration is !"#$% + !"#$%& !"#$%& !"#$"!% + !"#$% + !"!#$%.
Food
Webs
Ecological
Niches:
An
ecological
niche
is
simply
the
function
of
a
species
serves
in
its
ecosystem;
thus
no
two
species
have
the
same
ecological
niche.
Producers
vs.
Consumers
Producers:
These
are
always
plants
that
harness
the
suns
energy
with
chlorophyll.
Consumers:
Living
things
that
eat
producers
in
addition
to
other
consumers.
o Herbivore:
Animals
that
eat
only
plants
(producers)
o Carnivore:
Animals
that
eat
only
meat
(other
consumers)
o Omnivore:
Animals
that
eat
both
plants
and
meat
(producers
and
consumers)
o Scavenger:
Animals
that
feed
on
the
remains
of
another
organisms.
Food Chain: A sequence of organisms, each feeding on the next, displaying how energy is following from one organism to the next. E.g. Pine cone Red Squirrel Weasel Goshawk. Arrow head is pointing toward the consumer. These chains are not exhaustive and simply show feeding relationships. If one link of a food chain is broken it would result in numerous problems within the chain.
Syed
Kamran
Trophic
Level:
The
level
of
an
organism
in
an
ecosystem
depending
on
its
feeding
postion.
First
Trophic
Level:
Producers
e.g.
Plants
Second
Trophic
Level:
Will
eat
producers
only
e.g.
Small
Animals
(primary
consumers)
Third
Trophic
Level:
Can
eat
primary
consumers
and
producers
e.g.
Mid-sized
animals
(secondary
consumers)
Fourth
Trophic
Level:
Can
eat
primary,
secondary
consumers,
and
producers
e.g.
Large
animals
(tertiary
consumers)
Food Webs: A visual representation that much accurately displays who eat who within a community. It is usually highly complex as organisms feed upon several species. Similar to food chains the arrow points from the organism being eaten to the organisms that is eating it. Food webs are used to figure out what may happen when a species is removed or added to an ecosystem.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological
Pyramids:
Pyramids
that
display
the
relationship
between
trophic
levels
in
ecosystems.
Energy:
Displays
energy
loss
between
trophic
levels;
only
about
10%
of
the
energy
is
passed
on
to
organisms
at
the
next
trophic
level.
Only
10%
of
the
energy
is
passed
on
because
organisms
use
90%
of
the
energy
for
cellular
respiration.
The
energy
is
released
as
heat
and
absorbed
by
the
ecosystem.
Numbers:
The
number
of
organisms
that
make
up
each
tropic
level.
This
pyramid
are
sometime
bigger
at
the
top.
Biomass:
Represents
the
mass
(weight)
of
all
the
living
organisms
within
that
trophic
level.
Syed
Kamran
Global
Warming:
The
Greenhouse
Effect
is
predicted
to
be
causing
Global
Warming;
this
effect
states
rising
of
CO2
in
the
atmosphere
is
responsible
for
the
increase
in
temperature.
However,
this
has
not
been
proven
thus
far.
Fuel
from
Waste:
Some
bacteria
are
known
to
break
down
waste
into
sugar,
through
a
process
called
fermentation.
This
released
a
gas
called
methane
(CH4).
This
gas
is
then
collected
and
burn
to
generated
electricity.
Acid
Precipitation:
Acids
fall
to
the
earth
as
a
form
of
precipitation
(rain,
sleet
or
snow).
When
fossil
fuels
are
burned
they
release
undesirable
substances
Nitrogen
Oxides
and
Sulfer
Dioxide,
are
released
and
combine
with
water
to
form
compound
acids,
such
as
Nitric
Acid
&
Sulphuric
Acid)
Acid
Precipitation
damages
many
things:
o Forest
soils
lose
nutrients
killing
life.
o When
mixed
with
water
in
lakes
and
oceans,
it
damages
the
ecosystems
and
kills
aquatic
life.
o In
addition,
acid
also
damages
stone
work.
Efforts
to
reduce
Acid
Precipitation
o Reduce
burning
of
fossil
fuels
o Improve
technologies
to
prevent
Nitrogen
Oxides
and
Sulfer
Dioxide
from
escaping
power
plants.
o Rising
the
standard
for
factories
and
motor
vehicle
emissions.
pH
7:
Neutral
e.g.
Pure
Water
and
Blood
pH
below
7:
Acidic
e.g.
Vinegar
(pH:3)
pH
above
7:
Basic
e.g.
Ammonia
(pH:12)
Tolerance: Ability of an organism to withstand many conditions (abiotic and biotic). If the organism is the optimal zone, it will perform the best and thrive. Carrying capacity: The number organisms of a single species that an area the support forever.
Syed Kamran
Symbiosis
1. Mutualism:
Both
species
benefit
from
each
other.
2. Commensalism:
Both
species
benefit
(Taken
out
of
the
curriculum):P
3. Parasitism:
One
species
benefits
at
the
expense
of
another
species.
This
harms
the
host,
however
does
not
kill
them.
Predator
Prey
Relationship:
The
predator-prey
relationship
act
to
regulate
the
population
of
each
species.
e.g.
If
there
are
more
predators
the
prey
population
will
decrease,
thus
also
bringing
down
the
predator
population
because
there
is
less
to
eat.
Predator:
Eats
plants
and
animals.
