BritishLiterature & AmericanLiterature

BYLEILABORGES

SUMMARY
THEOLDENGLISHMAP..............................................................................................................................6 USEFULINFORMATIONTOSTUDYLITERATURE ........................................................................................8 TakingNotes ..........................................................................................................................................8 EssayPlanning......................................................................................................................................10 Caseagainstcensorship.......................................................................................................................11 Caseforcensorship..............................................................................................................................11 HowtoSummarize...............................................................................................................................11 Someextratips ....................................................................................................................................13 Qualitiesofacharacter........................................................................................................................14 Authorstone .......................................................................................................................................15 ANALYSINGFICTION/LITERARYTERMS..................................................................................................17 WHATISLITERATURE?.............................................................................................................................18 Literarydictionary................................................................................................................................18 Formsofliterature...............................................................................................................................18 Poetry...............................................................................................................................................18 Drama...............................................................................................................................................19 Essays ...............................................................................................................................................19 Prosefiction .....................................................................................................................................20 Otherproseliterature......................................................................................................................20 Genresofliterature .............................................................................................................................21 Literarygenre...................................................................................................................................21 Subgenres ........................................................................................................................................21 Importanttermsforpoetry .................................................................................................................22 ABRIEFHISTORYOFTHEENGLISHLANGUAGE .......................................................................................29 HistoryandStructureoftheEnglishLanguage ...................................................................................31 GeneralConsiderations ...................................................................................................................31 OriginsandBasicCharacteristics .....................................................................................................33 CharacteristicsofModernEnglish ...................................................................................................34 Phonology ....................................................................................................................................34 HistoricalBackground ..................................................................................................................35 Vocabulary ...................................................................................................................................35 OldEnglish .......................................................................................................................................37 MiddleEnglish..................................................................................................................................38 ThehistoryofEnglandfromtheNormaninvasionencapsulatesallthemajortrendsofthetimes. .40 TheNormanKings............................................................................................................................40 HenryII.............................................................................................................................................41 MagnaCarta.....................................................................................................................................41 EdwardI ...........................................................................................................................................42 The1300s........................................................................................................................................43 TheLancasters .................................................................................................................................45 TheWarsoftheRoses .....................................................................................................................46 LITERARYPERIODSOFBRITISHANDAMERICANLITERATURESUMMARY............................................47 PeriodsofBritishLiterature.................................................................................................................47 LiteraryPeriodsofAmericanLiterature ..............................................................................................50 INTRODUCTIONTOBRITISHLITERATURE ................................................................................................52 AngloSaxonliterature .........................................................................................................................52 Poetry...............................................................................................................................................52 Prose ................................................................................................................................................53 Beowulf ............................................................................................................................................54 I

OldEnglishPoetry........................................................................................................................55 PlotOverview...............................................................................................................................55 Characters ....................................................................................................................................56 WhowroteBeowulf? ...................................................................................................................58 TheSuttonHooShipBurial..........................................................................................................59 PoliticsandWarfare.....................................................................................................................59 ChristianColouringinBeowulf ....................................................................................................61 MiddleEnglishLiterature.....................................................................................................................62 GeoffreyChaucer .............................................................................................................................65 JohnGower ..................................................................................................................................68 Thevisionconcerningpierstheplowman...................................................................................68 TheWiclifiteBible ........................................................................................................................69 GeoffreyChaucer'sCanterburyTales ..............................................................................................74 Chaucer'sCanterburyTales .............................................................................................................75 Chaucer'sLinguistic..........................................................................................................................76 Literary .........................................................................................................................................76 Chaucer'sEnglish .............................................................................................................................76 Thegeneralprologue.......................................................................................................................77 TheWifeofBath'sTale ........................................................................................................................93 ThePrologeoftheWyvesTaleofBathe(withthetranslation) ......................................................93 Comments......................................................................................................................................113 ThewifeofBathsPrologue.......................................................................................................114 TheWifeofBathstale...............................................................................................................114 Theme ........................................................................................................................................115 TheEnglishLiteratureasapartofGeneralMedievalEuropeanLiterature..............................116 Literatureinthethreelanguages. .............................................................................................116 ReligiousLiterature....................................................................................................................117 SecularLiterature.......................................................................................................................117 TheRomances................................................................................................................................118 SirGawainandTheGreenKnight. .............................................................................................120 TheEndofTheMiddleAges.About1350toabout1500 .................................................................121 Thefirstfiftyyears.Politicalandsocialconditions. ......................................................................121 'Mandeville'sVoyage' ........................................................................................................................122 TheFifteenthCentury........................................................................................................................122 The'popular'ballads......................................................................................................................122 SirThomasMaloryandhis'MorteDarthur.' .................................................................................123 WilliamCaxtonandtheintroductionofprintingtoEngland,1476 ..............................................124 TheMedievalDrama......................................................................................................................125 TheSixteenthCentury.TheRenaissanceandtheReignofElizabeth ...............................................128 TheRenaissance.............................................................................................................................128 TheReformation ............................................................................................................................130 SirThomasMoreandhis'Utopia'..................................................................................................131 TheEnglishBibleandBooksofDevotion. .....................................................................................131 WyattandSurreyandthenewpoetry. .........................................................................................132 TheElizabethanPeriod ......................................................................................................................133 Prosefiction ...................................................................................................................................134 EdmundSpenser,15521599.........................................................................................................135 Elizabethanlyricpoetry .................................................................................................................138 Thesonnets....................................................................................................................................139 JohnDonneandthebeginningofthe'metaphysical'poetry........................................................139 II

