GEOLOGY 11

Chapter 6 Sedimentary Rocks Formation of Sedimentary Rocks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Weathering Erosion Transport Deposition Diagenesis External processes shaping the Earth: 1. Weathering the physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rocks at or near the Earths surface a. Physical/Mechanical fragmentation; physical breaking up of rock into smaller pieces leads to an increase in surface area i. Requires the application of some physical force or stress to be applied to the rock ii. No accompanying changes to the composition of rocks iii. Prevails in cold climates, high altitudes, dry regions b. Chemical minerals are chemically altered or dissolved i. Breakdown of minerals by chemical reactions with water, with chemicals dissolved in water or with gases in the air ii. Progression from less stable minerals to more stable minerals 2. Erosion the removal of material by mobile agents such as water, wind, ice or man Mechanical Weathering 1. Frost wedging repeated cycles of freezing and thawing; the expansion force of water as it freezes is sufficient to split any mineral or rock 2. Heating and cooling differences in temperature in a rock give rise to differential expansion (heating) and contraction (cooling) 3. Wetting and drying the disruption of soil results in the swelling and contracting of soil particles geol/nebp 1. Solution of calcite (no solid residue) 2. Breakdown of ferromagnesians (possible mineral residues include iorn compounds, quartz, clays) 3. Breakdown of feldspar (clay and quartz are the common residues) 4. Solution of pyrite (making dissolved sulfuric acid, H2SO4) Susceptibility of minerals to chemical weathering 4. Organisms action of organisms, including animals and plants, reduces the size of rocks and minerals 5. Unloading the removal of thick layers of sediments overlying deeply buried rocks by erosion or uplift Chemical Weathering 1. Dissolution the dissolving of a solid in a liquid 2. Hydrolysis process of minerals reacting with water to form hydroxides, which usually are more soluble than the original mineral. Ex. Pyroxene to Fe oxide 4FeSiO3 + H2O 4FeO(OH) + 4SiO2 3. Acidification weathering is accelerated by the presence of hydrogen ion in water, such as that provided by carbonic and organic acids. 4. Hydration combination of a solid mineral or element with water 5. Oxidation and Reduction used in mineral weathering, is both the chemical combination of oxygen with a compound and the change in oxidation number of some chemical element (reduction is the chemical process in which electron are gained.) 6. Ion-exchange involves the transfer of charged atoms (ions) of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium between waters rich in one of the ions and a mineral rich in another (most effective in clays.) Some chemical weathering reactions

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Goldich Stability Series describes the order in which silicate minerals weather. Minerals which form at high temperatures and pressures are least stable, and weather most quickly because they are farther from their zone of stability or the conditions under which they formed. The order of mineral stability in the weathering environment is the same order as BRS Soil Profile O Horizon organic layer of soil, made up mostly of leaf litter and humus (decomposed organic matter) A Horizon made up of humus mixed with mineral particles E Horizon leaching layer; light in color, made up mostly of sand and silt, having lost most of its minerals and clay as water drips through the soil B Horizon contains clay and mineral deposits (like iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium carbonate) that it receives from layers above it when water drips from the soil above C Horizon it consists of slightly broken-up bedrock. Plant roots do not penetrate into this layer because of very little organic material R Horizon unweathered rock layer EROSION comes from an old word meaning eat away; involves movement of rock or soil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Agents of Erosion: Gravity Ice Organism Water Wind

The main products of weathering 1. Soluble ions (Na, Ca, K, Mg) 2. Clay minerals (kaolinite, montmorillonite) 3. Resistant minerals (quartz, hematite, magnentite, garnet, gold, diamonds) Alterations due to chemical weathering: 1. Decomposition of unstable minerals. 2. Generation or retention of those minerals which are in equilibrium with the Earths surface 1. a. b. c. 2. a. b. 3. a. b. Factors Controlling Weathering Source composition Specifically involves the mineralogy, texture and rock structure Source rock lithology Fine-grained rocks decompose chemically more readily than coarse-grained rocks Climate Temperature fluctuations determine importance of ice-wedging and insolation Precipitation governs the extent of hydrolysis, hydration and solution Topographic relief Influence the amount of rock exposed to the forces of weathering Slope steepness controls the rate at which weathering products are eroded to be transported elsewhere Soil combination of rock, air, water and organic material Soil type varies in color, texture, mineral content Types (orders) of soil: Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Oxisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, Gelisols, Andisols, and Vertisols geol/nebp

Transportation Agents of sediment transport: 1. Ice 2. Water 3. Wind Distance of sediment transport affects clast: Roundness measures how rounded corners are Sphericity measures sphere-like shape of clasts Sorting measure of variation of grain sizes