This
are
consumers
that
eat
other
organisms
Prey:
The
organism
that
is
eaten
by
the
predator
Population Equation: !"# !"#$%&'(") = !"# !"!#$%&'"( + !"#"$%#& + !""#$%&'#() !"#$%&'$( !"#$%&'#() Exponential Growth: Rapid, uncharacteristic growth which occurs for a short period of time. Usually happens when a species is introduced into a new ecosystem that has lots of resources or when predators are removed.
Ecological
Succession
Ecological
Succession:
Gradual
changes,
in
the
types
of
species
that
live
in
an
area.
The
replacement
of
one
plant
community
by
another
through
natural
processes
over
time.
This
process
takes
over
100
years.
Primary
Succession:
Begins
in
a
place
without
soil,
due
to
flooding.
The
species
that
are
first
to
arrive
are
those
who
do
not
need
soil
to
survive.
These
are
called
Pioneer
Species.
These
species
help
break
down
rocks
into
smaller
pieces
to
produce
soil;
when
they
decompose
they
also
add
organic
matter
to
the
rock
to
make
soil.
As
the
small
species
die
off
more
plants
slowly
begin
to
grow.
Primary
Succession
would
look
similar
to
the
following:
Dune
grasses
Cottonwoods
Shrubs
Oaks
Beeches
Maples.
As
more
plants
begin
to
grow
animals
also
begin
to
arrive
.
Secondary
Succession:
Starts
in
an
area
where
soil
is
already
present,
this
usually
occurs
after
a
forest
fire.
Unlike
Primary
Succession,
soil
is
already
present
so
there
is
no
need
of
Pioneer
Species.
Pond
Succession:
Organic
substances
will
build
up
at
the
bottoms
of
ponds
and
lakes
and
convert
the
pond
into
marsh
and
later
into
dry
land.
An
example
of
Pond
Succession
is:
Pond
Marsh
Dry
Land/Grasses
Shrubs
Forest.
Importance
of
Bio-Diversity
Biodiversity:
The
amount
of
life
in
a
particular
ecosystem,
this
is
measured
by
counting
all
the
species
and
is
referred
to
as
Species
Richness.
i.e.
Tropical
rainforest
have
the
highest
biodiversity
of
any
ecosystem.
Why
humans
value
biodiversity:
Different
trees
clean
the
air
we
breathe
Animals
provide,
we
require
different
tasting
animals
J
Stabilizes
and
moderates
the
climate
Benefits
our
industries
such
as
forestry,
farming,
and
fishing
At
Risk
Species:
Vulnerable:
Any
species
that
is
at
risk
because
of
declining
numbers
in
population
Threatened:
Any
species
that
is
likely
to
become
endangered
if
factor
that
make
it
vulnerable
are
not
reversed.
Extirpated:
The
species
no
longer
exists
in
one
of
its
previous
habitats
Endangered:
The
species
is
very
close
to
extinction
in
a
large
area.
Extinct:
The
species
cannot
be
located
anywhere
in
the
world.
Keystone
Species:
Species
that
are
crucial
for
the
health
or
survival
of
other
species
e.g.
Bats.
These
species
are
hard
to
identify
until
an
ecosystem
fails
due
to
their
absence.
Natural
Causes
of
Extinction:
Extinction
of
species
that
have
not
been
blamed
on
humans.
Competition
with
other
organisms
Environmental
disasters
Climate
change
Low
Reproduction
Human
Cause
of
Extinction:
Extinction
of
species
which
is
blamed
upon
humans.
As
human
population
increases,
the
amount
of
species
remaining
declines.
Invasion
of
habitat
Over
Hunting
Pollution
Syed Kamran
Chemistry
Notes
Matter
Matter
is
everything;
it
is
around
us,
above
us
and
below
us.
We
ourselves
are
made
up
of
matter.
It
is
defined
as
any
substance
that
has
both
mass
and
volume.
Matter
is
classified
into
three
states,
which
are
as
following:
Solids:
The
molecules
are
close
together
and
can
only
move
a
little
bit.
They
have
a
definite
shape
and
volume,
in
addition
are
not
compressible.
Liquids:
The
molecules
are
close
together,
but
are
free
to
move.
Liquids
have
the
ability
to
change
shape,
but
have
a
definite
volume.
You
can
compress
liquids
a
little
bit.
Gases:
The
molecules
are
far
apart
from
each
other,
and
are
free
to
move
as
they
wish.
Gas
has
no
particular
shape,
and
can
and
no
definite
volume.
Gases
are
also
compressible.
Note:
Light,
heat,
and
types
of
energy
are
not
forms
of
matter.
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Types
of
Properties
Properties of substances are not exclusive to one list, and they overlap. i.e. A chemical property can also be a qualitative property.
Chemical
Properties:
A
characteristic
is
deemed
a
chemical
property
if
it
reacts
with
another
substance
to
create
a
new
substance.
Physical
Properties:
A
characteristic
is
deemed
a
physical
property
if
it
does
not
produce
a
new
substance.
Some
examples
of
physical
properties
that
you
should
know
for
the
test
are
as
follows:
Hardness:
Measure
of
resistance
of
a
solid
being
scratched
Ductility:
Ability
to
pulled
into
wires
Malleability:
Ability
to
be
hammered
into
thin
sheets
Crystal
Form:
Solid
form
of
minerals
where
you
see
a
definite
structure
of
cube
or
blocks
with
a
regular
pattern
or
natural
shape
Viscosity:
How
easily
a
liquid
moves
Colour:
The
hue
of
light
related
of
a
substance
Solubitlity:
Ability
to
dissolve
in
another
substance,
such
as
water
Density:
Amount
of
matter
per
unit
area.
