Impact of Agronomic Inputs in Sugarcane Farming on Surface River Water Quality in the Lake Victoria Catchments.

Solomon Omwoma1,*, Joseph O. Lalah2, David M. K. Ongeri1, P. Okinda. Owuor1.

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Department of Chemistry, Maseno University, P.O. Box 333-40105 Maseno, Kenya.

Department of Chemical Sciences and Technology, School of Applied Sciences and Technology, Kenya Polytechnic University College, P.O. Box 52428-00200, City Square, Nairobi, Kenya.
*

Corresponding author: Email: solomwoma@yahoo.com phone: +254 711 913963.

Citation: Omwoma Solomon, Joseph O. Lalah, David M.K Ongeri, P. Okinda Owuor, 2011. Impact of Agronomic Inputs in Sugarcane Farming on Surface River Water Quality in the Lake Victoria Catchments. National Council for Science and Technology of Kenya conference on dissemination of research results, held on 3rd to 6th May 2011 at KICC Nairobi Kenya.

Abstract This research determined levels of pH, turbidity, total phosphates, nitrate nitrogen, and dissolved oxygen in River Kuywa surface water before and after traversing sugarcane farms within Lake Victoria Basin of Kenya both in dry and wet seasons. The same were also determined in runoff water from canals within the sugarcane farms to asses if agronomic inputs in sugarcane farming influence the quality of river water. Mean river water dry season values before the farms were 7.30, 58.73 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units), 0.82mg/l, 1.28mg/l and 14.40mg/l respectively, and after the farms were 7.00, 65.54 NTU, 1.39mg/l, 3.44mg/l and 9.51mg/l respectively. Mean wet season values before the farms were 6.27, 956.70 NTU, 8.26mg/l, 14.70mg/l and 21.50mg/l respectively while after the farms were 6.00, 983.64 NTU, 10.26mg/l, 20.72mg/l and 6.76mg/l respectively. Runoff water from the farms were found to be the major transport agents of the pollutants to the river water hence the need to treat them before being discharged into river systems. The values were above WHO and USEPA drinking water standards, therefore unsuitable for domestic use hence the need of a treatment plant in these regions to provide quality domestic water. Aquatic life might be stressed with these values necessitating the need for alternative farming methods and or corrective measures to ensure aquatic life sustainability. Key words: Agronomic inputs, Nitrogenous fertilizer, Sugarcane farms, River water quality. Introduction: Sugarcane can be considered as the single most important cash crop extensively grown in the Lake Victoria basin of Kenya and Uganda (Netondo et al., 2010). In Kenya, sugarcane is commercially grown in Western and Nyanza provinces, primarily by small scale farmers
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followed by large-scale farmers and company/factory nucleus estates (Gok, 2002). This farming activities have been going on in Lake Victoria catchments for over fourty years (Netondo et al., 2010). Use of intensive agronomic inputs such as nitrogenous fertilizers, pesticides and sewage sludge are imployed in this zones for high yields (Allen, 2009). The impact of these repeatative agronomic inputs on river water quality is of major concern since animals and humans use this water domestically apart from the general aquatic life sustainability of both rivers and the receiving aquatic systems. Assesment of physicochemical parameters of major rivers feeding Lake Victoria has indicated elevated levels that has trigered eutriphication of the lake (LVEMP, 2003: Banadda, 2011). Nitrates and phosphates into the lake from major rivers has continued to increase over the years accelerating aging of this most important econmic assest to East Africa (LVEMP, 2003: Banadda, 2011). There is, therefore, need to determine point sources of this pollutants to the lake in order to mitigate the situation. Most authors (Lalah, 2008; Ongeri 2010) suggest that these pollutants come from Agricultural activities along the lake basin. Apart from sugarcane farming, there are also other activities in this catchments (GoK,2002; Netondo et al., 2010) hence the need to determine the exact agricultural activity that might be responsible for the elevated nutrients into the lake. Aquatic life, animals and human beings are at risk due to these high levels in aquatic systems (USEPA, 1980, Eisler 1988, Edward, 2000; ATSDR, 2009) hence the need to identify point sources for better mitigation measures. This study determined the levels of pH, dissolved oxygen, N-NO3, total phosphates and turbidity in surface River Kuywa water and in runoff water within sugarcane farms from Western Kenya both during the long dry and wet seasons. Materials and Methods The study was carried out in sugarcane farms traversed by River Kuywa (340 50 49 E to 350 35 41E longitudes and 00 4 55N to 00 2011S latitudes). The farms are located in Bungoma District within Lake Victoria catchment region that is one of the main sugarcane producing areas in Western Kenya. Sampling was done in February (2009) and May (2009). Water pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and turbidity were measured directly in the field using a pH meter (3071 Jenway) DO meter (HI 9146) and turbidity meter (HI 93703) respectively. Four replicates of 500 ml runoff and surface water samples were taken from each sampling site (Figure 1) in glass bottles using a grab sampler, transported in an ice box to the laboratory and refrigirated at 4 oC prior to analysis (John et al., 1996). Ultraviolet spectrophotometric screening method B of standard methods (Franson et al., 1995) was used to determine nitratenitrogen present (Omwoma, 2010). Method detection limit was determined using potassium nitrate concentrations in accordance to method 40 CFR 136 and recovery studies done by spiking double distilled water with twenty times the methods detection limit concentration (USEPA 2007). For total phosphates, a volume of 100 ml water sample was digested at 150oC with 1 ml concentrated sulfuric acid and 5 ml concentrated nitric acid then evaporated to dryness in a
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Gerhardt digester. The residue was leached with 5 ml 1N HNO3 and transferred to a 50 ml volumetric flask. A volume of 5 ml of 10% ammonium molybdate was added followed by addition of 5 ml of 0.25% ammonium vanadate in 6 N HCl. The mixture was diluted to the mark with distilled water and left to cool for 10 minutes. A calibrated spectrophotometer (UV1650 PC-UV-Vis, Shimadzu) with 1.00, 2.00, 4.00, 8.00 and 10.00 ppm of KH2PO4 was used to determine the unknown sample concentrations at 460 nm (Anil 1994, Franson et al., 1995). Method detection limit was determined using potassium hydrogen phosphate concentrations in accordance with method 40 CFR 136 and recovery studies done by spiking double distilled water with twenty times the method detection limit concentration (USEPA 2007).