Theinfluenceofclassicalcomedyandtragedy .............................................................................140 Thechroniclehistoryplay .............................................................................................................140 JohnLyly.........................................................................................................................................141 Peele,Greene,AndKyd .................................................................................................................141 ChristopherMarlowe,15641593 .................................................................................................141 Theatricalconditionsandthetheaterbuildings............................................................................143 AnElizabethanstage......................................................................................................................143 Shakespeare,15641616 ...............................................................................................................144 Nationallifefrom1603to1660 ....................................................................................................147 BenJonson .....................................................................................................................................147 Theotherdramatists .....................................................................................................................149 TheSeventeenthCentury,16031660.ProseAndPoetry.................................................................152 FrancisBacon,ViscountSt.Albans,15611626. ...........................................................................152 TheKingJamesBible,1611............................................................................................................154 Minorprosewriters .......................................................................................................................154 Lyricpoetry ....................................................................................................................................154 JohnMilton,16081674.................................................................................................................157 JohnBunyan...................................................................................................................................159 TheTudorsandtheElizabethanAge .............................................................................................160 TheJacobeanEra,Cromwell,andtheRestoration........................................................................161 Thesixteenthcentury........................................................................................................................162 Theearlyseventeenthcentury......................................................................................................163 ElisabethI...........................................................................................................................................165 ThegreatElizabethanAgeofExploration .....................................................................................166 TheElizabethanTheatre ................................................................................................................167 WilliamShakespearelifeandwork....................................................................................................168 ShakespeareChronologicallistingofplays....................................................................................169 ShakespeareanTheater .................................................................................................................169 LiteraryTermstohelpreadingShakespeare .................................................................................170 AMERICANLITERATURE .........................................................................................................................173 AmericanLiteraryTimePeriods.........................................................................................................173 OverviewofAmericanHistoryandLiterature...................................................................................175 ThePilgrims....................................................................................................................................175 Themayflowercompact ................................................................................................................176 Thanksgivingandtheindians.........................................................................................................177 ThePuritans ...................................................................................................................................177 Salemwitchcraft ........................................................................................................................178 Therevealedword,antinomianism,individualism ...................................................................179 Caveatanoteonthejeremiad..................................................................................................180 PioneerstoPuritans...................................................................................................................181 EnlightenmenttoAutonomy .........................................................................................................182 LiteratureAftertheRevolution .....................................................................................................182 HistoryofAmericanLiterature/ColonialPeriod ..............................................................................184 EarlyColonialLiterature.16071700 .............................................................................................184 I.TheEnglishinVirginia:CaptainJohnSmith,WilliamStrachey,GeorgeSandys.....................184 "LeahandRachel.".....................................................................................................................187 IndianandEarlyAmericanLiterature ........................................................................................188 AmericanLiteraryaspects: ............................................................................................................188 EarlyAmericanandColonialPeriodto1776 .............................................................................188 Theliteratureofexploration .....................................................................................................190 III

TheColonialPeriodinNewEngland..............................................................................................191 WilliamBradford(15901657) .......................................................................................................196 MichaelWigglesworth(16311705) ..............................................................................................197 SamuelSewall(16521730) ...........................................................................................................198 MaryRowlandson(c.1635c.1678)................................................................................................199 CottonMather*(16631728) ........................................................................................................199 RogerWilliams(c.16031683).......................................................................................................199 AmericanTexts ..................................................................................................................................200 IndigenousPeople'sLiterature ......................................................................................................200 Tsalagi(Cherokee)Stories .........................................................................................................200 CottonMatherWhatMustIDoToBeSaved? .............................................................................203 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................211

IV

THEOLDENGLISHMAP

MAPOFENGLISHDIALECT

TheUnitedStatesofAmericaThe13OriginalStates

TheUnitedStatesofAmericaTODAY

USEFULINFORMATIONTOSTUDYLITERATURE TakingNotes
1. In preparation for writing an essay or any other piece of work, your notes might come from a number of different sources:coursematerials,settexts,secondaryreading,interviews,ortutorialsandlectures.Youmightgatherinformation from radio ortelevision broadcasts,or from experiments and research projects. Thenotes could also includeyour own ideas,generatedaspartoftheessayplanningprocess. 2.Thenotesyougatherinpreparationforwritingtheessaywillnormallyprovidethedetailedevidencetobackupyour arguments.Theymightalsoincludesuchthingsasthequotationsandpagereferencesyouplantouseinyouressay.Your ultimateobjectiveinplanningwillbetoproduceaoneortwopageoutlineofthetopicsyouintendtocover. 3.Bepreparedforthefactthatyoumighttakemanymorenotesthanyouwilleveruse.Thisisperfectlynormal.Atthe notetakingstageyoumightnotbesureexactlywhatevidenceyouwillneed.Inaddition,theinformationgatheringstage shouldalsobeoneofdigestingandrefiningyourideas. 4.Don'tfeeldisappointedifyouonlyuseaquarterorevenatenthofyourmaterials.Theproportionyoufinallyusemight vary from one subject to another, as well as depending on your own particular writing strategy. Just because some materialisnotused,don'timaginethatyoureffortshavebeenwasted. 5.Whentakingnotesfromanysource,keepinmindthatyouareattemptingtomakeacompressedandaccuraterecord ofinformation,otherpeople'sopinions,andpossiblyyourownobservationsonthesubjectinquestion. 6.Yourobjectivewhilsttakingthenotesistodistinguishthemoreimportantfromthelessimportantpointsbeingmade. Recordthemainissues,notthedetails.Youmightwritedownafewwordsoftheoriginalifyouthinktheymaybeusedin aquotation.Keeptheseextractsasshortaspossibleunlessyouwillbediscussingalongerpassageinsomedetail. 7.Don'ttrytowritedowneverywordofalectureorcopyoutlongextractsfrombooks.Oneoftheimportantfeaturesof notetakingisthatyouaremakingadigestoftheoriginals,andtranslatingtheinformationintoyourownwords. 8.Somestudentstakesomanynotesthattheydon'tknowwhichtousewhenit'stimetowritetheessay.Theyfeelthat theyaredrowninginaseaofinformation. 9.Thisproblemisusuallycausedbytwocommonweaknessesinnotetakingtechnique: transcribingtoomuchoftheoriginal beingunselectiveinthechoiceoftopics 10.Therearetwopossiblesolutiontothisproblem: Selectonlythosefewwordsofthesourcematerialwhichwillbeofuse.Avoidbeingdescriptive.Thinkmore, andwriteless.Berigorouslyselective. Keep the essay question or topic more clearly in mind. Take notes only on those issues which are directly relevanttothesubjectinquestion. 11.Eventhoughthenotesyoutakeareonlyforyourownuse,theywillbemoreeffectiveiftheyarerecordedclearlyand neatly.Goodlayoutofthenoteswillhelpyoutorecallandassessthematerialmorereadily.Ifindoubtusethefollowing generalguidelines. Before you even start, make a note of your source(s). If this is a book, an article, or a journal, write the followinginformationattheheadofyournotes:Author,title,publisher,publicationdate,andeditionofbook. Use looseleaf A4 paper. This is now the international standard for almost all educational printed matter. Don'tusesmallnotepads.Youwillfinditeasiertokeeptrackofyournotesiftheyfiteasilyalongsideyourother studymaterials.

