Rational Road Drainage Environment

RURAL ROAD DRAINAGE DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
by P. J. Griffiths, A.B. Hird and P. Tomlinson
Unpublished Project Report PR/INT/192/00
PROJECT REPORT PR/INT/192/00
Rural Road Protection
Drainage
Design
For
Environmental
by P J Griffiths, A B Hird and P Tomlinson

Subsector: Theme: Project Title: Project Reference: Transport T2 Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990 APPROVALS Project Manager Quality reviewed
Copyright Transport Research Laboratory March 2000. This document is an output from an DFID-funded technology development and research project, carried out for the benefit of developing countries. It is an unpublished report and must not be referred to in any publication without the permission of the DFID. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the DFID.
Transport Research Foundation Group of Companies Transport Research Foundation (a company limited by guarantee) trading as Transport Research Laboratory. Registered in England, Number 3011746. TRL Limited. Registered in England, Number 3142272. Registered Offices: Old Wokingham Road, Crowthorne, Berkshire,
TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................i 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Environmental Impact Assessment.............................................................................. 1 Category B Projects/Components ....................................................................................... 2 Category C Projects/Components....................................................................................... 2 1.2 Environmental Good Practice for Rural Road Drainage Design .................................. 3 2. IDENTIFICATION OF SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS .................................................... 6 3. SITE SURVEY AND DATA ASSEMBLY ......................................................................... 9 3.1 General Objectives....................................................................................................... 9 3.2 Watercourse Surveys ................................................................................................. 10 3.3 Meteorological Data ................................................................................................... 11 3.4 Land Use.................................................................................................................... 12 3.5 Geotechnical Survey .................................................................................................. 12 3.5.1 Soil Erosion......................................................................................................... 12 3.5.2 Pollution .............................................................................................................. 12 3.5.3 Sediment Loadings ............................................................................................. 12 3.6 People ........................................................................................................................ 13 3.7 Fish and Wildlife Surveys........................................................................................... 13 3.8 Mitigation.................................................................................................................... 14 4. ROAD ALIGNMENT ...................................................................................................... 15 5. ROAD DESIGN.............................................................................................................. 16 5.1 River Crossings.......................................................................................................... 16 5.2 Drainage Design ........................................................................................................ 16 5.2.1 Drains.................................................................................................................. 16 5.2.2 Culverts............................................................................................................... 17 5.2.3 Channel Alterations............................................................................................. 18 5.3 Storm Water, Erosion and Pollution Control .............................................................. 18 5.4 Enhancing and Reconstructing Natural Environments............................................... 26 5.4.1 Riverbanks .......................................................................................................... 26 5.4.2 Water Features ................................................................................................... 26 5.5 Vegetation .................................................................................................................. 27 6. CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS ................................................................................. 29 6.1 Scheduling of Construction Activities ......................................................................... 29 6.2 Borrow Pits and Quarrying ......................................................................................... 29 6.3 Erosion and Sediment Control ................................................................................... 30 6.4 Pollution Control During Construction ........................................................................ 31 6.5 Waste Management ................................................................................................... 32 7. MAINTENANCE............................................................................................................. 33 8. REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 34 9. WEB SITES ................................................................................................................... 35
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Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY International Aid Agencies and National Governments recognise that good drainage in rural roads is critical to the success of road construction. If drainage is inadequate, maintenance costs can be increased, the life span of the road can be reduced, and adverse impacts on the environment and local communities can result. Such impacts can include increased health risks, damage to food and water supplies, depletion of natural resources and harm to local economies. Although it is possible to mitigate some impacts after construction, it is acknowledged that such retrospective measures are not as effective as, and generally more expensive than, measures taken during the planning, design and construction phases. In some cases, problems can be avoided altogether by making slight changes to e.g. Route alignments or designs. It is important, however, that those involved in the early stages of rural road planning, design and construction are aware of the full range of potential impacts that road drainage can have so that appropriate information can be collated and used in the decision making processes. A wealth of guidance and associated literature already exists on formal Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures. However, many rural road projects do not require a formal EIA and consequently little, if any, importance is given to environmental issues during planning, design or construction. Such situations have resulted in detrimental impacts not only to the natural environment but also the road and local communities. This report gives a comprehensive checklist of good practice procedures for road engineers of rural road drainage projects; projects that do not require a formal EIA, but would still benefit from consideration of environmental issues in the manner described above. It is not intended to provide detailed designs for all eventualities - indeed it is probably impossible to do so, but it gives an overview of the approach to be taken. Firstly, sensitive environments that might warrant special protection, or need to be avoided completely, are identified. These include Mangrove coastlines, coral reefs, wetlands, arid regions, mountain regions and rain forests. Notable (environmentally valuable) features within each type of environment are highlighted along with possible impacts road construction may have in such areas. Sources of further information relating to these areas are provided. Secondly, site survey and data assembly activities are described to ensure that the road engineer gains a full understanding of the existing value of the local environment. This includes identification of existing water quality and quantity, climate, land use, soil and geology, communities, and wildlife. Methods for collecting this information are suggested, including identification of external sources of information. Following establishment of this 'environmental baseline' the engineer can then go on to identify potential problems and benefits that road construction will have on the surrounding area. Thirdly, methods of mitigating potential adverse effects through informed decision making at the road planning and design stages are presented. The report gives a checklist of issues that either need to be avoided or considered carefully when aligning and/or designing a road. Methods of enhancing or reconstructing natural environments are also provided for consideration at the design stage. Finally, ways of ensuring decisions made during the design stage are carried forward into the construction and maintenance phases are presented. Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990 i
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This report is one of a series of reports concerned with the design of roads and road drainage features; others provide more detailed information on the engineering.
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1. 1.1
INTRODUCTION Environmental Impact Assessment
Good drainage design in rural roads is critical to the success of road construction. If drainage is inadequate, maintenance costs can be increased, the life span of the road can be reduced, and adverse impacts on the environment and local communities can result such as increased health risks, damage to food and water supplies, and depletion of natural resources. Many of these problems can be avoided if consideration is given to the design, construction and maintenance of adequate road drainage. The time and expense needed to implement adequate road drainage more than off-sets the greater costs of trying to mitigate problems after construction, and is much more effective in the long term. Environmental Assessment (EA) or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the recognised technique used for ensuring that the environmental effects of any new development are fully understood, and taken into account, before the development is allowed to go ahead. The UN Environment Program (UNEP) has adopted goals and principles to be considered for use as a basis for EIA (UNEP, 1987). Its first goal is: States (countries, including their competent authorities) should not undertake or authorise activities without prior consideration, at an early stage, of their environmental effects. Where the extent, nature or location of a proposed activity is such that it is likely to significantly affect the environment, a comprehensive environmental impact assessment (EIA) should be undertaken in accordance with the following principles (it goes on to list the minimum requirements of an EIA). The criteria and procedures for determining whether an activity is likely to significantly affect the environment, and is therefore subject to an EIA, should be defined clearly in legislation, regulation, or other means, so that subject activities can be quickly identified, and EIA can be applied to the activity as it is being planned. The World Bank has an Operational Policy on Environmental Assessment (World Bank, 1999) which mandates an environmental assessment for all projects that might have a significant negative impact on the environment, so that problems can be tackled early in the project phase. From 1991 all projects were placed in one of three environmental assessment categories (see Box 1.1). Those falling into category A require detailed environmental assessments; those falling into category B require a limited assessment; those falling into category C did not require an environmental assessment.
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Box 1.1. Types of Projects and Their Typical Classifications (World Bank, 1997) Category A Projects/Components
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) Dams and reservoirs Forestry production projects Industrial plants (large-scale) and industrial estates, including major expansion, rehabilitation, or modification Irrigation, drainage, and flood control (large-scale) Aquaculture and mariculture (large-scale) Land clearance and leveling Mineral development (including oil and gas) Port and harbour development Reclamation and new land development Resettlement River basin development Thermal power and hydropower development or expansion Manufacture, transportation, and use of pesticides or other hazardous and/ or toxic materials New construction or major upgrading of highways or rural roads Hazardous waste management and disposal
Category B Projects/Components
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) Agroindustries (small-scale) Electrical transmission Irrigation and drainage (small-scale) Renewable energy (other than hydroelectric dams) Rural electrification Tourism Rural water supply and sanitation Watershed projects (management or rehabilitation) Protected areas and biodiversity conservation Rehabilitation or maintenance of highways or rural roads Rehabilitation or modification of existing industrial facilities (small-scale) Energy efficiency and energy conservation
Category C Projects/Components
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Education Family planning Health Nutrition Institutional development Most human resources projects
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The World Bank stipulates that these examples are only illustrative; it is the extent of the impacts, not the sector, that determines the extent of the environmental assessment and, hence, the category. Consequently, a road design team should always check with appropriate government departments and regulatory authorities to determine whether an EIA is required. If found to be necessary, the reader is directed towards more formal EIA guidelines and requirements, a full listing of which is given by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED, 1998). 1.2 Environmental Good Practice for Rural Road Drainage Design For small rural road projects, unless the road proposal adversely affects a nationally protected area or an area protected under international conventions, it is unlikely that a formal EIA would normally be required. This, however, does not mean that all forms of environmental assessment should be disregarded. The principles underlying the International Aid Agencies environmental assessment guidelines can be translated into Good Practice procedures and applied to even the smallest project. For rural road projects, good practice will identify the significant environmental impacts of the road project during the planning stage. This knowledge can then be used by the road engineer to plan and design the road to protect the natural environment, and preserve social and community activities. Such design will also prevent costly road maintenance activities after construction. The steps that make up good practice when incorporating hydrological considerations into the road planning and development processes are outlined by the World Health Organisation (1997). These are highlighted in Figure 1.1, and summaries of the activities to be undertaken in each step are given in Box 1.2. The following chapters in this report give more detailed guidance on good practice procedures for road engineers of rural road drainage projects; projects that do not require a formal EIA. Firstly, sensitive environments that might warrant special protection are identified, along with their notable features. Secondly, site survey and data assembly activities are described to ensure that the road engineer gains a full understanding of the potential problems and benefits road construction will have on the surrounding area. Proposed activities have been accommodated with existing recognised operations, such as site surveys and desk studies. Thirdly, methods of mitigating potential adverse effects through informed decision making at the road planning and design stages are presented. Finally, ways of ensuring decisions made during the design stage are carried forward into the construction and maintenance phases are presented. This report will demonstrate that consideration of the environment at an early stage in road planning and design will not only improve the local natural environment but also increase he longevity of the road, reduce overall maintenance costs, and reduce adverse impacts on local communities by protecting local drinking water supplies, and maintaining valuable natural resources.
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Determine Sensitivity of the Local Environment
Collect Relevant Data
Make Informed Alignment Choices
Undertake Careful Planning and Design of Water Crossings
Develop Mitigation Plans
Specify Environmental Plans in Construction and Maintenance Activities
Figure 1.1. Good Practice Procedures in Road Drainage Design
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Box 1.2. Summary of Good Practice Activities in Road Drainage Design