Results and discussion Mean % recovery values for for total phosphates and nitrates were 93 and 89 respectively, with detection limits of 0.056 mg/l and 0.45 mg/l respectively. From the following tables (1,2, 3), it was evident that sugarcane farming affected the levels of water pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, phosphates and nitrates in River Kuywa surface water. Table1, Table 2, Table 3. There was a significant temperature increase in the dry season from the wet season with both seasons registering a significant increase in river water temperature before entering the sugarcane farms to leaving the farms (Table 1). The significant increase in temperature was explained with higher temperature values in canals waters (Table 2) within the farms. Sugarcane farming increased temperature of most canals as is evidenced by the significant differences between the canals water and the control canal (Table 2). The increase in temperature due to sugarcane farming activities is further evidenced by elevated levels recorded downstream River Nzoia by Lalah et al (2008) (Table 3). However, with reference to both Kenyan and Australian aquatic water standards, the temperature levels were within required standards (Table 3) in river water. Release of industrial effluents into the river might be the one responsible for the temperature increase; however, depending on the level of total dissolved solids and exposure to sunlight, temperature measurements are also bound to vary. Temperature has a large impact on the biological activity of aquatic organisms. All aquatic organisms have a preferred temperature range but generally most organisms thrive best in a temperature range of 17.8oC to 21.1oC (Mathew and Debra, 1997). In view of this Oregon standards, most of the surface water temperature were not suitable for aquatic animals although deep water temperatures needs to be monitored to determine if it was the one responsible for low fish catch in this area (GoK, 2002). This is because if the water temperature gets too far above or below this range, then the biological community becomes stressed and may have difficulty maintaining a stable population (WVWRI, 2011). Temperature is also important because of its influence on water chemistry. The rate of chemical reactions generally increases at higher temperature, which in turn affects biological activity. Another important example of the effects of temperature on water chemistry is its
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impact on oxygen. Warm water holds less oxygen than cool water, so it may be saturated with oxygen but still not contain enough for survival of aquatic invertebrates or certain fish (WVWRI, 2011). The mean surface water pH levels in both the canals (5.19) and River Kuywa (6.14) (Table 2) during the wet season were below the recommended levels in domestic water (6.5 8.5: USEPA, 2008; EMCA, 2006). There was a significant difference (P 0.05) between pH levels before the river entered the nucleus and as the river left the nucleus in both seasons suggesting significant impact of agronomic input in sugarcane farming on pH reduction. When soil had been cultivated, the runoff water pH was lowered as evidenced by site 3 in which most of the farms had been freshly cultivated awaiting planting recorded high pH values as compared to other sites during the dry season. Low pH means more acidity and this was due to more free movement of water through the soil and increased soil erosion in which acidic soils were carried in runoff water to the aquatic ecosystems. However, all the water in canals that drained water from sugar plantation fields had lower pH values as compared to the canal that drained water from a tree plantation further implicating agronomic inputs in the differences. The pH results were comparable to that of Ipojuca River in Brazil that traverses through sugarcane plantations which had a mean pH of 6.30 and 4.60 in Ipojuca River and canals respectively (Gnter et al., 2007). The Brazil research was carried out during the dry season and its dry season values corresponded to the dry season values indicating that agronomic input in sugarcane farming has a detrimental effect on aquatic water pH in sugar catchments. Low pH in aquatic ecosystems could affect fish in the aqua environments. In most cases, below pH 6 and 5 non-desirable species of plankton and mosses respectively begin to invade and populations of fish such as smallmouth bass disappear while most fish populations begin to disappear as the bottom is covered with undecayed material, and mosses dominating near shore areas (USEPA, 1980, Edward, 2000). Such a case was evident in sites 4 and 5 where later the water pH was found to be between 6.23 and 4.40 respectively (Table 1 and 2). Below pH 4.5, the water is essentially devoid of fish (Edward, 2000). This gives a strong reason as to why lowering of pH both in soil and aquatic ecosystems within sugar catchments should be avoided to evade a disaster occurring. Furthermore, Aluminium ions (Al3+) attached to minerals in nearby soil can be released into aquatic systems due to low pH values where they can reduce fish population by stimulating excessive mucus formation (USEPA, 1980; Edward, 2000). Low aquatic water pH also causes chronic stress that may lead to lower body weight and smaller size in fish (Edward, 2000), and interferes with the reproductive cycle of fish whereby calcium levels in the female fish may be lowered to the point eggs production fails or the eggs fail to pass from the ovaries or if fertilized, the eggs and/or larvae develop abnormally (USEPA, 1980; Edward, 2000). Fishing in River Kuywa and to a larger extent River Nzoia that traverses sugarcane plantations has decreased and this was of great concern to area residence (GoK, 2002). The decrease is suspected to be related to low pH values in the river water. Fishing in River Kuywa is done domestically hence the need for the district planners to collect fresh data that might give the present case which may be worse than 2002 data. Furthermore, there was no visual evidence of