Writeclearlyandleaveaspacebetweeneachnote.Don'ttrytocramasmuchaspossibleontoonepage. Keepingtheitemsseparatewillmakethemeasiertorecall.Theactoflayingoutinformationinthiswaywillcause youtoassesstheimportanceofeachdetail. Usesomesystemoftabulation(asIamdoinginthesenotes).Thiswillhelptokeeptheitemsseparatefrom each other. Even if the progression of numbers doesn't mean a great deal, it will help you to keep the items distinct. Don't attempt to write continuous prose. Notes should be abbreviated and compressed. Full grammatical sentencesarenotnecessary.Useabbreviations,initials,andshortenedformsofcommonlyusedterms. Don'tstringthepointstogethercontinuously,oneaftertheotheronthepage.Youwillfinditverydifficultto untangletheseitemsfromeachotheraftersometimehaspassed. Devisealogicalandamemorablelayout.Uselettering,numbering,andindentationforsectionsandforsub sections. Use headings and subheadings. Good layout will help you to absorb and recall information. Some peopleusecolouredinksandhighlighterstoassistthisprocessofidentification. Use a new page for each set of notes. This will help you to store and identify them later. Keep topics separate,andhavethemclearlytitledandlabelledtofacilitateeasyrecall. Write on one side of the page only. Number these pages. Leave the blank sides free for possible future additions,andforanydetailswhichmaybeneededlater. 12.WhatfollowsisanexampleofnotestakenwhilstlisteningtoanOpenUniversityradiobroadcastahalfhourlecture bythephilosopherandculturalhistorian,IsaiahBerlin.Itwasentitled'Tolstoy'sViewsonArtandMorality',whichwaspart ofthethirdlevelcourseinliterarystudiesA312TheNineteenthCenturyNovelanditsLegacy. IsaiahBerlin'TolstoyonArtandMorality'3Sep89 1.T'sviewsonAextremebutheasksimportantquestnswhichdisturbsociety 2.1840sUnivofKazandebateonpurposeofA Tbelievesthereshouldbesimpleanswerstoprobsoflife 3.Metsimple&spontaneouspeople&soldiersinCaucasusCrimeanSketchesadmiredby Turgenev&MuscovitesbutTdidn'tfitinmilieu 4.WesternizersVsSlavophilesTagreedwithWs,butrejectsscience(Ssromantic conservatives) 5.2viewsofAinmid19CAforart'ssake/Aforsociety'ssake 6.Pierre(W&P)andLevin(AK)asegsof'searchersfortruth' 7.Naturallife(evendrunkenviolence)betterthanintellectual 8.T'scontradictiontobeartistormoralist 9.T's4criteriaforworkofart knowwhatyouwanttosaylucidlyandclearly subjectmattermustbeofessentialinterest artistmustliveorimagineconcretelyhismaterial andmustknowthemoralcentreofsituation 10.Tcritofotherwriters ShkspreandGoethetoocomplex StJulien(Flaubert)inauthentic TurgenevandChekhovguiltyoftriviality

11.WhatisArt?Emotionrecollectedandtransmittedtoothers[Wordsworth]NotselfexpressionOnlygoodshould betransmitted 12.ButhisowntasteswereforhighartChopin,Beethoven,&Mozart TArgueshehimselfcorrupted 13.Triedtodistinguishbetweenhisownartandmoraltracts 14.'Artistcannothelpburninglikeaflame' 15.Couldn'treconcilecontradictionsinhisownbeliefsdiedstillragingagainstselfandsociety