Conversion of Mass
A principal in science is that, matter cannot be made or destroyed during a chemical change. Consider the following example: Butane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water 58 g 208 g 176 g 90 g
266 g
266 g
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Energy
WHMIS
WHMIS
stands
for
Workplace
Hazardous
Material
Information
System.
It
is
used
to
identify,
classify
products,
and
train
and
educate
workers.
There
are
eight
classes
of
Hazard
Symbols.
Which
are
as
follows:
Class
A:
Compressed
Gas
Class
B:
Flammable
and
Combustible
Material
Class
C:
Oxidizing
Material
Class
D1:
Materials
Causing
Immediate
and
Serious
Toxic
Effects
Class
D2:
Materials
Causing
other
Toxic
Effects
Class
D3:
Biohazardous
Infectious
Material
Class
E:
Corrosive
Material
Class
F:
Dangerously
Reactive
Material
MSDS
MSDS stands for Material Safety Data Sheet, and are available for all used chemicals and contain important information.
HHPS
Hazardous
Household
Product
Symbols
are
found
on
all
potentially
dangerous
household
products.
It
indicates
both
the
type
of
danger
and
the
degree
of
risk.
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This is kind of important and might be on the test, but anyways: G: Given U: Unknown E: Equation S: Substitute S: Solve S: Statement
Mass: Mass is a physical property that displays the amount of matter and object contains. It is measured in grams and kilograms. Volume: A physical property that represents how much space an object occupies. It is measured in milliliters, liters, centimeters cubed.
Density
Density is a quantitative property of matter, which describes how much mass per unit volume a substance occupies. Basically, its the amount of mass in a specific amount of space. Density is measured in grams/mL Formula for Density: Density = Mass/ Volume In order to find the density of a submerged object under water we use the formula: % !"#$%&'%( (!"#$% !"#$"%) ! !"#$%&' !" !! !"#$%
Density of object
Mass
Density of Fluid
Density
Volume
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Buoyancy
Buoyancy
is
the
upward
force
upon
an
object
when
it
is
submerged
in
water.
This
is
why
you
weigh
less
in
water
than
on
land,
because
buoyancy
pushes
you
upward.
Negatively
Buoyant:
Will
sink
Positively
Buoyant:
Will
float
Neutral
Buoyant:
Will
neither
sink
or
float,
it
will
hang
in
the
middle.
Water has the density of 1g/mL, meaning anything that has a density of less than 1g/mL will float in water.
Classification
of
Matter
All
matter
in
the
universe
can
be
classified
into
two
basic
categories.:
1. Mixtures:
Consists
of
two
or
more
substances
mixed
together,
not
chemically
bonded.
a. Homogeneous:
The
mixture
has
one
phase
and
has
identical
properties
throughout.
b. Heterogeneous:
The
mixture
has
more
than
one
phase,
and
does
not
look
the
same
throughout
the
object.
2. Pure
Substances:
Matter
that
consists
of
one
substance,
chemically
bonded
or
alone.
a. Elements:
Any
element
on
the
periodic
table
of
elements
b. Compounds:
Two
or
more
elements
chemically
bonded.
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Atomic Theory
To generalize the size of an atom, lets take the Size of Earth : Soda Can = Soda Can : Atom. All elements have atoms; they are the smallest particles that still carry properties of their elements. It is possible to view an atom under scanning electron microscopes. The Greek philosopher Democritus (460 B.C 370 B.C) was the first to suggest the existence of atoms. As time progressed so did the Atomic Theory.
Thomsons Model
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Isotopes
Dalton believed that all atoms of an element were the same (identical), but that was later discovered to be incorrect. Atoms of the same element can have different number of neutrons. Frederick Soddy proposed the idea of isotopes in 1912. Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different masses, due to varying number of neutrons.
Naming
Isotopes
When
naming
isotopes
we
put
the
mass
number
after
the
name
of
the
element.
Carbon
12
=
carbon
with
an
atomic
mass
of
12
(6p+,
6no)
Carbon
14
=
carbon
with
an
atomic
mass
of
14
(6p+,
8no)
Note
the
number
of
protons
does
not
change
only
the
number
of
neutrons.
Atomic
Mass
When
calculating
the
atomic
mass
of
an
element,
we
are
actually
concerned
about
the
average
atomic
mass
of
all
its
kinds
of
atoms.
This
is
measured
in
Atomic
Mass
Unit
(amu).
To
calculate
the
atomic
mass
of
an
element,
we
need
the
atomic
mass
of
all
its
different
atoms
and
their
percentage
of
abundance.
Look
at
the
following
example:
Isotope
10X:
10.012 0.1991 = 1.993 !"# (Isotope 10Xs mass times abundance) 10.012 0.8009 = 8.817 !"# (Isotope 11Xs mass times abundance) !"#$%& !"## !" !"#$#%& ! = 1.993 + 8.817 = 10.810 To watch a cool atom video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0kUSqHYcF8g (My Science ISU video).