aquatic animals within the sugarcane farm canals, although there is need for a designed experiment to validate this claim. There was drastic increase in turbidity during the wet season both in canals and river water (Table 1 and 2) an indication of surface runoffs from the fields during the rainy season. Site and seasonal variations were also statistically significant from the control site implicating sugarcane farming activities over there increase. However, it is important to note that the turbidity increased earlier before the river entered the sugarcane plantations; even though the increase due to the farming activities was significant. This situation is explained by the fact that the river had traversed several sugarcane farms before the study area. Turbidity levels in the water within the canals and River Kuywa were above international and local standards hence it was not suitable for domestic use as is the case with residents downstream River Kuywa (Table 3). High turbidity values are always correlated to high suspended solids in the aquatic ecosystems. The suspended particles absorb heat from the sunlight, making turbid waters become warmer, and so reducing the concentration of oxygen in the water. The suspended particles scatter the light, thus decreasing the photosynthetic activity of plants and algae, which contributes to lowering the oxygen concentration even more. As a consequence of the particles settling to the bottom, shallow lakes fill in faster, fish eggs and insect larvae are covered and suffocated, gill structures get clogged or damaged. The suspended particles also help the attachment of heavy metals and many other toxic organic compounds and pesticides. The turbidity levels compared to that of River Nyando that had been reported to have a value of 980 NTU (Ongeri, 2008). Increased levels of turbidity may cause water to darken, which in turn leaves less light for aquatic plants to perform photosynthesis. This in turn decreases the amount of dissolved oxygen being added to the water, which can affect aquatic organisms that are higher on the food chain. Extreme levels of turbidity can also clog fish gills hence fish kills. All this may together with the other factors explain the low fish catch in this sugarcane zones (GoK, 2002). Conductivity levels increased drastically both before the nucleus and in the wet season implicating agronomic inputs and surface runoffs over there increase (Table 1 and 2). Increase in conductivity is an indication of increased loads of metallic ions in the water during the wet season. The metals are transported to the aquatic ecosystems with surface runoffs, leaching and erosion from soils within sugarcane farms. Earlier investigations of Nzoia soils revealed elevated levels of heavy metals (Omwoma 2010) hence the high conductivity levels are not surprising. However, reduced water pH might be the one responsible for re-dissolving of the heavy metals from sediments into aqueous phase making the water to have high conductivity values. During nitrification process (equations 1 and 2), a lot of nitrates from fertilizers such as diammonium phosphate and urea build up in soils and hence a transport medium (runoffs and erosion) facilitates the movement from the soils to the aquatic ecosystems. (NH4)2CO + 4O2 = 6H+ + 2NO3 - + CO2 + H2O . 1

