EXPERIMENT 16 Circuit Analysis Techniques

Introduction There are two basic ways in which we connect more than two circuit components: series and parallel. Series circuit In a series circuit Figure 16-1, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a single path for electrons to flow.

Figure 16-1 In series circuit total resistance is given as Total Current is given as VR1= IT R1 Parallel circuit
In a parallel circuit Figure 16-2, all components are connected across each other, forming exactly two sets of electrically common points.

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 IT = V S / R T VR3= IT R3

VR2= IT R2

Figure 16-2 In Parallel circuit total resistance is given as 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 Total Current is given as IT = V S / R T IR1= VS/R1
Ohm's Law Ohm's Law deals with the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal conductor. This relationship states that: The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is proportional to the current through it.

IR2= VS/R2

IR3= VS /R3

The constant of proportionality is called the "resistance", R. Ohm's Law is given by:

V=IR

Ohms Law Triangle

Figure 16-3 This arrangement represents the position of each quantity in the ohm's law formulas

Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) Kirchoffs voltage law is stated as follows: The sum of the entire voltage drop around a single closed loop in a circuit is equal to the total source voltage in that loop.

Figure 16-4 The algebraic general concept of Kirchoffs voltage law is illustrated in Figure16-4 and expressed as follows
Vs = V1 +V2 +V3 +... +Vn

where n represents the number of voltage drops.

Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) Kirchhoffs current law is stated as follows. The sum of the currents into a junction is equal to the sum of the currents out of that junction. A junction is any point in a circuit where two or more circuit paths come together.

Figure 16-5 In the circuit of Figure 16-5, point A is one junction and point B is another. Kirchhoffs current law says that the total current into junction A is equal to the total current out of junction A: that is,

I T = I 1 + I2 + I 3
Superposition Theorem: The principle of superposition can be stated as follows. If a linear circuit has N independent sources present, any branch voltage or current is composed of the sum of N contributions each of which is due to each of the independent sources acting individually when all others are set equal to zero (deactivated). When we deactivate an independent voltage source we replace the voltage source with a short circuit, as shown in Figure 16-6a. Conversely when we deactivate an independent current source we replace it with an open circuit, as shown in Figure 16-6b. In other words, a short circuit is an element that has zero voltage across it and an open circuit is an element that has zero current through it.

Figure 16-6

The Superposition Method The superposition method is a way to determine currents and voltages in a circuit that has multiple sources. By taking one source at a time and replaced the other sources by their internal resistances. The ideal voltage source has a zero internal resistance, and ideal current source has an infinite internal resistance. All voltage sources and current sources will be treated as ideal in order to simplify.

The steps in applying the superposition method are as follows: Step 1: Take one voltage source at a time and replace each of the other voltage sources with a short (a short represents zero resistance). Step 2: Determine the current or voltage that you need just if there were only that one source in the circuit. Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each source in turn. Step 4: To find an actual current or voltage, add or subtract the currents or voltages due to each individual source. If the currents are in the same direction or the voltages of the same polarity, add them. If the currents are in opposite directions or the voltages of opposite polarities, subtract them. Nortons Theorem Like Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem provides a method of reducing a more complex circuit to a simpler form. The basic difference is that Nortons theorem gives an equivalent current source in parallel with an equivalent resistance. The form of Nortons equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 16-7, Regardless of how complex the original circuit is, it can always be reduced to this equivalent form. The equivalent current source is designated IN and the equivalent resistance, RN. As stated, IN is one part of the complete Norton equivalent circuit; RN is the other.

IN

R N

Figure 16-7 To find IN, calculate the current between points A and B with these two points shorted, as shown in Figure 16-8.
R 1 R 3 A

V s R 2

B Figure 16-8 IN is the current through the short and is calculated as follows: First, the total resistance seen by the voltage source is:

RT = R1 +

R 2 R3 R 2 + R3

The total current from the source is:

IT =

VS 83 .33 V = RT 78 .97

Now apply the current divider formula to find IN (the current through the short):
R2 IN = R + R I T 3 2 47 = 147 1.06 A

This is the value for the equivalent Norton current source. Nortons Equivalent Resistance (RN) We defined RN in the same way as RTH: it is the total resistance appearing between two terminals A and B in a given circuit with all sources replaced by their internal resistances. First reduce VS to zero by shorting it, as shown in Figure 16-9
R 1 R 3 A

V s b y

is r e p la c e d s h o r t c ir c u it

R 2

Looking in at terminals A and B, we see that the parallel combination of R1 and R2 is in series with R3. Thus,

R N = R3 +

R1 2 47 = 100 + 2

Thevenins Theorem Thevenins theorem gives us a method for simplifying a circuit to a standard equivalent form. The Thevenin equivalent form of any resistive circuit consists of an equivalent voltage source (VTH) and an equivalent resistance (RTH), arranged as shown in Figure 16-7.

Figure 16-7
Although a Thevenin equivalent circuit is not the same as its original circuit, it acts the same in terms of the output voltage and current. How to Find the Thevenin Equivalent of a Circuit: To find the Thenvenin equivalent of any circuit, determine the equivalent voltage, V TH, and the equivalent resistance, RTH. For example, in Figure 16-8, the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit between points A and B is found as follows:

R2 VTH = V R 2 = R +R 1 2

VS

Figure 16-8 In this particular circuit, the resistance from A to B is R3 in series with the parallel combination of R1 and R2. Therefore, RTH is expressed as follows:

RTH = R3 +

R1 R2 R1 + R2

Objective:
To study techniques of circuit analysis. Components:

Equipments:

1. 2. 3. 4.