Element X:
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Atomic Structure
Atoms
are
the
building
blocks
of
all
matter;
they
are
composed
of
the
smaller
bits,
as
follows:
Proton:
The
proton
has
a
positive
charge
has
a
mass
of
one
and
is
inside
the
nucleus.
The
number
of
protons
determines
the
atomic
number.
Electron:
The
electron
has
a
negative
charge
has
a
mass
of
zero
and
is
outside
the
nucleus.
The
number
of
electrons
determines
the
ion.
Neutron:
The
neutron
has
no
charge
has
a
mass
of
one
and
is
inside
the
nucleus.
The
number
of
neutrons
determines
the
isotopes
of
the
element.
Atomic
Number
Atoms
of
different
elements
differ
from
one
another
because
they
contain
different
number
of
protons.
The
atomic
number
of
an
element
is
the
number
of
protons
in
the
nucleus.
In
addition
when
an
atom
is
in
normal
form,
the
number
of
protons
is
equal
to
the
number
of
electrons.
Mass
Number
The
atomic
mass
of
an
element
is
determined
by
the
sum
of
the
number
of
neutrons
and
number
of
protons.
This
refers
to
the
weight
of
the
atom
and
is
measured
in
Atomic
Mass
Unit
(amu).
There
are
6 10!"
or
600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
amus
in
one
gram.
Atomic
Notation
The
chemical
symbol
tells
us
what
atom
it
is;
this
is
usually
short
form
however
sometimes
it
isnt
because
they
were
named
in
Latin.
The
first
letter
is
always
a
Capital
Letter
and
is
followed
by
a
lower
case
letter.
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The periodic table of element is the most useful tool to chemists, and you in the test. It has a ton on information in regards to all the known elements. The periodic table organizes elements in a particular so that you can determine physical and chemical properties for an element from its location on the table. You can also predict what the element will react with chemically. * Note: You are given a periodic table of elements before the test starts.
Elements
Scientists have identified 92 naturally occurring elements and created about 26 others. The elements alone or in combinations, make up our bodies, our world, our sun, and in fact, the entire universe.
Valence
Electrons
Valence
electrons
are
the
number
of
electrons
at
the
outer
energy
level
of
an
atom.
These
are
the
electrons
that
are
used
when
atoms
bond
together.
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Groups (families)
Periods
Classes
There
are
many
classes
within
the
Periodic
table
of
elements;
most
of
the
elements
have
similar
properties.
Hydrogen:
The
hydrogen
square
sits
atop
of
Group
1,
but
it
is
not
a
member
of
that
family.
It
is
a
gas
at
room
temperature.
It
has
one
proton
and
one
electron
in
its
electron
level.
Alkali
Metals:
The
alkali
family
is
found
in
the
first
column
of
the
periodic
table.
Atoms
of
the
alkali
metals
have
a
single
valence
electron.
They
are
shiny,
have
the
consistency
of
clay,
and
are
easily
cut
with
a
knife.
They
are
the
most
reactive
metals,
and
react
violently
with
water.
Alkali
metals
are
never
found
as
free
elements
in
nature,
however
always
bonded
with
another
element.
Alkaline
Earth
Metals:
Have
two
valence
electrons
and
are
never
found
uncombined
in
nature.
Transition
Metals:
They
are
good
conductors
of
heat
and
electricity.
Can
chemically
combine
with
oxygen
to
form
compounds.
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Ions
Introduction
Atoms
are
made
up
of
particles,
which
either
have
a
positive
charge
or
negative
charge.
The
positive
or
negative
charges
cancel
each
other
out,
so
the
net
charge
in
an
atom
is
zero.
The
positively
charged
particle
is
called
a
proton,
and
the
negatively
charged
particle
is
called
the
electron.
In
atoms
the
protons
are
in
the
center
and
the
electrons
are
on
the
outside,
only
electrons
can
be
removed
from
atoms.
If
you
add
electrons
to
an
atoms
in
becomes
negatively
charged,
and
if
you
remove
them
they
become
positively
charged.
An
atom
with
a
positive
or
negative
charge
is
called
an
ION.
Cations
Cations
are
ions
with
a
positive
charge.
If
an
atom
loses
an
electron
or
more
it
is
called
cation.
Anions
Anions
are
ions
with
a
negative
charge.
If
an
atom
gains
an
electron
or
more
it
is
called
an
anion.
Naming
Ions
Positive
Ions:
The
name
is
the
same
of
the
element
followed
by
ion.
E.g.
Na+
=
Sodium
ion
Negative
Ions:
The
name
is
determined
by
removing
the
end
and
adding
ide.
E.g.
O-
=
Oxide
ion
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Chemical Symbols
All the elements on the periodic table of elements have a single symbol, which is made up of 1 or 2 letters. Just as a single symbol is used to represent a single element, multiple symbols can used to represent compounds.
Most of the elements can be combined in many different ways to make compounds. E.g. NaHCO3 is composed of Na, H, C, and O. In order to show the number of atoms in a compound we use subscripts. In H2O, we have two Hydrogen and one Oxygen atom. If there is only one atom of an element one is not written in the subscript. If a number is put in front of a compound like, 2H20, you must multiply that number by the each element, so 2H20 is equal to H20 + H20. In which case there are four Hydrogen atoms, and two Oxygen atoms.
Combining Capacity
Atoms can only make a specific number of connections with other atoms. The number of connections an atom can make is called the combining capacity. When atoms combine, it is called a bond.