1. Determine Sensitivity Of The Local Environment: 2. Collect Relevant Data: Identify sensitive environments in the proposed road corridor and determine whether these can be adequately protected, or need to be avoided Identify the main potential impacts, working from basic data on the drainage basin, nature and frequency of flooding, water quality, water use, fauna species and habitats. Identify the sensitivity of the road and surrounding area to erosion, instability and contamination. Soil type, vegetation and land use are particular points to consider. Health risks should also be identified, especially diseases and movement of waterborne disease vectors. Assess the likely modification of existing conditions arising from construction of the road. Minimise water crossings and avoid sensitive areas wherever possible, including those with a high risk of erosion or slope instability Take account of design changes which concentrate or speed up flows, lower the water table, or increase flood risks. Factors to be considered include horizontal and vertical alignment, cross section, slopes, drainage of subgrade and surrounding area, as well as restoration of natural surface and underground flow and replanting of vegetation. Give priority to mitigative measures which are easy to implement and require only local materials Planning and construction of water-crossings needs to be co-ordinated with local aquatic conditions such as flow regimes, fish movement, and human use. Inadequate planning can have severe long-term effects; for example an improperly sized bridge culvert could cause flooding bringing economic losses, impaired fish migration, erosion and siltation. Mitigation plans include proposals for specific technical measures, such as planting of cleared areas, installation of flow-speed dissipaters and slope retaining structures, sediment control measures, and recommendations for subsequent maintenance. Scheduling, and dictating the manner in which works are undertaken, may also be included. Environmental specifications for contractors should cover road design, bridge and culvert construction, drainage installation and any work site plans which may affect water flows and quality, including fuel storage and re-fuelling areas.
3. Make Informed Alignment Choices: 4. Select Preferred Design Which Limits Erosion:
5. Undertake Careful Planning And Design Of Water Crossings:
6. Develop Mitigation Plans:
7. Specifications In Contract Documents:
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2.
IDENTIFICATION OF SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Road drainage can affect the natural environment in a variety of different ways, depending on the characteristics of the local environment. Rural road engineers need to be able to identify those types of environment that are of particular importance, and understand why they are of importance, to enable them to decide how they could/should be considered in the design of road drainage. Environments identified as being of particular importance by the International Aid Agencies have been identified in Boxes 2.1-2.6, along with a brief summary of their importance in terms of the natural environment and social/community activities. For more detail on each of these environments, the reader is referred to the World Banks Operational Policy on Natural Habitats (World Bank, 1994) and DFIDs Guidance Note on International Environmental Agreements (DFID, 1998). When encountering any of these sensitive environments along a proposed road corridor, careful thought must be given to whether it is possible to avoid these areas and , if not, the measures required to ensure these areas are adequately protected.
Box 2.1. Mangrove Dominated Coastlines

Mangrove forests occur at the fringes of tropical coastlines and are typified by soils that are frequently flooded and waterlogged. These areas provide food for small aquatic animals that in turn support fish and wading birds that could well have an economic value to the local or national community. Mangroves also provide protection from storm erosion and provide valuable products such as wood for charcoal. Given their value to national and local economies, mangroves should not be diked or permanently flooded. Normal tidal flooding should not be restricted and the network of circulatory streams should be protected. Also, fine sediment should not be allowed to flow into the flooded forest area. For these reasons it is usually best to locate roads away from these areas.
Box 2.2. Coral reefs

Coral reefs provide a habitat for diverse populations of fish and other aquatic life. In a similar manner to mangrove forests, they reduce wave energy which not only provides protection from storms but, in this instance, can also provide conditions beneficial for sport, commercial fishing, recreational diving and other activities with an economic value to the local community. Growth of the reef is slow, and it is easily damaged by poor water quality resulting from sediment/pollution discharges. Consequently, road construction on nearby shores should avoid drainage, or release of sediment, into such areas.
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Box 2.3. Wetlands and Estuaries

Like mangrove forests and coral reefs, wetlands provide nursery habitats for many species of fish and wildlife that may also be of value to local communities. By temporarily storing large quantities of water, wetlands also play an important role in reducing flooding problems and recharging ground water supplies. They help to maintain water quality by filtering out pollutants and sediments, and serve to control erosion by trapping soil washed from nearby uplands. Estuaries are among the word's richest and most productive environmental areas. Sunlight in warm shallow waters and nutrients from rivers and the ocean encourage the growth of algae and marsh vegetation. This in turn provides cover for fish, birds and mammals. Consequently, estuaries are important habitats for migratory waterfowl and fish. They may also provide productive farmland, drinking water and recreational areas. Wetlands and estuaries can easily be damaged through water diversions and pollution. Consequently, roads crossing wetlands and deltas should be located at the narrowest point. The crossing should be designed to alter the existing nature of the aquatic environment as little as possible, and the construction process should be carefully planned to avoid excessive discharges. Methods to reduce flow velocities and trap excessive sediment should be incorporated into road design and construction activities where necessary.
Box 2.4. Arid Regions

About one-third of the earth's land mass is arid to semiarid. Typically, rainfall occurs in brief intervals and is unpredictable from year to year. Because of these conditions, deserts are among the most fragile ecosystems on the planet. Biological and economic resources, notably soil quality, freshwater supplies, and vegetation are easily damaged, mainly due to a combination of climate variability and unsustainable human activities (especially poor irrigation practices). Roads in these areas should be carefully located to avoid dry valleys prone to flash flooding. Care should be given to the consequences of secondary development resulting from road construction, especially as it may put pressure on already limited natural water supplies. By careful design of the road drainage system, however, it might be possible not only to protect these sensitive areas, but also enhance natural water supplies and encourage the development of sustainable economic activities by encouraging retention and use of flood water.
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Box 2.5. Mountain Regions

Mountainous regions, especially those experiencing humid climates, are unstable landscapes. Intense and prolonged rainfall leads to locally high groundwater tables, saturated soils and large quantities of surface runoff during the wet season. Land slides, erosion, river flooding and periodic earthquakes usually compound these problems. In hot humid regions, rapid rock weathering and heavy rainfall act to induce erosion and land slides. Cultivatable land is in short supply in such regions and has a high local economic and community value. Mountain regions are difficult places in which to construct and maintain roads. Frequently, topography, slope stability, flood hazard and erosion potential will be the most significant controls on the choice of alignment and design of cross-section. Road construction can lead to impoundment or change of drainage pattern with increased erosion potential. Consequently, road geometry, earthworks, retaining structures and drainage systems must be designed to cause the least impact on the stability of the surrounding slopes and natural drainage systems. Excessive blasting, cutting, side tipping of spoils and concentrated or uncontrolled road drainage must be avoided as this will often lead to accelerated instability and erosion.
Box 2.6. Rain Forests