EssayPlanning
1.StrategyYoucanapproachthecompositionofanessayusinganumberofdifferentwritingstrategies.Somepeople liketostartwritingandwaittoseewhatdevelops.Othersworkupscrapsofideasuntiltheyperceiveashapeemerging. However,ifyouareinanydoubtatall,it'sagoodideatoplanyourwork.Thetaskofwritingisusuallymucheasierifyou createasetofnoteswhichoutlinethepointsyouaregoingtomake.Usingthisapproach,youwillcreateabasicstructure onwhichyourideascanbebuilt. 2.PlansThisisapartoftheessaywritingprocesswhichisbestcarriedoutusingplentyofscrappaper.Getusedtothe idea of shaping and reshaping your ideasbeforeyou start writing, editingand rearrangingyour arguments asyou give themmorethought.Planningonscreenusingawordprocessorispossible,butit'safairlyadvancedtechnique. 3.AnalysethequestionMakesureyouunderstandwhatthequestionisaskingfor.Whatisitgivingyouthechanceto writeabout?Whatisitscentralissue?Analyseanyofitskeytermsandanyinstructions.Ifyouareinanydoubt,askyour tutortoexplainwhatisrequired. 4.GenerateideasYouneedtoassembleideasfortheessay.Onafirstsheetofpaper,makeanoteofanythingwhich mightberelevanttoyouranswer.Thesemightbetopics,ideas,observations,orinstancesfromyourstudymaterials.Put downanythingyouthinkofatthisstage. 5. Choosing topics On a second sheet of paper, extract from your brainstorm listings those topics and points of argument which are of greatest relevance to the question and its central issue. Throw out anything which cannot be directlyrelatedtotheessayquestion. 6. Put topics in order Ona third sheetof paper, putthesechosen topics in somelogical sequence.Atthis stageyou shouldbeformulatingabasicresponsetothequestion,evenifitisprovisionalandmaylaterbechanged.Trytoarrange thepointssothattheyformapersuasiveandcoherentargument. 7.ArrangeyourevidenceAllthemajorpointsinyourargumentneedtobesupportedbysomesortofevidence.Onany furthersheetsofpaper,compilealistofbriefquotationsfromothersources(togetherwithpagereferences)whichwillbe offeredasyourevidence. 8.MakenecessarychangesWhilstyouhavebeenengagedinthefirststagesofplanning,newideasmayhavecometo mind. Alternate evidence may have occurred to you, or the line of your argument may have shifted somewhat. Be preparedatthisstagetorearrangeyourplansothatitincorporatesanyofthesenewmaterialsorideas.Tryoutdifferent arrangementsofyouressaytopicsuntilyouaresuretheyformthemostconvincingandlogicalsequence. 9.Finalise essay planThestructureofmostessayplanscanbesummarisedasIntroductionArgumentsConclusion. Stateyourcaseasbrieflyandrapidlyaspossible,presenttheevidenceforthiscaseinthebodyofyouressay,thensumup andtryto'lift'theargumenttoahigherlevelinyourconclusion.Yourfinalplanshouldbesomethinglikealistofhalfa dozentotenmajorpointsofargument.Eachoneofthesepointswillbeexpandedtoaparagraphofsomethingaround 100200wordsminimuminlength.

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10.RelevanceAtallstagesofessayplanning,andevenwhenwritingtheessay,youshouldkeepthequestioninmind. Keepaskingyourself'IsthisevidencedirectlyrelevanttothetopicIhavebeenaskedtodiscuss?'Ifindoubt,bepreparedto scrapplansandformulatenewoneswhichismucheasierthanscrappingfinishedessays.Atalltimesaimforclarityand logicinyourargument. 11.ExampleWhatfollowsisanexampleofanoutlineplandrawnupinnoteform.Itisinresponsetothequestion'Do you think that depictions ofsex and violence in the media shouldor should notbemore heavily censored?'. [It is worth studyingtheplaninitsentirety.Takenoteofitsinternalstructure.] 'Doyouthinkthatdepictionsofsexandviolenceinthemediashouldorshouldnotbemoreheavilycensored?' IntroductionSex,violence,andcensorshipallemotivesubjects

Caseagainstcensorship
1.Aesthetic:inhibitsartistictalent,distortsartandtruth. 2.Individualjudgement:individualshavetherighttodecideforthemselveswhattheywatchorread.Similarly,nobodyhas therighttomakeupsomeoneelse'smind. 3.Violenceandsexascatharsis(releasefromtension):portrayalofthesesubjectscanreleasetensionthroughthiskindof experienceat'secondhand'. 4. Violence can deter: certain films can show violence which reinforces opposition to it, e.g. A Clockwork Orange, All QuietontheWesternFront. 5.Censorshipmakessexdirty:wearetoorepressedaboutthissubject,andcensorshipsustainstheharmfulmysterywhich hassurroundedusforsolong. 6.Politicallydangerous:Censorshipinoneareacanleadtoitbeingextendedtootherse.g.,politicalideas. 7.Impractical:Whodecides?Howisittobedone?Isitnotimpossibletobe'correct'?Anydecisionhastobearbitrary

Caseforcensorship
1.Sexisprivateandprecious:itshouldnotbedemeanedbyrepresentationsofitinpublic. 2.Sexcanbeoffensive:somepeoplemayfinditsoandshouldnothavetoriskbeingexposedtowhattheywouldfind pornographic. 3.Corruptioncanbeprogressive:canbeginwithsexandcontinueuntilall'decentvalues'areeventuallydestroyed. 4.Participantsmightbecorrupted:especiallytrueofyoungchildren. 5.Violencecanencourageimitation:bydisplayingviolenceevenwhilecondemningititcanbelegitimisedandcanalso encourageimitationamongstadangerousminority. 6.Violenceisoftenglorified:encouragescallousattitudes. ConclusionCaseagainstcensorshipmuchstronger.Nonecessaryconnectionbetweenthetwotopics.