Building
a
Molecule
Lets
take
two
elements,
Hydrogen
and
Oxygen,
if
we
want
to
want
to
bond
them
we
need
to
know
their
combining
capacity.
Hydrogen:
Oxygen:
Combining
capacity:
1
Combining
capacity:
2
We simply switch the combining capacities and write them as subscripts for the other element. So we write H20. 1 is not written in subscripts. The above is a structural diagram. In order to satisfy a compound you need to make the right number of connections. * Note: You will be given a list of common combining capacities for the test.
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Naming
Compounds
Rules:
1. Metals
combine
with
nonmetals
in
many
compounds
a. Metals
will
be
on
the
left,
when
ever
in
doubt
the
one
of
the
left
goes
first
2. Write
the
name
of
the
metal
first
then
the
nonmetal
3. Change
the
ending
of
the
nonmetal
to
ide
Sometimes atoms make more than one bond another atom, this can either be a double or triple bond.
Drawing
Diagrams
There
are
a
couple
of
diagrams
you
need
to
be
able
to
draw
for
the
test.
They
are
as
follows.
Bohr-Rutherford
Diagram
Lets
take
an
element,
with
an
atomic
number
less
than
20.
Oxygen
Eight
Protons
Seven
Neutrons
Eight
Electrons
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Electricity
Notes
The
Cell
A
cell
stores
chemical
energy
and
transfers
this
energy
as
electrical
energy.
Two
cells
are
connected
to
one
another
to
make
a
battery.
The
cells
chemical
energy
is
used
to
move
current
around
a
circuit.
Electric
Current
The
cell
is
responsible
to
produce
an
electric
current;
the
current
is
the
flow
of
electrons
from
the
negative
terminal
of
the
battery
back
to
the
positive
terminal.
Current
is
defined
as
the
flow
of
electrons
passing
through
a
point.
Circuit
When circuit is closed, it means that there is a continuous path of metal connecting the positive and negative ends of the cell together, in which case all components will light up. However if there is a break in the circuit, it is known as an open circuit where the current cannot flow from the negative side to the positive.
Components
There
are
many
components
within
circuit
that
you
will
encounter
when
drawing
electrical
diagram.
1. Cell:
A
cell
is
the
power
source
of
a
circuit.
Two
cells
make
a
battery.
2. Switch:
A
switch
breaks
a
path
within
a
circuit.
5. Fuses:
A
fuse
is
a
moderator,
which
burns
out
if
more
than
a
certain
amount
of
electricity
passes
through
it.
3. Lamp:
A
lamp
or
bulb
is
a
component
within
a
circuit.
4. Wires:
The
wire
is
the
transport
medium
of
electrons.
6. Resistor:
A
resistor
is
component
within
a
circuit,
which
restricts
the
flow
of
electrons.
7. Ammeter:
An
amp
meter
measures
the
current
a
circuit.
It
has
to
be
connecter
in
series.
8. Voltmeter:
A
voltmeter
measures
the
potential
difference
in
a
circuit.
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Types
of
Circuit
There
are
two
types
of
circuits
that
you
are
going
to
be
on
test:
1. Series
Circuit:
The
components
are
connected
end
to
end,
one
after
an
other.
i.e.
They
make
a
simple
loop
for
the
current
to
flow.
If
any
the
components
blow
all
the
whole
circuit
will
not
work.
2. Parallel
Circuit:
The
components
are
side
by
side.
This
way
the
current
is
split
to
take
different
paths
to
reach
each
component.
This
way
if
one
component
blows
the
other
will
stay
lit
up.
Current
Current
is
the
flow
of
electricity
around
a
circuit,
this
runs
from
negative
to
positive.
It
is
abbreviated
to
(I),
however
measured
in
Amps
(A).
Current
is
not
measured
in
the
number
of
electrons,
however
group
of
electrons,
which
are
called
coulombs.
One
coulomb
is
equal
to
6.25
1018
electrons.
One
coulomb
is
equal
to
one
ampere.
In
order
to
measure
current
you
need
an
ammeter,
which
has
to
be
connected
in
series.
Within
a
series
circuit
the
current
is
same
all
around,
however
in
a
parallel
circuit
the
current
is
shared
between
all
paths.
The amount of energy each electron has within a circuit is called potential difference (Voltage). It is called potential difference cause it has the potential to do work. When an electron passes through a light bulb it enters with certain amount of energy, and when it leaves it has less, because the energy is used by the light bulb. Potential difference is the amount of energy lost from one point and another, so in order to calculate it we have to connect a voltmeter in parallel. Within a series circuit voltage is shared between all components, however is a parallel circuit voltage is same at all parts.
Power
Power
is
measured
in
Watts,
and
is
determined
by
multiplying
the
Voltage
and
the
Amperage.
Electrical
energy
is
measured
by
multiplying
the
number
of
watts
by
time.
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Electrical Resistance
Resistance is the inability of electrical current to pass through a substance. When electrical current is resisted it is usually converted into heat, light, sound, or other types of energy. Some substances resist the flow of electrons, such as light bulb filaments. Light bulb filament take energy from the electrons and convert it into light energy. The symbol for resistance is and it is measured in ohms. Resistance is in direct relation with current, the more resistance the lower the current.
Loads
A resistor or any device that transforms electrical energy into heat, motion, sound, or light.