Although tropical rain forests cover only 7 percent of the earth's land area, they contain about onehalf of the 1.9 million named species in the world, as well as innumerable species yet to be properly identified. This degree of biodiversity is seen as a valuable resource which, as yet, remains largely untapped. The special characteristics of tropical woods also makes them valuable as a source of industrial wood, with an immediate commercial value. Tropical rain forest has a much greater influence on the global climate and carbon dioxide levels than the other main types of forest (tropical dry forests and temperate forests). Moreover, they are the most fragile forests in that their soils are easily degraded once deforested, and experience to date indicates that even if reforestation or selective felling is attempted, the original ecosystems cannot be fully renewed or sustained. De-forestation has accelerated in recent years for three reasons: The pressure of population on the natural resource base has grown sharply in many countries. Income opportunities in settled agricultural regions have deteriorated in some countries, leading to increased migration and encroachment on forested land. Access to the forest frontier has increased dramatically in some areas because of infrastructure development, especially road building.
If rain forest areas cannot be avoided when planning a new road, careful consideration must be given to indirect effects, including the long-term effects of secondary development, in these areas.
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3. 3.1
SITE SURVEY AND DATA ASSEMBLY General Objectives
This chapter addresses the field survey and data assembly activities that should be incorporated into scheduled engineering surveys and studies to enable an environmental baseline to be established. This information is then used to inform choices made during the design and construction of a road to ensure the best environmental option is chosen, while still meeting the objectives of the road scheme. An understanding of the characteristics of an area through which a road is being constructed enables the engineer not only to identify potential engineering problems and benefits to road construction (location of raw materials, unstable geology etc), but also the potential environmental problems and benefits. This environmental baseline information is used as a reference point from which potential changes, arising from construction, operation and maintenance of the road, can be identified. Much of this baseline information is gathered by conducting field surveys within, and collating existing data on, the road corridor. Box 3.1 summarises the objectives of site survey and data collection.
Box 3.1 Objectives Of Site Survey And Data Collation

1. Determine the wildlife features of the road corridor in terms of quality, quantity and visual qualities that will determine the importance of the area. If necessary, locate similar geographical areas with data suitable for transfer into the geographical area of interest. 2. Identify issues relevant to local communities (land use, heritage, cultural issues). 3. Determine the water quality, quantity and visual qualities of the road corridor to use as a baseline to compare possible changes caused by construction (including groundwater data that influences surface waters, abstraction points for drinking water supplies, commercial fisheries etc). 4. Identify the nature and quantity of existing discharges to watercourses. 5. Identify any future land use changes planned for the road corridor that could influence watercourses. 6. Forecast what mitigation measures should be included in the design, construction and maintenance activities to protect the surface waters (using worst case scenarios).
The first activity in collating this information is to carry out a walkover study of the road corridor and make a preliminary identification of watercourses and other possible sensitive areas (see Chapter 2) that may be affected by construction of the road. Most of the remaining information can be carried out through desktop studies. If there is a deficiency of published information it might be necessary to carry out field studies or it may be possible to transfer data from another similar geographical area. Early co-ordination with expert bodies such as water resource sections of government departments, wildlife agencies and governmental planning agencies should be undertaken to assist in the identification of all pertinent laws and regulations regarding environmental protection, and in the identification of protected and/or sensitive areas. Liaison with the local communities is also necessary to assist in identifying detailed characteristics of the road corridor, including cultural/heritage sites. Time constraint issues are identified in Box 3.2. Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990 9
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Box 3.2 Time Considerations In Data Assembly