HowtoSummarize
1.Asummaryorprcisisashorterversionofalongerpieceofwriting.Thesummarycapturesallthemostimportant partsoftheoriginal,butexpressesthemina[much]shorterspace.

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2. Summarizing exercises are usually setto testyour understanding of the original, andyour ability to restate its main purpose. 3.Summarizingisalsoausefulskillwhengatheringinformationordoingresearch. 4.Thesummaryshouldbeexpressedasfaraspossibleinyourownwords.It'snotenoughtomerelycopyoutpartsof theoriginal. 5.Thequestionwillusuallysetamaximumnumberofwords.Ifnot,aimforsomethinglikeonetenthoftheoriginal.[A summarywhichwashalfthelengthoftheoriginalwouldnotbeasummary.] 6.Readtheoriginalquickly,andtrytounderstanditsmainsubjectorpurpose. 7.Thenyouwillneedtoreaditagaintounderstanditinmoredetail. 8.Underlineormakeamarginalnoteofthemainissues.Useahighlighterifthishelps. 9.Lookupanywordsorconceptsyoudon'tknow,sothatyouunderstandtheauthor'ssentencesandhowtheyrelateto eachother. 10. Work through the text to identify its main sections or arguments. These might be expressed as paragraphs or web pages. 11.Rememberthatthepurpose[anddefinition]ofaparagraphisthatitdealswithoneissueortopic. 12.Drawupalistofthetopicsormakeadiagram.[Asimplepictureofboxesoraspiderdiagramcanoftenbehelpful.] 13.Writeaoneortwosentenceaccountofeachsectionyouidentify.Focusyourattentiononthemainpoint.Leaveout anyillustrativeexamples. 14.Writeasentencewhichstatesthecentralideaoftheoriginaltext. 15.Usethisasthestartingpointforwritingaparagraphwhichcombinesallthepointsyouhavemade. 16.Thefinalsummaryshouldconciselyandaccuratelycapturethecentralmeaningoftheoriginal. 17.Rememberthatitmustbeinyourownwords.Bywritinginthisway,youhelptorecreatethemeaningoftheoriginal inawaywhichmakessenseforyou.
ExampleofanOriginaltext

'Atatypicalfootballmatchwearelikelytoseeplayers committingdeliberatefouls,oftenbehindthereferee's back. They might try to take a throwin or a free kick fromanincorrect,butmoreadvantageouspositionsin defiance of the clearly stated rules of the game. They sometimes challenge the rulings of the referee or linesmen in an offensive way which often deserves exemplarypunishmentorevensendingoff.Nowonder spectators fight amongst themselves, damage stadiums, or take the law into their own hands by invadingthepitchinthehopeofaffectingtheoutcome ofthematch.'[100words]
Summary Unsportsmanlike behaviour by footballers may causehooliganismamongspectators.[9words]

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Someextratips
Eventhoughnotesareonlyforyourownuse,theywillbemoreeffectiveiftheyarerecordedclearlyandneatly.Good layoutwillhelpyoutorecallandassessmaterialmorereadily.Ifindoubtusethefollowinggeneralguidelines. Beforeyouevenstart,makeanoteofyoursource(s).Ifthisisabook,anarticle,orajournal,writethefollowing informationattheheadofyournotes:Author,title,publisher,publicationdate,andeditionofbook. UselooseleafA4paper.Thisisnowtheinternationalstandardforalmostalleducationalprintedmatter.Don't usesmallnotepads.Youwillfinditeasiertokeeptrackofyournotesiftheyfiteasilyalongsideyourotherstudy materials. Write clearly and leave a space between each note. Don't try to cram as much as possible onto one page. Keepingtheitemsseparatewillmakethemeasiertorecall.Theactoflayingoutinformationinthiswaywillcause youtoassesstheimportanceofeachdetail. Useanewpageforeachsetofnotes.Thiswillhelpyoutostoreandidentifythemlater.Keeptopicsseparate, andhavethemclearlytitledandlabelledtofacilitateeasyrecall. Writeononesideofthepageonly.Numberthesepages.Leavetheblanksidesfreeforpossiblefutureadditions, andforanydetailswhichmaybeneededlater.

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Qualitiesofacharacter
intelligent educated smart wise gifted clever ingenious brilliant learned scholarly astute competent sensible talented intellectual precocious rational perceptive MentalQualities unintelligent unschooled dumb ignorant simple puerile obtuse vacuous narrowminded shallow dull incompetent unreasonable incapable bigoted witless irrational cunning PhysicalQualities strong healthy handsome beautiful pretty cute robust hardy dainty delicate charming ravishing adroit skillful lively robust weak sickly hideous ugly graceless emaciated clumsy awkward grotesque odious coarse repulsive ungainly unkempt decrepit frail cooperative hospitable congenial cheerful supportive urbane worldly debonair suave elegant courteous tactful cordial convivial encouraging merry moral kind considerate idealistic innocent righteous upstanding truthful honest honorable loyal helpful virtuous pure puritanical austere polite respectable MoralQualities immoral cruel inconsiderate unprincipled corrupt vile deceitful lying unscrupulous dishonorable untrustworthy selfcentered dissolute vulgar degenerate sensual insulting base SocialQualities contentious inhospitable impolite sullen antagonistic boorish provincial brusque obsequious unpolished petulant crude crabby critical caustic grumpy