(NH4)2HPO4 + 4O2 = 3H+ + 2NO3 - + H2PO4 + 2H2O .. 2 This claim was evident as water from canals draining farms that had the two fertilizers applied during the wet season registered large amounts of nitrates, phosphates and low pH values (Table 2). These were further justified by the values differing significantly from canal 1 that drained water from a tree plantation where there was no nitrogenous fertilizer applications. In addition, aquatic animals, domestic animals and human beings consume this water directly from River Kuywa without treating since there is no evidence of a water treatment plant in the region. The dangers that arise out of the presence of high nitrate content in these waters are therefore eminent. For example, elevated nitrates levels (Table 1 and 2) in both canals and river water during the wet season were above the 10 mg/L recommended level (USEPA, 1980). Nitrate nitrogen levels beyond 10 mg/L have several adverse health effects such as methemoglobin that cause death in infants due to methemoglobinemia, birth defects, reproductive and developmental defects, cyanosis, weakness, rapid pulse and tachypnea (ATSDR, 2009). Continuous domestic use of this water by residence in Nzoia sugarcane zones could expose the residents to health effects hence the need for sensitization campaigns and other mitigation measures like installation of a water treatment plant to purify the water before use domestically. Processes like filtration and adsorption could significantly reduce nitrate nitrogen to safe levels (Kei et al., 2004). Rainfall can cause varying amounts of phosphates to be washed off from farm soils into nearby water ways. The high phosphates levels recorded in this study (Tables 1 and 2) may stimulates rapid growth of aquatic vegetation which eventually dies and during decay uses up oxygen as well as increases the levels of nitrate nitrogen in the water (LVEMP, 2003). The decrease in oxygen may inhibit growth of many aquatic organisms, especially fish and in extreme cases may lead to massive fish kills (LVEMP, 2003). Excessive input of phosphorus can change clear, oxygen-rich, good-tasting water into cloudy, oxygen-poor and foul smelling water (LVEMP, 2003; Megan, 2009). This type of water dominated most of the canals within sugarcane zones in the sampled farms and is unfit for animal/human use. Levels above which eutrophication is likely to be triggered are approximately 0.03 mg/L of dissolved phosphorus and 0.1 mg/L of total phosphorus (USEPA, 1980). Higher concentrations (Table 1 and 2) than these threshold values were recorded in this study explaining the foul smell, dirty water occasionally experienced in these sugarcane farms. The addition of phosphates to soils by phosphatic fertilizers can accelerate the eutrophication process resulting into accelerated ecological aging of aquatic ecosystems through erosions and surface runoffs (LVEMP, 2003). One of the recommendations of Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP, 2003) was that point sources of nutrients to Lake Victoria be established for conclusive remedial action. The use of phosphate fertilizers in sugarcane farming could be a major point source as demonstrated in this study. Adequate oxygen levels are necessary to facilitate aerobic life forms which carry on natural stream purification processes (Eduardo, 2006). As DO levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/L, aquatic life is put under stress (Eduardo, 2006). Hence the aquatic lives of animals within the
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canals of these farms, especially during the wet season, live under stress of low DO levels (Table 1 and 2). Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/L for a few hours can result in large fish kills. This may in part explain the recorded reduced fishing in most of the rivers within sugar belt in Western Kenya (GoK, 2002). In conclusion, all the studied parameters differed significantly in river water before entering the sugarcane farms to the time the water left the sugarcne farms. Most of the physicochemical variations came from agronomic inputs in sugarcane farming as evidenced from the statistical siginificance difference of the values between the canals water and their control where there was no agronomic inputs. Furthermore the increase in River Kuywa physicochemical parameters was linked to sugarcane farming due to the elevated levels of the same parameters in canals waters. Conclussions Agronomic inputs in sugarcane farming affects surface river water quality of rivers traversing sugarcane farms. Runoff water from the farms are the major transport agents of these parameters from the farms to the river Recommendations. Quality domestic water be provided to residents within sugarcane farms maybe through provision of a treatment plant in this regions Runoff water from sugarcane farms be treated before being discharged in the river. These results demonstrate the need for continuos environmental monitoring in similar agricultural systems where intensive agronomic inputs. Acknowlegdement We thank all the technical staff of the Department of Chemistry, Maseno University for their help. This work was partly supported by the IAEA CRP Project 13695/RO References Allen D. E., Kingston G., Rennenberg H., Dalal R. C., Schmidt S., 2009. Effect of N. Fert.management and water logging on nitrous oxide emission from subtropical sugarcane soils. Agric. Ecosystems & Environ. 136, 209-217. Anil, K.D. (1994). Environmental chemistry, New Age International (p)limited, 3rd Edition New Delhi, 237-247. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), 2009. Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) Nitrate/ Nitrite Toxicity. 4770 Buford Hwy NE, Atlanta, GA 30341-3717