When deciding how much time to spend the following should be considered: Sensitivity of the road and the surrounding area; Time constraints: restrictions imposed by project schedules will affect the level of data collected; Resource availability e.g. sufficiently qualified personnel, necessary equipment, and project funds; and, Site accessibility.
All data collection should be taken during a stable time i.e. not just after a drought or flood, and should encompass the entire geographic area affected by the road (not just limited to the road right-of-way). Again, the use of experts may be required to determine these boundaries. To establish an adequate baseline, and determine the potential impacts of the proposed road on the surrounding environment, the data collected should be adequate to describe: existing water quality and quantity climate land use soil and geology people wildlife
The detailed information required for each of these topics, and methods of collection, is described below. 3.2 Watercourse Surveys Watercourse information will include: changes arising from the elimination or change in the size of a surface or groundwater feature; the effect on floodplains and wetlands; effects on flood control; and the duration and limits of flooding. Water quality and quantity control requirements and information on protected/sensitive areas within the study area may be found in laws and regulations. A review of previous studies and reports concerning water quality and quantity in the area will help to identify other problems. Sources for this information are: educational institutions, governmental agencies at all levels, and quasi-public bodies.
Useful information for determining the effect of the road upon watercourses is given in Table 3.1 below. The table is separated according to information obtained from an initial walkover survey, desk studies and field surveys.
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Source Walkover Survey Desk Studies Field Data
Aspects to consider Note where boundaries are intersected by route alternatives Identify any exposed groundwater that may be affected Identify any features that would allow the surface water to affect groundwater Note the presence of e.g. lakes, marshes, bogs, wetlands, streams and rivers, especially those with unique surface water character and aesthetics note existing water surface areas, volumes and stream lengths. Identify groundwater recharge areas Identify flood control facilities Identify past, existing and future sources of pollution, and their points of discharge Identify current water use e.g. fishing, recreation, water supply, cultural associations Locate water supply reservoirs and facilities (intakes) Identify water rights and type of water use e.g. agricultural, municipal, industrial, recreational, religious etc Is there any information on water quality What are the downstream water uses e.g. abstraction points What is the current flood risk What fish and animals are dependant on local surface water supplies, and what are their migratory habits What are the future planned uses for the area. Where channel crossings are necessary, sufficient information is needed to describe the channel upstream and downstream of the crossing Establish normal flow depths and volumes associated with various seasonal discharges Determine natural sediment discharge rates for various seasons. What is the estimated temporary and permanent volume of runoff from the proposed road Table 3.1. Information Required In Watercourse Studies
3.3
Meteorological Data
Climatic considerations include seasonal variations in temperature, precipitation, and wind strength/direction. Knowledge of the climatic conditions is necessary for: Effective design of stormwater drainage, Predicting likely erosion patterns/rates, and Determining when best to carry out certain construction activities.
Data will vary in availability and format, but both current and historical climatological data may be used. Data from outside the geographic area of interest should only be used when data is unavailable from within the study area, and be supported with local knowledge.
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Clearly any new road construction will displace existing land uses and affect adjacent land use patterns. Consequently, a study should be carried out to determine present and future land use activities that might be influenced by road construction. The following land use features of the study area should be identified: Protected/designated sites; Other environmentally sensitive areas (see chapter 2); Sources of pollution e.g. waste sites, areas of contamination; Productive farmland, including details of irrigation; Recreational land; Features with an unusual aesthetic value; Archaeological sites; and Heritage sites.
Most of this information will come from desk studies, but valuable information can also be gained from consultation with local residents and landowners. 3.5 Geotechnical Survey There are three geotechnical areas for which the possible impact of the road needs to be identified: soil erosion, pollution and sediment loadings. This information is normally collected as part of the geological survey, but is specified here to indicate the environmental importance of these features. 3.5.1 Soil Erosion Soils prone to erosion, either because of textural or slope characteristics, need to be identified and adequate protection measures incorporated in both the road design and road construction plan to reduce the amount of erosion. Relevant information includes: 3.5.2 Soil type (texture) in terms of susceptibility to erosion. Main topographical features, such as cliffs, terraces etc; Natural slope angles; Uninterrupted length of slope; The stability of slopes; and Cuts, fills and other earthwork features for the proposed route alternates
Pollution
Rural road projects, by virtue of their low traffic volumes and low percentage of freight traffic, should not constitute a pollution problem during use. Although unlikely, geological exploration and evaluation of proposed construction areas should also determine whether harmful minerals might be transported to adjacent surface waters during excavation of raw materials. The main source of pollution however, is likely to come from construction activities, mainly in the form of sediment in run-off. 3.5.3 Sediment Loadings Information on sediment is needed in order to estimate the existing sediment loading within local watercourses, and to assess the effect that sediment from road construction will have on surface waters. Where information is not available, information should be collected so that pre-construction sediment discharge can be estimated and seasonal fluctuations identified. Watercourses with periods of low natural sediment discharge will be more susceptible to a large influx of construction sediment. During periods of high natural sediment discharge the sediment added from construction activities may have negligible effects. Road construction activities should be planned accordingly. Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990 12
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Construction and operation of a road can alter the life style of communities in the surrounding area, particularly in remote areas. The effects could be short term, for the construction period, or long term if the project results in secondary activity and development. Watercourses serve local communities in several ways: Water supply; Recreation; Agriculture; Transportation; Waste disposal.
If the road construction requires a temporary labour force to be accommodated in the local area, or if secondary development is a possibility, the following questions should be addressed by the survey and considered in the road design: Will traditional rights and needs be considered in a just and fair manner? Does the area support, or will it support, significant commercial fisheries and will these be affected? Will potable water supplies be affected in terms of quality or quantity? Will there be the capacity to increase water abstraction if the population increases? Are sufficient controls in place to limit disease e.g. mosquito controls.
This information should be obtained by discussions with local government officials, local residents and walkover surveys. 3.7 Fish and Wildlife Surveys Wildlife are dependent on many physical, chemical and geometric features of watercourses, such as water quality, water depth, riffles and pools. The walkover survey should identify those characteristics that will be affected by road construction. Aspects to consider when assessing impacts to the aquatic environment and surrounding wildlife are set out in Table 3.2 below.
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Stage Walkover survey:
Aspects to consider What are the vegetative patterns in the river corridor. Will sensitive wildlife habitat and features be damaged or lost? Critical areas include: feeding areas; protective cover, spawning and breeding grounds, nesting and nursery areas, and dry or wet season refuge areas. Is there any existing information on local wildlife and habitats? Are there any endangered species and are they dependent upon the area permanently or at particular times of the year? Are there any areas protected by Government legislation etc? What is the relative seasonal abundance and distribution of wildlife within the area? What are the migration patterns and timings of various species? What are the critical periods (e.g. nesting period of waterfowl; spawning and nursery periods of fish)? Will the road disrupt the area and will natural processes be able to repair the damage? Will animal or plant species be lost? Will pests and pathogens e.g. mosquitoes become more common?
Desk Study
Expert Advice will required to identify:
Table 3.2 Information Required In Fish And Wildlife Surveys
3.8
Mitigation
Once all the baseline data has been collected it will be possible to assemble an inventory to indicate the interrelationships between watercourses and the other study area features investigated. This will help to summarise the changes that road construction and use may have on the environment. Ways of mitigating adverse impacts and enhancing positive impacts can then be incorporated into the planning, design, construction and/or maintenance of the road. The earlier that adverse changes are identified, the more options an engineer has to address them, resulting in more effective methods of mitigation and reduced magnitude of the effect. Five ways to mitigate losses are listed below, in order of priority: Avoid the effect altogether by not taking a certain action or part of an action; Minimise the effect by limiting the degree or magnitude of the action and its implementation; Rectify the effect by repairing, rehabilitating or restoring the affected environment; Reduce the effect over time by preservation and maintenance operations during the life of the action; and Compensate for the effect by replacing or providing substitute resources or environments.
Methods of mitigating the changes caused by road construction should be used to inform decisions regarding the alignment of the road, the drainage design, construction practices and maintenance practices. This is addressed in more detail in the following chapters.
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4. ROAD ALIGNMENT Good choice of road alignment can avoid many potential environmental problems. Where possible the road should be located to avoid recognised sensitive environments, and not disrupt natural surface waters or aquatic habitats. It is appreciated that, in many cases, it will not be possible to avoid all sensitive areas. In such circumstances, roads should be located to minimise the number of river crossings and channel alterations. Those areas that should ideally be avoided during road alignment studies are given in the Table 4.1 below. Areas to Avoid Other considerations
Recognised sensitive environments (see Avoid sensitive areas by 1km if possible. Chapter 2) Watercourses and dry channels identified in If necessary to cross water courses, the route survey minimise number of water crossings and locate crossings at narrowest points of watercourse where there is no evidence of active bank erosion. River flood plains and other low-lying areas that might be inundated by storm surges Areas susceptible to erosion. Minimise land disturbance and do not exceed a road grade of 12% or 5% if located near riverbanks.
Edges of watercourses and lakes, river Locate to provide a buffer strip of at least mouths, lake outlets. 100 m of undisturbed land between the road and any water body. Crossings should not be placed within 450m of a river mouth or lake outlet. Important fisheries and fish spawning areas. Groundwater recharge areas.
Table 4.1. Environmental Issues Influencing Road Alignment Choices Where river crossings and channel alterations are necessary, adverse changes to the environment can be reduced by incorporation of appropriate mitigation techniques into the road drainage design.
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5.
ROAD DESIGN
Like good road alignment, good design can also avoid many environmental problems arising at a later date during construction, operation and maintenance. 5.1 River Crossings Following the order of preference for mitigation given in Section 3. 8, river crossings should be avoided wherever possible by appropriate choice of road alignment. Where water crossings cannot be avoided, they should be designed to minimise interference with natural river conditions through bridging or culverts. Issues to consider are outlined in Box 5.1.
Box 5.1. Road Crossing Design Criteria

The design and scheduling of approaches to river crossings should maintain stability of valley walls and river banks and minimise changes that could lead to slope failures, gullying, and related disturbances; The scheduling, location, and design of watercourse crossings (temporary and permanent) should enable safe upstream and downstream passage of fish; The impact of crossings on runoff, bank erosion, migration of stream channels, ice jams, upstream ponding and streambed scouring should be mitigated; Include design and/or maintenance procedures to prevent the crossing from being clogged by floating debris.
5.2
Drainage Design
Conventional drainage networks are designed to facilitate the efficient collection and rapid transport of water away from the road. Unfortunately this often results in heightened peak runoff volumes and increases in erosion and pollution problems in natural rivers and streams. Groundwater recharge may also be restricted. Good road drainage design should consider, therefore, not just the removal of runoff water, but also maintenance of sensitive environments, public health, natural water resources and the cost effectiveness of future maintenance activities. For example, in very dry areas, road drainage can be designed to retain water in small dams or maintain a high water level that will increase the availability of water for wildlife and local inhabitants and recharge local aquifers. In areas prone to flooding, road works can incorporate retarding basins to reduce runoff peaks, or they can improve drainage in residential or farming areas that are excessively sensitive to flood damage. 5.2.1 Drains Surface water drains should be designed to carry uncontaminated rainwater to a local stream, river, pond, detention pond or soakaway. Nothing that could cause pollution should be allowed to enter these drains. Roadside table drains should follow natural drainage lines where possible, to reduce water velocity and therefore erosion. They can be sown with grass and maintained by mowing, so they trap silt efficiently. Cut-off drains can be used to divert runoff water before it reaches critical areas, and diverting drains avoid excessive concentration of flow. Concrete or wood dissipation structures will slow fast running storm water in drains and hence reduce downstream erosive potential. Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990 16
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Culverts should be provided as necessary to prevent a road from disrupting or changing the existing natural drainage regime. The ideal location for installation of a culvert is where the river or stream gradient is as close to zero as possible, and where there are no sudden increase in water velocity. Culvert shapes vary, and are listed below in order of their positive environmental attributes: Shelved: Good for wildlife passage. Arched: This may have an open or a closed bottom. The open bottom type allows for natural riverbed material to be retained. Horizontal Ellipse: By lowering the culvert invert below the stream bed elevation it is possible use the wide middle portion of this culvert for maintaining stream flow width and maintain natural river bed material in the culvert. Small barrier dams placed on the culvert bottom will provide some protection against the material washing out. Circular: This is the most familiar culvert shape but may restrict fish passage if not installed correctly. This, and other issues to be considered when designing culverts are listed in Box 5.2.
Box 5.2. Culvert Design Criteria