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Authorstone
Acrossthetopofthechart,youwillfindtenwordsthatcanbeusedtoidentifyanauthorstone.Beloweachoftheten wordsareotherwordsassociatedwiththattonethatmightbetterpinpointordescribeatone.
reverence awe veneration love affection cherish fondness admiration tenderness sentiment romantic Platonic adoration narcissism passion lust rapture ecstasy infatuated enamor compassion joy exaltation zeal fervor ardor elation jubilant buoyancy happiness glad pleased merry glee delight cheerful gay sanguine mirth enjoy relish bliss calm serene tranquil placid content hope expect anticipate trust sadness somber solemn melancholy sorrow lament despair despondent regret dismal funereal saturnine dark gloomy dejection grave grief morose sullen woe bleak remorse forlorn distress agony anguish depression misery barren empty pity anger vehement enraged rage outrage antipathy irritation indignant vexation incensed petulant irascible riled bitter acrimony irate fury wrath rancor hostility miffed choleric frustration futility aggravate umbrage gall bristle hate vengeance detest abhorrence animosity enmity malice pique rancor aversion loathing despise scorn contempt disdain jealousy repugnance repulsion resentment spite disgust fear timidity apprehension anxiety terror horror dismay agitation sinister alarm startle uneasy qualms angst trepidation intimidation spooky dread phobia appalled

COMPARINGTWOPOEMSWITHSIMILARTHEMES Readthetwopoemsbelowandanswerthequestions. Thedrum Thumbprint

EveMerriam Intheheelofmythumb arewhorls,whirls,wheels inauniquedesign: minealone. Whatatreasuretoown! Myownflesh,myownfeelings. Noother,howevergrandorbase, canevercontainthesame. Mysignature, thumbingthepagesofmytime. Myuniversekey. Mysingularity. Impress,implant, Iammyself, ofallmyatompartsIamthesum. Andoutofmybloodandmybrain Imakemyowninteriorweather, Myownsunandrain. Imprintmymarkupontheworld, WhateverIshallbecome. NikkiGiovanni daddysaystheworldis adrumtightandhard andItoldhim Imgonnabeatoutmyownrhythm

1.Thethemeofeachpoemdealswith A.theworld

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B.individuality C.birth D.solutions 2.Poetsoftenusetherhythmoftheirpoemstoreinforcethetheme.Whichstatementbelowistrueabouttherhythm ofthesepoems? A.Bothpoemshaveasetrhythm. B.OnlyThumbprinthasasetrhythm. C.Onlythedrumhasasetrhythm. D.Neitherofthepoemshasasetrhythm. 3.Poetsusepunctuationandcapitalizationtosuittheeffecttheywishtheirpoemtohave.WhydoesNikkiGiovanninot useanypunctuationorcapitalization? A.Sheisstressingtheindividualityofherspeaker. B.Sheisshowingthelackofeducationofherspeaker. C.Sheisdeliberatelyomittingthestandardsoftheworld. D.Shedidntcarefullyproofreadherpoemandhereditorthoughtshemeanttoomitthem. 4.theworldis/adrum Whatisthislineanexampleof? A.alliteration B.personification C.simile D.metaphor 5.Studybothpoems.Whatineachpoemleadsyoutobelievethatthespeakerisyoung? 6.Whydoyouthinkthepoetschosetouseyoungspeakersfortheirpoems?

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ANALYSINGFICTION/LITERARYTERMS
Vocabulary The author's choice of individual words which may be drawn from various registers such as colloquial, literary,technical,slang,journalism,andmayvaryfromsimpleanddirecttocomplexandsophisticated. Grammar The relationships of the words in sentences, which might include such items as the use of adjectives for description, of verbs to denote action, switching between tenses to move between present and past, or any use of unusualcombinationsofwordsorphrasestocreatespecialeffects. Syntax Thearrangementandlogicalcoherenceofwordsinasentence.Thepossibilitiesforrearrangementareoften usedforemphasisordramaticeffect. Figures of speech The rhetorical devices often used to give decorative and imaginative expression to literature. For examplesimile,metaphor,puns,irony. LiterarydevicesThedevicescommonlyusedinliteraturetogiveaddeddepthtoawork.Forexample,imagery,pointof view,symbolism,allusions. Tone The author's attitude to the subject as revealed in the style and the manner of the writing. This might be for instanceserious,comic,orironic. NarratorThepersontellingthestory.Thismaybetheauthor,assumingafullknowledgeofcharactersandtheirfeelings: this is an omniscient narrator. It might alternatively be a fictional character invented by the author. There may also be multiplenarrators.YoushouldalwaysbepreparedtomakeacleardistinctionbetweenAuthor,Narrator,andCharacter eventhoughinsometextsthesemaybe(orappeartobe)thesame. NarrativemodeThisisusuallyeitherthefirstpersonsingular('Iamgoingtotellyouastoryabout...')orthethirdperson singular('Theduchessfeltalarmed...'). NarrativeThestorywhichisbeingtold:thatis,thehistoryoftheevents,characters,orwhatevermattersthenarrator wishestorelatetothereader. Characterisation The means by which characters are depicted or created commonly by accounts of their physical appearance,psychologicalcharacteristics,directspeech,andtheopinionsofthenarratororothercharactersaboutthem. Point of view The literary strategy by which an author presents the events of a narrative from the perspective of a particularpersonwhichmaybethenarratorormaybeafictionalcharacter.Thepointofviewmaybeconsistent,orit may switch between narrator and character(s). It should not be confused with the mere opinion of a character or the narrator. StructureTheplannedunderlyingframeworkorshapeofapieceofwork.Therelationshipbetweenitspartsintermsof arrangementorconstruction. ThemeTheunderlyingtopicorissue,oftenofageneralorabstractnature,asdistinctfromtheovertsubjectwithwhich theworkdeals.Itshouldbepossibletoexpressthemeinasinglewordorshortphrasesuchas'death','education',or 'comingofage'. Genre The literary category or type (for instance, short story, novella, or novel) to which the work belongs and with whoseconventionsitmightbecompared.Webecomeawareofgenrethroughculturalexperienceandknowforinstance thatindetectivestoriesmurdermysteriesaresolved;infairystoriesbeautifulgirlsmarrytheprince;andinsomemodern shortstoriesnotmuchhappens. CulturalcontextThehistoricalandculturalcontextandthecircumstancesinwhichtheworkwasproduced,whichmight have some bearing on its possible meanings. A text produced under conditions of strict censorship might conceal its meaningsbeneathsymbolismorallegory.