Banadda N., 2011. Characterization of non point source pollutants and their dispersion in Lake Victoria: A case study of Gaba landing site in Uganda.African Journal of Environl Science and Technology5(2),73-79, Edward J.N., 2000. Fish Disease, Diagnosis and Treatment. Iowa State University Press, Iowa USA 69-70. EMCA, (WQ), 2006. Environmental Management and Coordination (Water Quality) Regulations, 2006 (L.N. No. 120 of 2006). Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 68 of 29 September 2006, 1-25. Franson M. H., Andrew, D.E., Lenoe S.C., Arnold E.G. eds, 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 19th edition American Public Health Ass. Washington, 936, 450, 1021-1032. Godfrey Wafula Netondo G. W., Fuchaka W., Lucy M., Tabitha N., Nelly M., 2010. Agrobiodiversity endangered by sugarcane farming in Mumias and Nzoia Sugarbelts of Western Kenya. Afr. Jr.Environl.Sc.Techy, 4(7), 437 Gnter G., Jan K., Maria S. Hendryk R., Suzana M., Joana A., 2007. Sugarcane industry as a source of water pollution Case study on the situation in Ipojuca River, Pernambuco, Brazil. Water Air Soil Pollut., 180, 261-269 GoK, 2002. District Development Plan of Kenya for the period 2002-2008. Government Printers, Nairobi. John E. D., Terrence H., Dale V. H., Georgia T., Luis T., David M. K., 1996. Freezing as a method of sample preservation for analysis of dissolved inorganic nutrients in seawater, Marine Chem. 53, 173-185 KEBS, 1996. Kenya Bureau of Standards, KS 05 - 459: Part 1 pg 6. ICS 13.060.20 Government Printers Nairobi. Kei M., Toshitatsu M., Yasuo H., Keiichi N. and Tomoki N., 2004. Removal of nitratenitrogen from drinking water using bamboo powder charcoal, Biores. Techn. 95, (3), 255-257. Lalah J.O., Ochieng E.Z., Wandiga S.O., 2008. Sources of Heavy Metal Input into Winam Gulf, Kenya. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 81:277284. LVEMP, 2003. Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase 1, Revised Draft Scientific Stocking Report- Progress During LVEMP1 and Challenges for the Future, World Bank. Washington DC. Mathew B. And Debra S., 1997. The scientific basis for Oregons stream temperature standard: common questions and straight answers. Oregon department of environmental quality. http://www.deq.state.or.us/wq/standards/doc/temperature/tempstddccibasis1996.pdf. 5.23 pm 2/16/2011