Culvert inverts must be laid a minimum of 15cm below normal streambed elevation. Design to prevent sag. Sag in a non-cambered culvert can impose a passage problem for fish due to the increased culvert gradient on the upstream side of the sag. Gradient should be as close to a 0% gradient as foundations and stream conditions permit, as long as upstream velocity barriers are not formed as a result. The maximum culvert slope that should be installed when employing a baffle configuration is 5%. The culvert should have sufficient capacity to pass the design flood (generally a 1 in 50 year flood) with no backwatering or ponding at the upstream end of the culvert. There should also be sufficient allowance for passage of debris. If construction procedures permit, the bolt connections should be installed with the bolt head on the culvert interior to prevent fish being damaged. The streambed at the downstream end of the culvert may require armouring with heavy riprap material to prevent bed scour. This should extend at least 2 pipe diameters past the culvert outlet. Such controls must allow for fish and floating debris passage. When installing multiple culverts, a minimum distance of 1.8m between adjacent culvert walls in the arrangement will provide a backwater area (downstream end) in which fish can rest before passage.
Water flow entering or leaving a culvert generally undergoes an abrupt and localised change in water surface elevation, this causes an increase in water velocities that can form a localised velocity barrier to upstream fish movement. To avoid this the maximum "draw down" through any section of the culvert should not exceed 0.3 metres. Culverts should be designed so that the average cross-sectional velocity through any section does not exceed 0.9 m/s during fish migration periods. Alternatively the culvert design should include a selected region, continuous throughout the length, where velocities are low enough to permit fish passage.
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The aim when making channel alterations is to control erosion and flooding while still providing good habitat for wildlife. If the cross sectional shape of the original channel is stable with desirable low flow depths, velocities and adequate minimum flow requirements, efforts should be made to keep modified channels the same in terms of profile, shape, and vegetative cover. It is likely therefore that any new or altered channel will not have a straight alignment and will vary in width, depth and gradient. This will allow the new or altered channel to return to a relatively stable condition with less total erosion. Further information is given in Box 5.3. For low flow channels the formation of overhanging banks, and other stream enhancing features is encouraged (see section 5.4).
Box 5.3. Issues To Be Considered When Reducing The Environmental Effects Of Channel Modifications.
A relocated stream channel should carry approximately the same discharge as the original natural channel. Usually this will be a discharge in the range of the 50% chance flood to the 10% chance flood. Shortening the length of the stream often causes channel instability. This may start a cycle of erosion that can cause damage upstream and downstream. Therefore preserve the natural gradient by making the new channel the same length as the original. If the channel must be shortened building check dams to absorb some of the elevation difference can preserve the original gradient. In some cases, the channel may be made rougher (e.g. using rocks) to offset the steeper gradient. Some bank erosion will occur as an essential part of the channel forming process, however in areas where the road or land needs protecting riprap bank protection should be used. Provide stream grade control structures to preserve the natural channel profile or increase the channel change length by constructing an artificial meander. Grade control practices have disadvantages. Drop structures and culverts in natural channels may be easily and quickly bypassed as a result of a stream's natural meander tendency. They may also inhibit the migration of aquatic wildlife. To minimise these problems, it may be necessary to routinely provide remedial erosion protection.
5.3
Storm Water, Erosion and Pollution Control
Stormwater, erosion and pollution control efforts should include one or more of the following techniques: Reducing the amount of erosion and therefore sediment available for transport into runoff; Measures which will remove the sediment from the runoff, prior to release into water courses (by means of sedimentation, filtration, biological uptake, and/or soil adsorption); and/or Siting pollution risks away from watercourses.
Temporary erosion and stormwater controls will be employed during the construction process and afterwards removed or converted to permanent measures. The design should ensure that the flow leaving the site during construction is no greater in pollution loading, velocity, or quantity than it was before construction started. All temporary conveyance systems should be sufficiently stable to withstand a 2-year storm event. Most projects with earthworks will require at least one control measure to retain sediments on the site. Table 5.1 gives existing options that should be evaluated for their suitability to the project. Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990 18
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Permanent erosion and stormwater control measures are put in place to control erosion and runoff after construction has been completed. Table 5.2 gives options that should be considered. Temporary controls should be converted to permanent controls where practical. For instance ponds used for sediment control during construction can be designed and built as the detention facilities to control stormwater runoff. A pond used for temporary sediment control during construction must be cleaned before it becomes a part of the system. Ponds that are designed to include infiltration must not be used as a sedimentation pond during construction since there is no way to clean the trapped particles from within the soil. Conveyance channels during the construction phase can be utilised as permanent conveyance or even swales, if they are cleaned and seeded as required. The preferred stormwater control measure is an infiltration pond since it not only reduces potential flooding but also recharges the local ground water table. Road-generated sediment in runoff will often occur for brief periods even though sound erosion control practices are employed. Consequently, sensitive environments and locations such as municipal water supplies, recreational areas, industrial water supplies, may require additional erosion and sediment control. These should be included in the design. Permanent erosion control features can also provide environmental enhancements in the form of additional water supplies, groundwater recharge and recreational areas. Table 5.2 outlines the potential advantages of these permanent features, however, consultation with local communities and relevant government departments should be undertaken at an early stage in planning and design to ensure that the feature is appropriate to the surrounding environment and community.
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Rational Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection
Practice
Straw Bale Barrier Sediment Trap. Temporary Seeding of Stripped Areas
Definition
Temporary barrier straw bales. constructed from
Conditions Where Practice Applies

Can be employed construction site. around
Advantages
Disadvantages
Temporary Sediment Pond or Basin The establishment of a temporary vegetative cover on disturbed areas by seeding with rapidly growing plants. This provides temporary soil stabilisation to areas that would remain bare for more than seven days where permanent cover is not necessary or appropriate.
This can sometimes be combined with the permanent detention pond. Permanent structures are to be installed or extensive re-grading of the area will occur prior to the establishment of permanent vegetation. Areas that will not be subjected to heavy wear by construction traffic. Areas sloping up to 10 percent for 30 m or less (where temporary seeding is the only control used). Area will remain undisturbed for growing season. In areas that have been seeded either for temporary or permanent cover,. Areas that cannot be seeded because of the season, or are otherwise unfavourable for plant growth. Relatively inexpensive but should only be used on sites awaiting permanent planting or grading. Vegetation will prevent erosion from occurring and trap sediment in runoff from other parts of the site. Temporary seeding is only viable when there is a sufficient time for plants to establish cover. If sown on subsoil, growth may be poor unless heavily fertilised and limed, but over-fertilisation can cause pollution of aquatic systems. Once seeded, areas cannot be used for heavy traffic. May require regular irrigation.
Mulching Matting
and
Application of plant residues or other suitable materials to the soil surface. Provides immediate protection through to exposed soil areas.
Offers instant protection .to exposed areas. Conserves moisture and reduces the need for irrigation. Does not need removal; seeds can grow through. Good for shorter time periods. in controlling
Care must be taken to apply mulch at the specified thickness, and on steep slopes mulch must be supplemented with netting. Thick mulches can reduce the soil temperature, delaying seed germination.
Plastic Covering
Use only if the other cover practices cannot be used.
Can be effective sedimentation.
Litter potential. Can increase downstream runoff. Seeds cannot grow through.
Table 5.1. Temporary Erosion Control Techniques
Rational Road Drainage Design R6990
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Practice
Dust Control
Definition
Use of water or approved dust palliative to reduce surface and air movement of dust during land disturbing, demolition, and construction activities. A temporary sediment trap consisting of a filter fabric stretched across and attached to supporting posts and entrenched. Constructed of stakes and synthetic filter fabric with a rigid wire fence backing where necessary for support.

In areas subject to surface and air movement of dust where damage is likely to occur Below disturbed areas where runoff may occur in the form of sheet and rill erosion; wherever runoff has the potential to impact downstream resources. Perpendicular to minor swales or ditch lines for contributing drainage areas up to 0.5 hectare in size.
Advantages
Reduces risk of respiratory problems. Reduces loss of good quality top soil.
Disadvantages
Use of water on-site may cause a runoff hazard particularly in areas where the soil is already compacted. Problems may arise from incorrect selection of pore size and/or improper installation. Filter fences should not be constructed in streams or used in V-shaped ditches. Only adequate method for sheet or overland flow. Sediment must be removed when it reaches approximately 1/3 the height of the fence and remaining sediments must be reprofiled.
Filter Fence
Downstream bank side and in stream habitat will not be damaged by sediment deposits originating from the development. Flexible siting.
Table 5.1 contd. Temporary Erosion Control Techniques
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Practice
Check Dams
Definition
Small dams constructed across a swale or drainage ditch to reduce velocity and erosion.

Where temporary channels or permanent channels are not yet vegetated and channel lining is infeasible. In small open channels which drain 4 Ha or less. No check dams should be placed in streams.
Advantages
Vegetation pretreats runoff. Inexpensive. Prevent gully erosion from occurring before vegetation is established, but also cause a high proportion of the sediment load in runoff to settle out. In some cases, if carefully located and designed, these check dams can remain as permanent installations with very minor regrading, etc. Pollutant removal is achieved primarily through sedimentation and biological processes Borrow pits may be adapted for this propose if conditions are suitable.
Disadvantages
Often are unsightly, and should be removed or converted to permanent check dams before project completion.
Wet Pond
A permanent pool removing pollutants through sedimentation, biological uptake, and plant filtration. May also be designed to provide storm water quantity control through the use of a storage area above the permanent pool.
Mitigates pollution, suitable to drain areas > 4 hectares. A landscaped vegetative buffer strip (at least 7m wide) should be established around the perimeter of the pond.
Have higher construction and land costs; Many pollutants, are retained in the pond's sediments; Potential problems in soil types with high permeability or in areas with high evapotranspiration rates.
Pond depth, surface area and shape are all important factors affecting the efficiency of pollutant removal; a shallow shelf area design (>30 cm) provides a platform for aquatic plants Constructed wetlands Designed to retain storm water runoff. Can assimilate larger quantities of dissolved and suspended solids; Pollutant removal occurs via plant uptake, physical filtration, adsorption, Gravitational settling and microbial decomposition; Borrow pits may be adapted for this propose if conditions are suitable
Not as effective as wet ponds in mitigating pollution. Potential problems with increased land requirements and difficulties in establishment in soil types with high permeability or in areas with high evapotranspiration rates.
Table 5.2. Permanent Stormwater and Erosion Control Practices
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Practice
Infiltration trenches basins
Definition
Shallow and back-filled with coarse gravel or stones designed to contain road runoff and purify it via percolation into the subsoil or to an outflow.