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WHATISLITERATURE?
LITERATURE(n.)creativewritingofrecognizedartisticvalue;theprofessionorartofawriter;"herplaceinliteratureis secure" 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Thebodyofwrittenworksofalanguage,period,orculture. Imaginativeorcreativewriting,especiallyofrecognizedartisticvalue:Literaturemustbeananalysisofexperience andasynthesisofthefindingsintoaunity(RebeccaWest). Theartoroccupationofaliterarywriter. Thebodyofwrittenworkproducedbyscholarsorresearchersinagivenfield:medicalliterature. Printedmaterial:collectedalltheavailableliteratureonthesubject. Music.Allthecompositionsofacertainkindorforaspecificinstrumentorensemble:thesymphonicliterature.

[MiddleEnglish,booklearning,fromOldFrenchlitterature,fromLatinlittertra,fromlittertus,lettered.

Literarydictionary
literature,abodyofwrittenworksrelatedbysubjectmatter(e.g.theliteratureofcomputing),bylanguageorplaceof origin(e.g.Russianliterature),orbyprevailingculturalstandardsofmerit.Inthislastsense,literatureistakentoinclude oral,dramatic,andbroadcastcompositionsthatmaynothavebeenpublishedinwrittenformbutwhichhavebeen(or deservetobe)preserved.Sincethe19thcentury,thebroadersenseofliteratureasatotalityofwrittenorprintedworks hasgivenwaytomoreexclusivedefinitionsbasedoncriteriaofimaginative,creative,orartisticvalue,usuallyrelatedtoa work'sabsenceoffactualorpracticalreference.Evenmorerestrictivehasbeentheacademicconcentrationuponpoetry, drama, and fiction. Until the mid20th century, many kinds of nonfictional writingin philosophy, history, biography, criticism, topography, science, and politicswere counted as literature; implicit in this broader usage is a definition of literature as that body of works whichfor whatever reasondeserves to be preserved as part of the current reproductionofmeaningswithinagivenculture(unlikeyesterday'snewspaper,whichbelongsinthedisposablecategory of ephemera). This sense seems more tenable than the later attempts to divide literatureas creative, imaginative, fictional,ornonpracticalfromfactualwritingsorpracticallyeffectiveworksofpropaganda,rhetoric,ordidacticwriting. TheRussianFormalistsattempttodefineliterarinessintermsoflinguisticdeviationsisimportantinthetheoryofpoetry, buthasnotaddressedthemoredifficultproblemofthenonfictionalproseforms.

Formsofliterature
Poetry
A poem is commonly defined as a composition written in verse (although verse has been equally used for epic and dramaticfiction).Poemsrelyheavilyonimagery,precisewordchoice,andmetaphor;theymaytaketheformofmeasures consistingofpatternsofstresses(metricfeet)orofpatternsofdifferentlengthsyllables(asinclassicalprosody);andthey may or may not utilize rhyme. One cannot readily characterize poetry precisely. Typically though, poetry as a form of literature makes some significant use of the formal properties of the words it uses the properties attached to the writtenorspokenformofthewords,ratherthantotheirmeaning.Metredependsonsyllablesandonrhythmsofspeech; rhymeandallitarationdependonwordsthathavesimilarpronunciation.Somerecentpoets,suchase.e.cummings,made extensiveuseofwords'visualform.

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Poetryperhapspredatesotherformsofliterature:earlyknownexamplesincludetheSumerianEpicofGilbamesh(dated fromaround2700B.C.),partsoftheBible,thesurvivingworksofHomer(theIliadandtheOdyssey),andtheIndianepics RamayanaandMahabharata.Inculturesbasedprimarilyonoraltraditionstheformalcharacteristicsofpoetryoftenhave amnemonicfunction,andimportanttexts:legal,genealogicalormoral,forexample,mayappearfirstinverseform. Much poetry uses specific forms: the haiku, the limerick, or the sonnet, for example. A traditional haiku written in Japanesemusthavesomethingtodowithnature,containseventeenonji(syllables),distributedoverthreelinesingroups offive,seven,andfive,andshouldalsohaveakigo,aspecificwordindicatingaseason.Alimerickhasfivelines,witha rhyme scheme of AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables. It traditionally has a less reverent attitude towardsnature. Languageandtraditiondictatesomepoeticnorms:Persianpoetryalwaysrhymes,Greekpoetryrarelyrhymes,Italianor Frenchpoetryoftendoes,EnglishandGermancangoeitherway(althoughmodernnonrhymingpoetryoften,perhaps unfairly,hasamore"serious"aura).PerhapsthemostparadigmaticstyleofEnglishpoetry,blankverse,asexemplifiedin works by Shakespeare and by Milton, consists of unrhymed iambic pentamenters. Some languages prefer longer lines; some shorter ones. Some of these conventions result from the ease of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and grammarintocertainstructures,ratherthanintoothers;forexample,somelanguagescontainmorerhymingwordsthan others, or typically have longer words. Other structural conventions come about as the result of historical accidents, wheremanyspeakersofalanguageassociategoodpoetrywithaverseformpreferredbyaparticularskilledorpopular poet. Works for theatre (see below) traditionally took verse form. This has now become rare outside opera and musicals, althoughmanywouldarguethatthelanguageofdramaremainsintrinsicallypoetic. Inrecentyears,digitalpoetryhasarisenthattakesadvantageoftheartistic,publishing,andsyntheticqualitiesofdigital media.