Conductors
A
substance
that
carries
electrical
energy
without
much
or
any
resistance
is
known
as
a
conductor.
Conductors
are
usually
used
in
wires,
to
allow
transfer
of
electricity.
Wires
Resistance
in
wires
is
determined
by
the
following
factors:
1. 2. 3. 4. The
type
of
material
The
length
(greater
the
length
the
greater
the
resistance)
The
diameter
(greater
the
diameter
the
lower
the
resistance)
The
temperature
(hotter
wires
have
greater
resistance)
Superconductors
When
electric
current
can
flow
through
a
substance
with
zero
resistance,
it
is
called
a
superconductor.
This
can
be
done
by
cooling
a
wire
to
absolute
zero,
which
increase
the
efficiency
of
the
wire
as
no
energy
is
lost.
Series:
IT=
I1=
I2
=
I3
VT=
V1+
V2
+
V3
RT=
R1+
R2
+
R3
Parallel
IT=
I1+
I2
+
I3
VT=
V1=
V2
=
V3
RT<
R1
RT
<
R2
RT<R3
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Safety
In order to prevent fires from occurring within houses or apartment buildings several safety features have been installed to shutdown the electricity system from allowing too much electricity to flow.
Circuit
Breakers
Circuit
Breakers
are
a
newer
method
of
electricity
control
in
many
houses.
They
trip
if
too
much
electricity
is
flowing
through
the
circuit,
although
you
simply
have
to
flip
the
switch
to
reset
them.
Fuses
Used
in
older
homes,
the
fuses
work
similar
to
the
Circuit
breakers
except
they
melt
the
wire
inside.
In
order
to
reset
a
fuse
and
allow
electricity
to
flow
you
need
to
replace
the
fuse.
Wall Outlets
Wall outlets are made out of plastic primarily because plastic does not conduct electricity. In addition there are polarized plugs, requiring the person to but the plug in the right way, and lastly the have a ground hole for additional electricity.
GFCI
GFCI
also
known,
as
Ground
Fault
Circuit
Interrupter
is
a
device
used
breaks
the
circuit
if
it
detects
that
the
current
between
the
energized
and
the
neutral
conductor
is
not
balanced.
(Meaning
the
current
is
flowing
else
were.
It
is
usually
put
in
bathrooms.)
Surge
Protector
A
surge
protector
is
a
device
used
to
protect
appliances
from
voltage
spikes.
The
surge
protector
regulates
voltage
by
either
blocking
or
shorting
voltages
above
a
certain
threshold.
Humans can be electrocuted, however the voltage required to electrocute someone is dependent upon the current through the body, the resistance and the duration of the current. If 0.002 amps passes through your body your heart is disturbed, and if 0.02 amps passes through you, you will die.
Syed Kamran
Direct and Alternating current is the two methods of transferring electricity through a wire. Each has it advantages and disadvantages. Alternating current is when electricity when electrons hit one another passing energy along. This allows for higher voltage to be transferred over long distances, has less copper loss than DC, and is cheaper to produce.
Direct
Current
Direct
current
is
when
electricity
is
moving
in
one
constant
direction;
this
is
the
type
of
electricity
you
find
in
batteries
with
constant
positive
and
negative
terminals.
Coming from the hydro pole are three wires, two black and one white. The two black wires carry a voltage of 120 V, while the white wire is natural which is a way for the electricity to go back. The wires coming from the poles go to the electric meter outside your house, which is calculates the amount of electricity you use. From the electric meter the wires go to the electrical distribution panel located in your basement.
Electrical Production
There are two main sources of electricity production; they are Renewable or Non Renewable. Renewable sources renew themself over the course of a life span, while non-renewable is not able to replenish itself within a lifetime.
Non-renewable
Resources
Non-renewable
resources
include
fossil
fuels,
such
as
oil,
coal
and
gas.
Energy
is
released
from
the
combustion
of
these
substances,
and
this
is
relatively
cheap.
However
the
world
supply
is
decreasing
of
fossil
fuels.
Fossil
Fuels
Coal,
oil
and
natural
gas
are
called,
fossil
fuels.
This
is
because
they
are
formed
from
the
remains
of
dead
plants
and
animals.
1. Fossil
Fuels
are
burned
which
heats
water
and
produces
steam
2. Steam
causes
turbine
to
spin.
3. Which
causes
generator
to
create
electricity.
Syed
Kamran
Nuclear
Nuclear
energy
runs
from
the
power
of
Nuclear
Fission,
which
is
a
nuclear
reaction.
In
this
reaction
uranium
atoms
are
split
releasing
atomic
energy.
This
has
radioactive
waste
problems,
and
waste
materials,
which
are
deadly
to
human
beings.
Reactors
use
Uranium
rods
as
fuel,
and
generate
heat
from
nuclear
fission.
Nuclear
fission
is
accomplished
by
a
slow
neutron
hitting
a
uranium
atom,
which
is
split
in
half
and
releases
energy.
A
seven
gram
fuel
pallet
produces
the
same
amount
of
energy
as
807
kg
of
coal,
667
L
of
oil,
and
476
m3
of
natural
gas.
1. Fission
makes
heat.
2. Heat
water
to
make
steam.
3. Steam
turn
turbine.
4. Turbine
turns
generator.
5. Generator
makes
electricity.
Renewable
Resources
Renewable
resources
are
resources
that
can
replenish
themselves
within
ones
lifetime.