Omwoma S., Effects of nitrogenous fertilizers on selected physicochemical parameters and heavy metals loads within Nzoia Nucleus sugarcane estate farms in western Kenya. MSc thesis Maseno University.Kenya Ongeri, D.M.K. (2008). Physicochemical parameters, heavy metal residue levels and their speciation studies in Lake Victoria Basin. Phd thesis Maseno University. Ongley, E.D. (1996). Control of water pollution from agriculture: FAO irrigation and drainage paper 55. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rom USEPA, 1979. Lead; Ambient Water Quality Criteria. Criteria and StandardsDivision, Office of Water Planning and Standards, Washington, D.C.: U.S.Environmental protection Agency. USEPA, 1980. U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Ambient water qualitycriteria for copper and lead. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, PB 81 117681. USEPA, 2007. 40 CFR Parts 136 and 503 Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of Pollutants; Analytical Methods for Biological Pollutants in Wastewater and Sewage Sludge; Final Rule EPAHQOW20040014; FRL82281 Federal Register 72, (57) USEPA, 2008. Ecological toxicity information U.S. EPA - Region 5 Superfund Division 77 W. Jackson Boulevard Code S-6J Chicago, USA. Found at http://www.epa.gov/R5Super/ecology/html/toxprofiles.htm 4.45 pm 5/3/2011 WHO, 1993. International standards for drinking water, 3rd edn., Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. WVWRI (West Virginia Water Research Institute), 2011. Monongahela River Water Quality Study. Morgantown found at http:www.monwq.net/index.cfm. 8.14 pm 2/15/201. Table 1: Mean seasonal variations of physicochemical parameters in River Kuywa water traversing sugarcane farms within Lake Victoria catchment.
Temp Dry season R. Kuywa before sugarcane farms R. Kuywa in the middle of sugarcane farms R. Kuywa after the sugarcane farms Dry season mean R. Kuywa in the middle of sugarcane farms Wet season R. Kuywa after the sugarcane farms Wet season mean LSD season mean P 0.05 CV% 25.50 25.17 26.00 25.22 22.00 22.00 21.83 0.67 0.50 pH 7.30 7.20 7.00 7.17 6.16 6.00 6.14 1.33 3.54 Cond 42.60 52.43 61.63 52.22 106.00 115.33 104.89 5.23 4.44 DO 14.40 10.93 9.51 11.61 7.99 6.76 8.38 7.33 12.90 Turb 58.73 62.36 65.54 62.21 966.17 983.64 968.83 28.43 0.97 TP 0.82 1.23 1.39 1.15 8.44 10.26 11.66 0.14 0.40 NO3-N mg/l 1.28 2.25 3.45 2.33 17.85 20.72 17.76 3.78 6.62

Key: LSD Least Significant Difference, CV%: percent coefficient of variation in replicated samples

Table 3: Comparrisons to local, international water quality standards and other studie both within Lake Victoria catchments and other catchments:
pH Canals dry season Canals wet season River Kuywa dry season River Kuywa wet season EMCA(WQ) 2006 std KEBSb Standard WHO standard USEPAd standard Ipojuca River dry season ,
permissible limits and e - Gnter et al., 2007 e c a

Turb NTU 94.40 697.00 59.61 945.70 NG 5.00 NG NG 66.40

DO mg/L 4.77 3.98 11.61 8.38 NG NG NG 4.00 5.00 2.10

TP mg/L 0.95 7.67 1.15 12.76 2.00 NG NG 0.10 NG

NO3-N mg/L 3.95 23.73 2.33 44.20 NG NG 10.00 10.00 NG

6.95 5.19 7.17 6.14 6.50-8.50 6.50-8.50 6.50-8.50 6.50 9.50 6.30

Key: NG Not Given in literature, a Kenyan EMCA (WQ) (2006) Standards b KEBS (1996) maximum permissible limits, c WHO (1993) maximum permissible limits, d USEPA (1979)