They are most suitable for small watersheds (less than 4 hectares). Needs a minimum depth to groundwater (~ 1-3 m) to avoid potential contamination, sufficient contact time must be present during deep percolation to ensure contamination is minimised. Steep slopes will prohibit infiltration practices (maximum allowable slope -5-7%). Primarily flood control devices; designed to be dry between storms drain areas less than 4 hectares.
Advantages
Pollutant removal rates are apparently high, although they are not well documented;
Disadvantages
Soil type, slope of terrain and depth to groundwater are important considerations. Many infiltration basins have failed due to clogging (usually within 5 years); pre-treatment areas, such as grassed swales can be effective in avoiding clogging.
and
Dry Pond and extended detention basins Provides stormwater quantity control by containing excess runoff in a detention basin, then releasing the runoff at allowable levels. Drainage structures can be used to provide a temporary detention basin. It may be necessary to secure flood casements with this alternative.
More effective if they are designed to retain runoff for 24 hours or more, allowing for increased removal of particles and associated pollutants. Borrow pits may be adapted for this propose if conditions are suitable
They are not reliable or effective in treating runoff water due to the short detention times associated with such structures. Up to 90% of particulate can settle out, not effective for soluble particulates such as nitrogen. If the site is to serve as a permanent retention basin, it may be necessary to evaluate the road embankment as a dam, entailing construction measures, materials, underdrains, spillways and permits It may also create an erosion problem if improperly secured. Stockpiles may obstruct site operations and require double handling.
Topsoiling
Preserving and using topsoil to enhance final site stabilisation with vegetation. This provides a suitable growth medium for final site stabilisation with vegetation.
Not a permanent cover practice but topsoiling is an integral component of preparing permanent cover to those areas where there is an unsuitable soil surface for plant growth. Applicable to areas with highly dense or impermeable soils or areas where planting is to be done in subsoil, where mulch and fertiliser alone would not provide a suitable growth medium.
Careful topsoil stockpiling ensures a good growth medium. The stockpiles can be used as noise and view baffles during construction.
Table 5.2 contd. Permanent Stormwater and Erosion Control Practices Rational Road Drainage Design R6990 23
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Practice
Pipe Drains Slope
Definition
Extends from the top to the bottom of a cut or fill slope and discharges into a stabilised water course, sediment trapping device or a stabilisation area. Used to carry concentrated runoff down steep slopes without causing gullies, channel erosion, or saturation of slideprone soils.

Where a temporary (or permanent) measure is needed for conveying runoff down a slope without causing erosion. The capacity should be sufficient to handle a 10-year flow. The entrance should consist of a standard flared end section for culverts 300 mm and larger. The slope of the entrance should be at least 3 %. The soil around and under the pipe and entrance section should be thoroughly compacted to prevent undercutting.
Advantages
Provides an effective method of conveying water safely down steep slopes.
Disadvantages
Care must be taken to correctly locate drains and not under design them; When clearing takes place prior to installing these drains re-vegetate the entire easement area.
Biofiltration Swale Vegetative filter strip
It is a sloped, vegetated channel or ditch that providing conveyance and water quality treatment to stormwater runoff. Provides stormwater quality treatment of conventional pollutants but not nutrients.
Any uptake of pollutants from stormwater is required. The primary use will be where sheet flow from the roadway will pass through the filter strip before entering a conveyance system or a quantity control facility. Vegetation should be preserved on steep slopes, near perennial and intermittent watercourses or swales, and on construction sites in wooded areas.
Conveys runoff to controls designed for storm water quality control. Pretreats runoff before it is directed toward a basin or trench for further clarification. Reduce stormwater runoff. Beautify an area and reduce landscaping costs. Provide areas for wildlife. Provide buffers and screens against noise Provide shade and cover habitat for surface waters and land.
t does not provide storm water quantity control Will not provide stormwater quantity control.
Preserving Vegetation
Minimising exposed soils and consequent erosion by clearing only where construction will occur.
Saving individual trees can be difficult, and older trees may become a safety hazard.
Table 5.2 contd. Permanent Stormwater and Erosion Control Practices
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Practice
Buffer Zones
Definition
An undisturbed area or strip of natural vegetation or an established suitable planting that will provide a living filter to reduce soil erosion and runoff velocities.

Natural buffer zones are used along streams and other bodies of water that need protection from erosion and sedimentation. Vegetative buffer zones can be used to protect natural swales and incorporated into natural landscaping of an area.
Advantages
Low maintenance and effective at controlling and filtering runoff. Provide critical habitat adjacent to streams and wetlands. Buffers along streams and other water bodies also provide a protected area where wildlife can move from one place to another. Act as a visibility screen. The filtering action of the grass is moderately effective in removing particulate pollutants. Low maintenance and effective way of controlling and filtering runoff. Provides a practical, inexpensive method to divert runoff from erosive situations.
Disadvantages
Extensive buffers will increase project costs. Nutrients or soluble pollutants are less likely to be removed.

Interceptor Dike and Swale A ridge of compacted soil or a swale with vegetative lining located at the top or base of a sloping disturbed area. This intercepts storm runoff from drainage areas above unprotected slopes and directs it to a stabilised outlet. Where the volume and velocity of runoff from exposed or disturbed slopes must be reduced. When placed above a disturbed slope, it reduces the volume of water reaching the disturbed area by intercepting runoff from above. When it is placed horizontally across a disturbed slope, it reduces the velocity of runoff by reducing the distance that the runoff can flow directly downhill.
Steep slopes and fine grained sands diminish the effectiveness, since steep slopes cause high runoff rates, which flattens the grass and reduces the time available for treatment and infiltration.
Table 5.2 contd. Permanent Stormwater and Erosion Control Practices
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5.4
Enhancing and Reconstructing Natural Environments
It may be necessary to reconstruct habitat damage caused during construction works to preserve the natural environment for the local plant and animal species and local communities. It may also be possible to increase the environmental, economic and social value of an area. 5.4.1 Riverbanks Overhanging areas provide habitats for both fish and wildlife. The most economical method to create overhanging banks is to excavate to provide near vertical banks and ensure that natural vegetation becomes established. Natural river flow processes will then encourage the formation of stable banks. Where a new uniform channel has been installed, banks can be created using wire-enclosed rock or the embedding of culverts in banks with one end protruding. Riprapped banks should be partially covered with soil to provide a toehold for grasses and plants. Care must be taken when locating overhanging banks: the location must have slow currents to deliver oxygen and food to fish population. They should not become isolated from the stream by sediment deposition during low flows. In a newly constructed channel it is sometimes difficult to determine reliable locations for artificial overhanging banks. Therefore it may be better to wait several seasons before installation as alterations made by the stream channel will make it easier to locate conditions suitable for overhanging banks. The construction of riverbanks should be suitable for local community activities as well as the natural environment. For example: Small craft such as canoes prefer a relatively shallow, gradual slope for beaching; Motored craft, except for launch areas, prefer a deeper shoreline; Certain aquatic species depend on both overhanging banks and shallow shorelines where wetland-type vegetation can be found for cover, breeding, nurseries and for food supplies; Farm animals and wildlife that feed in the water are dependent on shallow shorelines.
These should all be considered when designing new or re-constructed riverbank areas. 5.4.2 Water Features
Riffle and Pool Sequences Riffles and pools develop as a feature of natural stream erosion in areas where the stream bed material is relatively coarse (riffle-pool sequences will not develop in streams with sand or silt beds). The pool and riffle sequence is a valuable feature to fisheries, the riffles being important food producing areas. They can be constructed artificially using clusters of large (48 inches or greater) rocks or cribs, or wire gabions of smaller rock or logs. Artificial pool and riffle features can be very sensitive to large floods, bed load material and other stream forces. Steam Velocities Check Dams Check dams decrease the slope and velocity of a stream to control erosion. Plunge pools below the check dam can also provide excellent fish habitats. Check dams can be made out of logs, gabions or timber. They should be embedded in the streambed at least 0.6m and the end should extend into the banks about 3m beyond the low water line. Riprap bank protection is essential to prevent washout. They should be placed far enough apart so that the pool below a dam is above the backwater of the next dam downstream. Care should be
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taken, however, to ensure the dam does not block fish migration. Expert advice should be sought where necessary. Wetlands The creation of wetlands can provide a range of uses for both the natural environment and the local community. The four most common ways of creating wetland habitats are as follows: Use of ditches and culverts: Use of roadside ditches as wetlands provide a benefit to the environment by trapping road pollutants and providing cover, food and breeding areas. Borrow pits: either newly constructed or depleted borrow pits may be converted to productive wetlands with proper management and design; similar practices could be used to provide lake or pond habitats. Disposal of dredge spoil, and Use of selective excavation.
Weirs, commercial hydraulic brakes and spillways can be designed to regulate culvert flows. This may: provide an intermittent stream with a supply of water constant enough during dry months to support aquatic fauna. create shallow marshes suitable for waterfowl and mammals prevent the draining of existing wetlands, or sustain ecosystems that rely on intermittent dry and wet conditions.
Consultation with relevant government departments and local communities will be required to ensure that the wetland is appropriate to the surrounding environment and community. Careful design and landscaping will also be required to ensure that the newly created wetland calls for a little maintenance as possible. 5.5 Vegetation Vegetative cover shields soil from the impact of rain, holds the soil particles in place, maintains voids in the soil to allow absorbance of water, and physically slows the velocity of water thereby providing erosion and stormwater control. Vegetation also provides food and cover for wildlife and should be replaced and encouraged wherever possible. Box 5.4 lists those issues to be considered when selecting appropriate plants.
Box 5.4. Issues To Be Considered When Selecting Plants For Re-Vegetation

