Cellular Control

A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a polypeptide. The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein. The genetic code is a three letter code, in which a particular sequence of three bases in DNA stands for a particular amino acid. Protein synthesis takes place in two main stages, transcription and translation. Transcription is the production of a complementary mRNA molecule by building it against the reference strand if the DNA in a gene. The DNA strands are separated by DNA helicase, and free mRNA nucleotides line up against one of the exposed strands, the complementary bases pairing with each other. C and G pair. A on the DNA strand pairs with U on the mRNA. T on the DNA strand pairs with A on the mRNA. The mRNA nucleotides are then linked together by RNA polymerase. Translation is the production of a polypeptide following the base sequence on the mRNA. It takes place on a ribosome, where two codons (that is, two sets of three bases) on the mRNA are exposed at one time. The amino acids are brought to the ribosome by tRNA molecules, each of which has an anticodon that binds with the mRNA codon by complementary base pairing. The anticodon on the tRNA determines which specific amino acid it brings. As successive amino acids are brought to the ribosome, they are linked by peptide bonds. A mutation is an unpredictable change in the genetic material. Mutations can involve change in a single base pair in a DNA molecule. This may have no effect if one base is substituted for another but the triplet still codes for the same amino acid. However, if a base is added or lost, then a frame shift occurs and all the amino acids coded for beyond this point will be different. If the sequence of amino acids in a protein is different, then its tertiary structure is also likely to be different and the protein probably will not function normally. This is likely to be a harmful effect, but occasionally can be beneficial. Most genes are only expressed in certain cell types and under certain circumstances. In prokaryotes, gene expression is controlled by means of a number of other regions of DNA that lie close to the part that carries the code for the amino acid sequence of the protein. The whole structure is called an operon. In E. coli, for example the lac operon ensure that the genes for lactose permease and lactase are only expressed when lactose is present. All animals have similar genes that control the development of their general body plan, called homeobox genes. Plants and fungi also have them, but they are not homlogous to those found in animals. Homeobox genes function by switching on or off whole sets of other genes that bring about processes resulting in the formation of a particular part of the body, such as a leg or an eye.

A particular type of programmed death cell, called apoptosis, is important during development.