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mm 256 64 4 2 1/16 1/256 SILICICLASTIC Boulders Breccia Cobbles GRAVEL Pebbles Conglomerate Granules SAND SILT CLAY CHEMICAL Oolitic rocks Intraclast rocks Dolomite (Dolostone) Other Chemical Rx Chert, Gypsum, Rock Salt (Halite) y Replacement y Bioturbation BIOCHEMICAL Micrites Fossiliferous rocks Pelletal rocks Chalk Other Biochemical Rx Peat and Coal

Ways of physically transporting particles: 1. Suspension clay and silt 2. Saltation sand 3. Traction coarse sand Deposition transporting sediment requires energy Grain size has relationship with energy: Smaller grains take less energy Bigger grains take more If river slows down, sediment will drop out If river speeds up, water can pick up sediment Larger sediments are deposited in higher energy environments: Ex. Gravel needs fast moving water or rock slides Sand wind and wave action (beaches) Silt and clay lakes, swamps and deep oceans Diagenesis physical, chemical, and biological processes which collectively result in Transformation of sediments into sedimentary rock Modification of the texture and mineralogy of the rock Stages of Diagenesis: Early takes place from sedimentation until shallow burial Late from deep burial to subsequent uplift Types of diagenetic processes: Compaction process by which the volume of a sediment is reduced as the grains are squeezed together Recrystallization Cementation geol/nebp

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 1. Clastic (siliciclastic or volcaniclastic) rocks 2. Chemical or biochemical rocks Visible Grains quartz sand, lithics, feldspar, resistant minerals Clay-sized Grains clay minerals (kaolinite), iron oxides In solution CaCO3, CaMg(CO3)2, CaSO4, NaCl, SiO2 1. CLASTIC ROCKS a. Classified based on texture (grain size) and composition = UDDEN-WENTWORTH scale b. Consists of: i. Clast larger pieces such as sand or gravel ii. Matrix mud or fine-grained sediment surrounding the clasts iii. Cement the glue that holds it all together, such as calcite, iron oxide, or silica c. Types i. Breccias >2mm; angular clasts ii. Conglomerate - >2mm; rounded clasts iii. Siltstone 1/256 to 1/16mm; gritty texture iv. Shale less than 1/256 mm grain size v. Sandstone 1/16mm to 2mm 1. Classified according to the amount of minerals found in the rock: a. Arkose sandstone 75% or greater feldspar b. Lithic sandstone lithics or rock fragments c. Quartz sandstone 95% or greater quartz content 2. CHEMICAL/ BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS a. Carbonates i. Composed of the mineral calcite (CaCO3)

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ii. Form by both chemical and biochemical processes iii. Tend to be mixed together in various combinations in the rocks iv. Extremely abundant and important b. Other chemical rocks i. Chert A siliceous rock (SiO2) 1. Forms from the recrystallized skeletons of animals (single-celled radiolarians and glass sponges) or single-celled plants (diatoms, silicoflagellates) ii. Rock salt 1. Halite (NaCl) and gypsum (CaSO4* H2O) 2. Originally are dissolved in the sea water, thus making the sea salty 3. Sea water evaporates in a closed area, such as a lagoon, the salt concentration becomes very high, supersaturated, and precipitates out. c. Peat and coal i. Come from plant remains are biochemical rocks ii. Always form in the presence of clastic rocks sandstones and shales Common Sedimentary Structures: 1. Layers or beds differences in mineralogy, clast size, degree of sorting, or color; >1cm = bedding; <1cm = lamination a. Graded bedding b. Cross bedding, herringbone cross bedding 2. Ripple marks 3. Mudcracks 4. Bioturbation Resources from sedimentary rocks 1. Sediments are used as: a. Sand and gravel road base, components of concrete, fill, sand for sandboxes, pure sand for glass making b. Pure clays for ceramics (dinnerware/plate ware) 2. Fossil fuels coal, petroleum, natural gas 3. Food additives sodium and potassium salts 4. Placer deposits grains of economic minerals e.g. gold, diamond, garnet 5. Building stone, filtering materials geol/nebp Sedimentary Basins of the Philippines: 1. Cagayan 2. Ilocos 3. Central Luzon 4. West Luzon 5. Bicol shelf Lamon Bay 6. Southeast Luzon 7. Masbate 8. Visayan 9. Cuyo Platform 10. Northwest Palawan Shelf 11. Reed Bank 12. Southwest Palawan Shelf 13. Agusan Davao 14. Cotabato 15. Sandakan 16. 17. Bancauan