When selecting plants to use the following should be considered: Successful local plant species should be used where ever possible High degree of resistance to heat, cold, insects and diseases Potential for rapidly proliferating root system Potential for nitrogen fixation by root system Low maintenance requirements High drought resistance Responsiveness to fertilisers Attractiveness to wildlife Shrubs and trees can control erosion on slopes over 30-40%. Should be compatible with the site soil type Should fit with the desired engineering function.
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Vegetation in watercourses can be provided to enhance local wildlife. In-stream vegetation should not be located where sediment and debris will bury it, or where it will be damaged by scour or other abrasive transport characteristics of the watercourse. Wire enclosed or tethered devices might need to be protected from metal corrosion, depending on the pH of the watercourse. In-stream devices such as large boulders, or rock-filled gabions, should be secured to resist hydraulic forces, or located in a protected area within a stream. To ensure the stream/river remains suitable for fish populations any changes should still leave: sufficient depth during minimum flows, pools to furnish resting velocities, and sufficient current to bring oxygen and food into the cover areas.
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6.
CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS
Although adequate road drainage design aims to alleviate environmental problems, and possibly even enhance existing areas, road construction activities often result in temporary but significant adverse environmental impacts. Consequently, every effort should be made during construction of the road to minimise the disruption to aquatic and other surrounding ecosystems. Good practice procedures in road construction should be identified during the design stage, and be stipulated in construction contracts in the form of a site management plan. This plan should include instructions for: 6.1 Scheduling of construction activities Management of borrow pits Methods of site clearance Sediment and pollution control, and Waste management
Scheduling of Construction Activities
Ideally construction activities should not be planned for seasons where high rainfall or monsoons are likely to occur. Recognising that this is not always practical, those activities generating greatest potential ground disturbance should be scheduled to avoid periods of high rainfall intensity. Scheduling of ground clearing and transportation route construction should be planned so that there is no long interval between the two operations. Construction activity schedules should also contain flexibility to allow construction to cease during periods critical to fish, wildlife, or waterfowl. By constructing roads and modified channel concurrently it might be possible to dispose of the channel excavations as road fill. 6.2 Borrow Pits and Quarrying Use of local materials will reduce transportation costs and subsequent environmental impacts. If local material is going to be quarried certain guidelines, however, should be followed: Beach singles should only be used if they can be removed without destabilising the coastline Coral reefs should not be used to provide roadstone Gravels taken from river systems can deplete or destroy fish stocks.
Consequently, agreement from relevant government departments and or regulatory authorities should be sought before extraction is undertaken. Borrow pits should be located and operated so that any aquatic and other surrounding environments are not affected. Topsoil from borrow pit should be stripped and stockpiled for later distribution on disturbed areas. Stockpiles should be placed uphill to reduce or divert runoff. Borrow areas should be shaped, covered with topsoil and seeded to control erosion. Separation from streams or lakes by a buffer zone of at least 100m is desirable. The occurrence of tropical diseases such as malaria and bilharzia can be increased by an increase in standing water at construction sites. The site management plan should focus on elimination of casual water through good housekeeping practices. This should include ensuring that stormwater runoff does not accumulate in borrow sites and become stagnant.
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There are other mosquito control methods, including temporary artificial flooding and carefully designed ditching, which prevent mosquitoes from breeding successfully. Using borrow sites for stormwater retention, recharge, and sediment collection will have been considered at the design stage, and plans for post-construction use included in the site management plan. 6.3 Erosion and Sediment Control Temporary and permanent erosion and sediment control features have already been outlined in Tables 5.1. Appropriate techniques identified at the design stage will be specified in the construction site management plan. In addition to these structural features, however, other controls can be implemented to ensure that erosion and sediment pollution are kept to a minimum. Issues to be addressed are outlined in Box 6.1. Sediment from construction sites can also arise from the washing of vehicles. Vehicles should not be washed in natural water courses nor should water from equipment or material staging areas be allowed to drain directly in natural water courses without adequate sediment and/or pollution controls specified in the design. Work in watercourses should be minimised to the extent practicable as it may cause habitat damage, erosion and introduce pollutants. Guidelines for work in watercourses are outlined in Box 6.2. Box 6.1. Erosion And Sediment Control Measures During Construction
These should include, but should not be limited to, the following measures: Disturb as little of the site for the shortest possible time. Minimise the amount of exposed ground and stockpiles. Stockpiles can be seeded or covered and silt fences constructed. Where possible, organic debris and topsoil removed should be stored for use during site restoration. Such stockpiles should be located away from water courses/bodies and covered with coarse material or seeded to minimise wind and water erosion. Design cut and fill slopes to reduce the amount of area exposed to weathering and erosion. Use gentle side slopes; some slope can be beneficial for drainage; however, if they are too steep there will be erosion and scouring problems. Repair eroded sites by preparing the soil with fertilisers and/or mulches and replanting. Control overland drainage to prevent channelling and sediment transport by diverting flows from areas where soils are exposed, and/or by providing filter barriers or settling basins to remove sediment before the runoff is discharged to surface waters. Re-vegetated areas and areas subject to erosion must be monitored and maintained during project operation. The upper 3m of sloped surface should be compacted to 90% of maximum density as compaction will reduce the potential for erosion. Water velocity in ditches should be reduced by limiting ditch gradient and by designing the ditch with an appropriate cross section. V-shaped ditches are prone to erosion and should only be considered if protected with coarse granular material. On sand dunes, cut slope and embankment surfaces should be capped with a silt-clay material approximately 2 cm thick wherever possible or, if economically unfeasible, re-vegetate. Where possible prevent water from entering excavations. Silty water arising from excavations, exposed ground, stockpiles, plant and wheel washing and site roads should not be pumped directly into a watercourse or drain. Retain sediments containing oil and other pollutants on the construction site and dispose of safely. Minimise contamination of water resources by stormwater runoff by directing into settling basins. Use only clean fill materials around watercourses, such as quarried rock containing no fine soil.
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Box 6.2. Guidelines For Works In Watercourses

New channels for stream locations should be excavated in the dry if possible. Where work must be done in the existing channel, for example when starting a retaining wall, work should be scheduled during extreme low water periods, and the stream diverted. Minimise in-stream construction activities during known migration and spawning periods. Pipeline/cable placed beneath riverbeds should be covered with backfill similar to dredged material. Fill should not be taken from elsewhere in the streambed nor should it contain debris. Section above the low water mark on each side of the river should be completely backfilled and all underwater contours re-established. Excavations on land should terminate at least 15 m from water crossings, leaving adequate plugs of undisturbed material at each bank. Plugs should be left in place until excavation is completed. Stockpile dredging spoil on riverbanks within dyked areas to prevent sediment from washing back into river. Pump particularly silty water from the trench into an upland area well back from riverbank. Use impervious clay plugs around pipes to avoid sluicing of backfilled material. Slope riverbanks to natural contours after pipe is installed using rip-rap if erosion is a problem; above rip-rap, terrace according to the natural gradient and soil wherever it is necessary to catch runoff and prevent sediment from entering watercourse.
6.4
Pollution Control During Construction
Many chemicals are used during construction which have the potential to pollute water courses, including: solvents, paints, oils, fuels such as gasoline, diesel oil, kerosene, lubricating oils, and grease. When used or stored improperly, most of these chemicals will adhere to soil and sediment particles, possibly become mixed with storm water and carried into local water courses as runoff. Standard erosion and sediment control techniques will encompass most of the pollution control measures needed. By storing such chemicals in the appropriate manner, however, and applying them in a proper manner, pollution problems can be reduced still further. Guidelines for the proper storage of hazardous chemicals are given in Box 6.3.
Box 6.3 Storage of Hazardous Materials