One -DMM One Oscilloscope (OSC) One Function Generator (FG) One- dual Polarity Variable DC Power Supply (PS)

1. Resistors:

Three 100, Three150 , Two 180 , Three 120 , Three 68 , One 56 , One 220 . 2. Capacitors: one100F, two 10F 3. One- Bread Board

PROCEDURE 1. Ohms law

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 16-9. 2. Measure the voltage across and current through each resistor. Record the observation in Table 16-1.
3. Using Ohms Law solve the given circuit to calculate current and voltage for each circuit component.
R R R
3

6.8k
1

3.3k R

3.3k

6v

6.8k

6.8k

Figure 16-9
R 1 0 0

C 4 V p - p 1 0 K H z 0 .2 u F

L 1 m

Figure 16-10 Table 16-1

Element

Measured V(v) I(mA)

Calculated V(v) I(mA)

R1

R2 R3 R4 R5

Table 16-2

GPH-1
Input Signal

Vrms= _____

GPH-2
signal across R

Vrms= _____

GPH-3
Signal across C Signal across L

Vrms= _____ Vrms= _____ 4. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 16-10. 5. Connect CH1 between A and G. Measure the waveform of input signal at GPH-1 and also record
its Vrms voltage and current with the help of multimeter in Table 16-2. Now connect CH2 between point B and G and set the OSC in Differential mode and record the waveform across R at GPH-2 in Table 16-2.

6. Remove CH1 hot lead of from point A and connect it at point B and remove CH2 hot lead of from
point B and connect it at point C. Set the OSC in Differential mode and record the waveform across C at GPH-3 in Table 16-2 and also record its Vrms voltage.

7.

Set the OSC in vertical mode at CH2 and record the waveform across L at GPH-3 in Table 16-2 and also record its Vrms voltage.

2. Kirchoffs Law

8. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 16-11.Write down the loop equation for the given circuit
using Kirchoffs voltage law and solve these equations for the current and voltage across each circuit resistor. Record it in Table 16-3.

9. Measure the current through and voltage across each resistor and record in Table 16-32.

R1 1
Figure 16-11

Table 16-3
Element

Measured V(v) I(mA)

Calculated V(v) I(mA)

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 3. Superposition Theorem

10. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 16-12. 11. Measure the current and voltage with polarity for each resistor and record it in Table 16-4. 12. Replace the battery S1 with a short circuit and obtain the current and voltage measurements (with
polarity), for each resistor and record in Table 16-4.

13. Replace the power source S1 to its original position and replace the battery S2 with a short circuit,
record the current and voltage measurements (with polarity) for each resistor in Table16-4.

R1

1K

R3

1K R5 2.2k

S1 3v

2.2k R2

1K

R4

S2 5v

Figure 16-12
Table16-4 Measured Measured

Element S1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

V(v)

I(mA)

S2

S1&S2

S1

S2

S1&S2

4. Nortons Theorem

14. Measure the current and the voltage, associated with the resistor R3 in Figure 16-13 and record it in
Table 16-5.

15. Replace the resistor R3 with a short circuit and measure the short circuit current I sc and record in
Table 16-5.

16. Disconnect the short circuit across the point A and B; replace the batteries S1 and S2 with a short
circuit.

17. Connect the Ohm meter across the points A, B and record the Nortons resistance RN in Table 16-5.

R2 R1 50v I1 560 R3 330 I2 I4 I3

330

R4 560

Figure 16-13

Table 16-5

Element

V (v)

I (mA)

R3 __

VR3= __

IR3= ISC= __ __

RN =

5. Thevenins Theroem

18. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 16-14. 19. Measure and record the voltage and current associated with the resistor R4 = 10K in Table 16-6. 20. Remove R4 and measure the open-circuit voltage between the point A and B and record it in Table
16-6.

21. Next replace the voltage source with a short circuit and measure the Thevenin resistance (RTH)
between point A and B using Ohmmeter and record it in Table 16-6.

22. Now replace R4 and measure the voltage and current of R6. Record it in Table 16-6. Repeat step 20
and 21 for the circuit element R6, and record it in Table 16-6.

23. Using VTh and RTh recorded in Table 16-6 for R4 as load resistance, wire a Thevenins equivalent
circuit. Place R4 10K as a load resistance, measure and record the voltage and current in Table 16-6.

24. Using VTh and RTh recorded in Table 16-6 for R6 as load resistance, wire a Thevenins equivalent
circuit. Place R6 4.7K as a load resistance, measure and record the voltage and current in Table 16-6.

R5 R2 R1 1k 50v
Figure 16-14

3.3k

3.3k

R3

4.7k

R4

10k

R6 4.7k

Table 16-6

Element

VTh

RTh

V(v) using total circuit

I (mA) using total circuit

V (v) using thevenins circuit

I(mA) using thevenins circuit

R4 as load R6 as load Conclusion:

Q1. If we replace C by a diode in Figure 16-10 then how can we analyze it by the help of ohms law? Ans.________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ Q2. Compare your results with theoretical values (Refer to the data of Table16-3) and justify the presence of any possible error in experimental results. Ans.________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________

Q3. Draw a Norton equivalent circuit using the values Isc and RN, calculate the voltage and current for the resistance R3 and compare the result with the values of current and voltage measured in the original circuit. Ans.________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________

Q4. Convert the Norton equivalent circuit sketch in the Q3. into Thevenins equivalent circuit. Ans.________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________