Solar Solar energy is radiated energy from the sun, it is used for heating, and producing some electricity. Photovoltaic cells are used to directly convert sunlight into electricity. This power can be stored in a battery, which can allow for power later on. Solar water heating is used to heat water in glass panels, under direct exposure to the sun. Wind The rising of hot air and the falling of cold air is the cause of wind; this energy can be converted into mechanical energy and finally electrical energy by the use of windmills. Open flat fields are excellent areas for windmills. Hydro-electric Electricity Water cycle causes precipitation to areas of high altitude, from which the water makes it back to the sea. When the water is falling down it is converted into mechanical energy and then electrical. Sometimes dams are built to control water flow and allow from fast speeds of water to turn the blades of the turbine, which are driving the generators.
Syed Kamran Tidal Energy In tidal energy the motion of the tides is harnessed. This is caused by the moons gravity pulling up on the oceans water. It is similar to hydraulic. The only modern tidal energy generation station is in Nova Scotia.
In Canada our electricity is produced by Fossil Fuels, Nuclear Energy and Hydroelectricity. We do not harness enough solar or wind power in this country.
The
Future
The
future
survival
of
human
beings
is
dependent
upon
the
investing
in
new
technologies
such
as
Nuclear,
and
Geo-Thermal.
Nuclear
Fusion
This
is
the
joining
of
two
particles
to
form
one
large
nucleus,
nuclear
fusion
naturally
occurs
on
stars
such
as
the
Sun.
Geo-Thermal
This
is
thermal
energy
from
below
the
earths
crust,
which
can
heat
water
into
steam,
which
turns
a
turbine
driving
a
generator.
This
can
also
be
used
for
heating
homes.
Static Electricity
Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative charges, when atoms lose electrons they become positively charged and when they gain electrons they become negatively charged. Electrons can be transferred (or stolen) from one object by the friction. (Refer to Charging).
Insulators
Objects or materials that hold their electron tightly are known as insulators. These objects do not allow objects to move through them.
Conductors
Objects or materials that have a lose hold on their electrons, and allow them to move easily from one atom to the next. Most metals are great conductors.
Syed Kamran
Similar
to
the
laws
of
motion,
electric
charges
have
their
own
laws.
The
laws
are
as
follows.
1. Opposite
charges
attract
2. Like
charges
repel
3. Positive
and
negative
charges
attract
neutral
objects
(remember
the
balloon
experiment)
These laws are commonly exhibited in daily life such as a taking a wool hat off on a winter day. This results in your hair sticking up because electrons are transferred from your hair to the hat making them positively charged, your want to repel from one another and stand up.
Electrostatic Series
The electrostatic series is a table of arranged materials, which are ordered from least relative hold on electrons to greatest relative hold on electrons. There will be questions in regards to electrostatic series on the test.
Charging
There
are
three
ways
to
charge
objects
to
give
them
either
a
positive,
negative
or
neutral
charge.
The
three
methods
are
as
follows:
Friction
By
rubbing
to
two
objects
together
the
one
with
less
hold
on
its
electrons
will
lose
its
electrons
and
become
positively
charged,
while
the
one
with
a
stronger
hold
on
electrons
will
gain
electrons
and
become
negatively
charged.
Both
surfaces
obtain
a
different
charge
after
being
rubbed.
Refer
to
the
electrostatic
series
to
determine
what
objects
have
a
stronger
hold
on
electrons.
Contact
Contact
is
the
most
common
type
of
transfer,
and
the
cause
of
static
shocks.
This
occurs
when
two
objects
that
have
different
charges
touch
each
other
and
will
transfer
electrons
to
balance
themselves
evenly.
Induction
Induction
is
when
an
electric
charge
is
transferred
to
an
object
without
direct
contact.
Induction
allows
you
to
give
objects
a
temporary
charge
by
splitting
them
into
two
differently
charged
portions,
or
completely
giving
a
charge
by
the
use
of
a
ground
wire.
If
you
bring
a
charged
rod
near
a
neutral
object
the
opposite
charge
will
face
the
rod,
while
the
like
charges
will
repel.
This
creates
an
induced
object.
If
you
attached
a
ground
wire
to
an
object
and
bring
a
charged
rod
near
it,
electrons
will
either
flow
out
of
the
object
or
into
the
object,
resulting
in
a
completely
charged
object.
Syed Kamran
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are non-metals such as silicon; they allow electrons to move through them fairly well. Not as good as conductors and not as bad as insulators.
Grounding
Grounding is a process where you remove charges from an object and return it to neutral state. This process requires you to connect the object to the ground via a conductor. This is also called discharging. Grounding happens because the earth has an infinite supply of electrons and it doesnt matter how many are added or stolen. The earth has 6.91 x 1096 electrons. When a positive object is grounded electrons are taken from the ground and added to the object, on the other hand if a negatively charged object is grounded, electrons will flow into the earth. This always results in the object ending up as neutral.
Lighting
Storm clouds form when cold and hot air meet. The masses of air churn together and lighting is created. Lighting strikes when negative charges in clouds are attracted to the positive charges in the ground. Lighting take the easiest path so it usually hits the highest object. Lighting strikes are unavoidable so people use light rods, which are connected to the ground. This allows all the lighting to be grounded.
Circuit
Diagrams
You
will
have
to
solve
circuit
diagrams
on
the
test
so
here
is
an
example.