Storage and liquid impoundment areas for chemicals and waste products should be designed with secondary containment, such as dikes, to prevent contamination of the surrounding environment. Contents should be clearly marked on the container, Store products in weather-resistant sheds where possible. Create shelter around storage area with cover and wind protection, Keep containers off the ground. Keep lids securely fastened. A staging area should be specified for vehicle maintenance activities, located away from drainage courses. All storage facilities and equipment should be regularly monitored for leaks and repaired as necessary. Storage at or above roof level should be avoided. Sites of all fuel, lubricant and petrochemical depots should be located a minimum of 200m from any lake, stream or river, preferably 300m. Fuelling of equipment should not take place within 100 m of river, lake or stream.
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6.5
Waste Management
The correct handling, storage and disposal of waste materials are vital to avoid environmental harm. During construction, every opportunity should be made to minimise the waste created. Any useful materials should be salvaged and recycled. For instance, masonry waste can be used for filling borrow pits; and trees and brush from land clearing can be converted into wood chips through mechanical chippers and then used as mulch in graded areas. The major control mechanism to prevent pollution is to provide adequate disposal facilities. The correct method of disposal will vary with the material. Wash-up waters from water-based paints may go into a sanitary sewer, but wastes from oil-based paints, cleaning solvents, thinners, and mineral spirits must be collected and disposed of through proper incineration. Disposal of concrete products, additives, and curing compounds depends on the product. Guidelines are given in Box 6.4
Box 6.4. Waste Management Guidelines

Leaking or empty oil drums must be removed from the site immediately and disposed of. All wastes must be stored in designated areas that are isolated from surface drains. Collected solid waste should be removed and disposed of at authorised disposal areas. Waste containers should be labelled and located in a covered area. Skips should be covered to prevent dust and litter being blown out and rainwater accumulation. If plant maintenance is carried out on site, used oil should be stored in a bunded area for collection. Untreated human sewage should not enter watercourses. Organic wastes should be oxidised in a controlled manner before discharge or released in such dilute quantities that no damage will occur. Slurries and fine particulates e.g. bauxite should be disposed of on land.
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7.
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance extends the life of roads and consequently has significant financial benefits. A road system that is well maintained also brings important social and environmental benefits. When designing a road, thought should be given to the future maintenance requirements, who will be responsible for carrying out this work, and how it will be funded. These maintenance practices should be identified in the form of a maintenance management plan. A level of priority should be given to each maintenance activity to ensure the whole road system is adequately maintained. For example: Routine maintenance (required continually): includes grass cutting, drain clearing, recutting ditches, tree pruning and culvert maintenance. Recurrent maintenance (required at intervals during the year with a frequency that depends on traffic volume): on unpaved roads it includes repairing pot-holes and ruts, dragging and grading. On paved roads it includes repairing pot holes, patching, repairing edges and sealing cracks. Periodic maintenance (required only at intervals of several years): includes regravelling of unpaved roads, resealing (surface dressing, slurry seal) and re-gravelling shoulders. Urgent Maintenance (required in response to emergencies): calls for immediate action when a road is blocked either as a result of an accident or a natural event. Tasks include removal of debris and other obstacles. Neglected drainage rapidly leads to deterioration of the road. The execution of this work should therefore be monitored at regular intervals to ensure it is carried out effectively. However, although the effects of poor road drainage maintenance activities on the road are frequently highlighted in road maintenance manuals, the implications for the environment are not. Consequently, if indirect impacts are located away from the road, where they are not directly visible, a false sense of complacency can develop. The importance of the environment therefore needs to be emphasised in future maintenance management plans. Guidance is also required on the level of priority given to the various mitigation measures that can be incorporated, such as the cleaning of retention ponds and maintaining the diversity of habitat within a drainage channel, especially if funds are limited.
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8.
REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (1992). Guidelines for Evaluating Road Effects on Surface Water Environments. AASHTO, Washington, DC. Australian Road Research Board (1997). Biological Diversity in Transport Corridors - Road Drainage Management. Transport Research Report ARR302. ARRB, Victoria, Australia. Department for International Development (1998). Guidance Note on International Environmental Agreements. Available on the DFID web site. Environment Agency (1999). Working at Construction and Demolition Sites. Pollution Prevention Guidelines (PPG6). Environment Agency, London. Washington State Department of Transport, Environmental and Engineering Service Centre (1995). Road Runoff Manual: M31 -16. WSDOT, Washington. International Finance Corporation (1998). Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Roads and Highways. IFC, Washington. International Institute for Environment and Development (1998). A Directory of Impact Assessment Guidelines. llED, Nottingham. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1974). The Use of Ecological Guidelines for Development in the American Humid Tropics. IUCN publications Services Unit, Cambridge. Morris, J. M (1995). Earth Roads (Second Edition). Avebury Ashgate Publishing Limited, Aldershot. Odum, W. E (1976). Ecological Guidelines for Tropical Coastal Development. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). New publication series No 42, IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. Transport Research Laboratory (199?). Principles of Low Cost Road Engineering in Mountainous Regions. Overseas Road Note 16. Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK. Parks Canada, 1981. Manual on the Application of the Environmental Assessment and Review Process within Parks Canada. Parks Canada, Quebec. Tsunokawa, K. and C Hoban (1997). Roads and the Environment: A Handbook. World Bank Technical Paper No 376. World Bank, Washington, DC. US Department of Transportation (1979). Restoration of Fish Habitat in Relocated Streams. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.. World Bank (1994). Natural Habitats. World Bank OP/BP 4.04. World Bank, Washington, DC.. World Bank (1995). Environmental Assessment Sourcebook: Volume II - Sectoral Guidelines. World Bank Technical Paper No. 140. World Bank, Washington, DC..
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World Bank (1997). Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook: Toward Cleaner Production. World Bank, Washington, DC.. World Bank (1999). Environmental Assessment. World Bank OP/BP 4.01. World Bank, Washington. 9. WEB SITES www.aashto.ora www.arrb.orq.au vvww.environment-agency.gov.uk www.wsdot.wa.gov www.worldbank.org/ifc www.worldbank.org www.iucn.orn www fhwa.dot.pov www.dfid.gov.uk vvww.who.orn
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Rational Road Drainage Environment

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RURAL ROAD DRAINAGE DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

by P. J. Griffiths, A.B. Hird and P. Tomlinson

Unpublished Project Report PR/INT/192/00

PROJECT REPORT PR/INT/192/00

Rural Road Protection

by P J Griffiths, A B Hird and P Tomlinson

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

INTRODUCTION Environmental Impact Assessment

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Determine Sensitivity of the Local Environment

Collect Relevant Data

Make Informed Alignment Choices

Undertake Careful Planning and Design of Water Crossings

Develop Mitigation Plans

Specify Environmental Plans in Construction and Maintenance Activities

Figure 1.1. Good Practice Procedures in Road Drainage Design

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Box 1.2. Summary of Good Practice Activities in Road Drainage Design

5. Undertake Careful Planning And Design Of Water Crossings:

6. Develop Mitigation Plans:

7. Specifications In Contract Documents:

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

IDENTIFICATION OF SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Box 2.1. Mangrove Dominated Coastlines

Box 2.2. Coral reefs

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Box 2.3. Wetlands and Estuaries

Box 2.4. Arid Regions

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Box 2.5. Mountain Regions

Box 2.6. Rain Forests

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

SITE SURVEY AND DATA ASSEMBLY General Objectives

Box 3.1 Objectives Of Site Survey And Data Collation

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Box 3.2 Time Considerations In Data Assembly

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Source Walkover Survey Desk Studies Field Data

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

TRL LIMITED 3.4 Land Use

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

TRL LIMITED 3.6 People

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990

Rural Road Drainage Design For Environmental Protection

Stage Walkover survey:

Expert Advice will required to identify:

Table 3.2 Information Required In Fish And Wildlife Surveys

Rational Road Drainage Design For Unbound Pavement Materials R6990