Table 2: Mean seasonal variations of physicochemical parameters in canals runoff water within sugarcane farms in Lake Victoria catchment.
Temp Dry season 1 (control canal) 2 3 4 5 6 7 Dry season mean 1(control canal) 2 Wet season 3 4 7 6 7 Wet season mean LSD season mean P 0.05 CV% 27.00 26.00 28.00 25.00 24.00 24.00 31.00 26.43 26.00 24.00 24.00 25.00 21.00 20.00 23.00 24.86 0.81 0.05 pH 6.76 6.61 7.04 6.23 6.86 7.01 8.13 6.95 6.20 5.53 5.53 4.40 5.73 4.80 4.13 5.19 0.69 3.11 Cond 88.33 73.70 42.50 54.60 60.68 52.00 33.86 57.95 158.67 308.00 260.33 256.33 183.00 353.67 207.43 246.71 3.34 3.03 DO 6.14 4.92 5.08 3.21 5.12 3.84 5.11 4.78 5.92 3.35 4.04 4.52 4.12 2.03 4.86 4.12 0.62 3.79 Turb 69.22 116.60 105.33 224.60 61.00 32.41 52.28 94.51 565.70 708.30 811.00 533.60 631.91 674.30 956.70 697.40 86.58 5.88 TP 0.91 0.95 0.95 0.85 0.71 1.18 0.43 0.85 4.47 7.63 6.50 5.25 10.20 12.20 7.43 7.67 0.88 5.33 NO3-N mg/l 6.95 4.79 4.25 3.44 2.20 3.50 3.04 4.02 15.12 27.71 26.84 24.53 21.40 22.78 27.70 23.73 1.79 3.35

Key: LSD Least Significant Difference, CV%: percent coefficient of variation in replicated samples Site 1 was on a canal draining water from a tree plantation, site 2 from the factory premises, site 3 from freshly cultivated plots, site 4 from plots with sugarcane awaiting harvesting, site 5, 6 and 7 from plots that had sugarcane that was 2, 4 and 7 months old by May 2009.

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0o455N

0.75

1.5km

0o2011S

34o 50 49 E

35o 35 41E

Key: River Kuywa: ; Canals: ; 1 7: Sampling sites on canals; A C: Sampling points on River Kuywa.
Sampling sites grid positions: 1 0o 33 53.25N, 34o 39 37.27E. elev. 1475 m. 2 0o 34 15.67N, 34o 39 36.57E. elev. 1470 m. 3 0o 32 17.07N, 34o 40 40.43E. elev. 1432 m. 4 0o 31 54.11N, 34o 40 15.71E. elev. 1420 m. 5 0o 35 03.20N, 34o 41.12E. elev. 1438 m. 6 0o 32 56.16N, 34o 41 18.72E. elev. 1428 m. 7 0o 32 31.39N, 34o 41 12.45E. elev. 1428 m. A - 0o 36 11.37N, 34o 41 20.20E. elev. 1438 m. B - 0o 34 24.22N, 34o 40 49.07E. elev. 1431 m. C - 0o 31 32.80N, 34o 40 43.86E. elev. 1417 m.

Fig. 1: The map of the sampled sugarcane farms traversed by River Kuywa within Lake Victoria basin in Western Kenya.

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Figure 1: The map of the sampled sugarcane farms within Lake Victoria Catchments in Western Kenya. Sampling sites grid positions for River Kuywa : A - 0o 36 11.37N, 34o 41 20.20E. elev. 1438 m. B - 0o 34 24.22N, 34o 40 49.07E. elev. 1431 m. C - 0o 31 32.80N, 34o 40 43.86E. elev. 1417 m. Sampling sites grid position within the Sugar cane farms: 1 0o 33 53.25N, 34o 39 37.27E. elev. 1475 m. 2 0o 34 15.67N, 34o 39 36.57E. elev. 1470 m. 3 0o 32 17.07N, 34o 40 40.43E. elev. 1432 m. 4 0o 31 54.11N, 34o 40 15.71E. elev. 1420 m. 5 0o 35 03.20N, 34o 41.12E. elev. 1438 m. 6 0o 32 56.16N, 34o 41 18.72E. elev. 1428 m. 7 0o 32 31.39N, 34o 41 12.45E. elev. 1428 m.

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