R1 = 10
R2 = 35
R3 = 14
V=9.0 V
V = 4.5 V
For
resistor
1
the
voltage
is
4.5V,
and
the
current
is
0.45
A.
For
resistor
2,
the
current
is
0.13
A.
For
resistor
3
the
voltage
is
4.5
V
and
the
current
is
0.32
A.
If
you
have
trouble
understanding
how
to
solve
the
circuit
ask
before
the
exam.
Syed Kamran
Distance
in
Space
Distances
in
space
are
not
measure
in
the
same
units
as
they
are
on
Earth
due
to
the
fact
that
space
is
so
big.
If
we
were
just
to
look
at
the
distance
between
the
Earth
and
the
Sun
it
would
be
150
million
km,
for
two
object
that
are
relatively
close
in
perspective
of
the
whole
universe.
This
is
the
reason
scientists
chose
to
make
the
AU
or
astronomical
unit
along
with
light
year
to
measure
distance
within
space.
Light
Year
Due
to
that
fact
that
distances
in
outer
space
are
enormous,
we
use
light
years.
When
the
Astronomical
Unit
(AU)
becomes
too
small
of
a
reference
of
measurement
we
use
light
years.
A
light
year
is
basically
travelling
at
the
speed
of
light
for
one
year.
The
speed
of
light
is
300,000
km
per
second.
A
distance
of
one
light
year
is
equivalent
to
9,460,800,000,000
km.
Note:
Its
practically
impossible
for
anything
except
light
itself
to
travel
at
light
speed.
Check
out
Einsteins
theory
of
relativity
if
youre
interested
about
speed
of
light.
Galaxies
A
galaxy
is
system
of
stars
and
gases
held
together
by
a
gravitational
force,
Edwin
Hubble
invented
this
system.
Galaxies
are
classified
in
three
main
types:
Spiral
Spiral
galaxies
look
like
a
pinwheel,
similar
to
a
large
plate,
with
a
bulge
in
the
side.
Some
have
many
arms
spiraling
out
from
the
center.
Elliptical
Range
in
shape
from
a
either
a
perfect
sphere
to
a
weird
stretched
out
ellipse.
These
contain
the
oldest
stars
in
the
universe
and
make
up
the
large
galaxies.
Syed Kamran
Irregular
Galaxies
These
galaxies
are
the
odd
ones
out,
they
do
not
really
have
a
category.
The
range
in
shape
and
size
and
are
made
up
of
newly
forming
stars
and
old
stars.
Constellations
Stars in the sky that form a shape or pattern are known as constellations. Constellations have been used for thousands of years for many purposes. Various constellations can be seen from different parts of Earth.
Sun
The
sun
is
the
largest
object
in
our
solar
system;
it
is
essentially
a
large
ball
of
gas.
It
is
comprised
of
75%
hydrogen,
and
25%
helium.
The
sun
converts
hydrogen
into
helium
in
its
core,
where
the
temperature
is
15.6
million
Kelvin,
and
the
pressure
is
250
billion
atmospheres.
Mercury
Mercury has the shortest orbit around the sun, 0.24 earth years. Its mass is 0.05 times Earth, which makes it that 8th largest planet in our solar system. It is composed of a rock surface.
Venus
Venus
has
a
orbit
of
0.62
earth
years,
and
its
mass
is
0.82
times
Earth
making
it
the
6th
largest
planet
in
the
solar
system.
Venus
is
also
the
brightest
planet.
Earth
Earth
is
the
3rd
planet
from
the
Sun.
It
has
one
moon
which
is
1/6
its
mass.
Earth
takes
365.25
days
to
orbit
around
the
Sun,
and
is
the
only
planet
currently
known
to
inhabit
living
life
forms.
The
Earth
is
on
a
tilted
axis
(23.5o)
Mars
Mars is known as the red planet due to its iron compositions. It has the mass of 0.11 times Earth and takes 1.88 Earth years to orbit the sun. It also has solid carbon dioxide at its poles.
Jupiter
Jupiter
is
70%
of
the
mass
of
the
solar
system
outside
the
Sun.
Its
mass
is
317.8
times
Earth
and
it
take
11.86
Earth
years
for
it
to
orbit
the
Sun.
It
is
not
a
solid
and
is
composed
of
hydrogen
and
helium.
Syed Kamran
Saturn
Similar
to
Jupiter,
Saturn
is
made
out
of
gas.
It
is
known
for
its
rings,
which
are
made
of
ice.
Saturn
takes
29.46
Earth
years
to
orbit
the
Sun
and
has
the
mass
of
95.2
times
Earth.
Uranus
Uranus
is
made
out
gas,
and
is
the
4th
largest
planet
in
the
solar
system.
It
is
flipped
on
its
side
and
has
smaller
rings
then
Saturn.
It
take
Uranus
84.01
Earth
years
to
orbit
the
Sun,
and
its
mass
is
14.5
times
Earth.
The
blue
colour
is
from
methane
gas
within
its
atmosphere.
Neptune
The
last
planet
in
the
solar
system,
and
is
composed
of
gas.
It
is
similar
to
Uranus
however
is
a
slightly
darker
blue.
Its
rings
are
sometimes
visible.
Neptune
takes
164.8
years
to
complete
one
orbit
and
its
mass
is
17.1
times
Earth.