Drama
Aplayordramaoffersanotherclassicalliteraryformthathascontinuedtoevolveovertheyears.Itgenerallycomprises chieflydialoguebetweencharacters,andusuallyaimsatdramatic/theatricalperformance(seetheatre)ratherthanat reading.Duringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,operadevelopedasacombinationofpoetry,drama,andmusic. Nearlyalldramatookverseformuntilcomparativelyrecently.Shakespearecouldbeconsidereddrama.RomeoandJuliet, forexample,isaclassicromanticdramagenerallyacceptedasliterature. Geekdramaexemplifiestheearliestformofdramaofwhichwehavesubstantialknowledge.Tragedy,asadramatic genre,developedasaperformanceassociatedwithreligiousandcivicfestivals,typicallyenactingordevelopinguponwell knownhistoricalormythologicalthemes.TragediesgenerallypresentedveryseriousTheme.Withtheadventofnewer technologies,scriptswrittenfornonstagemediahavebeenaddedtothisform.WaroftheWorlds(radio)in1938sawthe advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely,television,film,andradioliteraturehavebeenadaptedtoprintedorelectronicmedia.

Essays
Anessayconsistsofadiscussionofatopicfromanauthor'spersonalpointofview,exemplifiedbyworksbyFrancisBacon orbyCharlesLamb. 'Essay'inEnglishderivesfromtheFrench'essai',meaning'attempt'.Thusonecanfindopenended,provocativeand/or inconclusiveessays.Theterm"essays"firstappliedtotheselfreflectivemusingsofMicheldeMontaigne,andeventoday hehasareputationasthefatherofthisliteraryform. Genresrelatedtotheessaymayinclude: thememoir,tellingthestoryofanauthor'slifefromtheauthor'spersonalpointofview theepistle:usuallyaformal,didactic,orelegantletter. theblog,aninformalshortrantaboutaparticulartopicortopics,usuallyopinion

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Prosefiction
Prose consists of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures (other than simple grammar); "non poetic writing," writing, perhaps. The term sometimes appears pejoratively, but prosaic writing simply says something withoutnecessarilytryingtosayitinabeautifulway,orusingbeautifulwords.Prosewritingcanofcoursetakebeautiful form; but less by virtue of the formal features of words (rhymes, alliteration, metre)but rather bystyle, placement, or inclusionofgraphics.Butoneneednotmarkthedistinctionprecisely,andperhapscannotdoso.Notetheclassifications: "prosepoetry",whichattemptstoconveytheaestheticrichnesstypicalofpoetryusingonlyprose "freeverse",orpoetrynotadheringtoanyofthestructuresofoneoranotherformalpoeticstyle

Narrativefiction(narrativeprose)generallyfavoursproseforthewritingofnovels,shortstories,graphicnovels,andthe like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent centuries. Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction. Although limits remain somewhatarbitrary,modernpublishingconventionsdictatethefollowing: AMiniSagaisashortstoryofexactly50words AFlashfictionisgenerallydefinedasapieceofproseunderathousandwords. Ashortstorycomprisesprosewritingoflessthan10,000to20,000words,buttypicallymorethan500words, whichmayormaynothaveanarrativearc. Astorycontainingbetween20,000and50,000wordsfallsintothenovellacategory. Aworkoffictioncontainingmorethan50,000wordsfallssquarelyintotherealmofthenovel.

Anovelconsistssimplyofalongstorywritteninprose,yettheformdevelopedcomparativelyrecently.Icelandicprose sagas dating from about the 11th century bridge the gap between traditional national verse epics and the modern psychogicalnovel.InmainlandEurope,theSpaniardCervanteswroteperhapsthefirstinfluentialnovel:DonQuixote,the first part of which was published in 1605 and the second in 1615. Earlier collections of tales, such as Boccaccio's Decameron and Chaucer's The Carterbury Tales, have comparable forms and would classify as novels if written today. EarlierworkswritteninAsiaresembleevenmorestronglythenovelaswenowthinkofitforexample,workssuchas theChineseseRomanceoftheThreeKingdomsandtheJapaneseTaleofGenjibyLadyMurasaki.ComparetoTheBookof OnethousandandOneNights. EarlynovelsinEuropedidnot,atthetime,countassignificantliterature,perhapsbecause"mere"prosewritingseemed easyandunimportant.Ithasbecomeclear,however,thatprosewritingcanprovideaestheticpleasurewithoutadhering to poetic forms. Additionally, the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves with verse structure translates often into a more complex plot or into one richer in precise detail than one typically finds even in narrative poetry.Thisfreedomalsoallowsanauthortoexperimentwithmanydifferentliteraryandpresentationstylesincluding poetryinthescopeofasinglenovel.

Otherproseliterature
Philosophy,history,journalism,andlegalandscientificwritingstraditionallyrankedasliterature.Theyoffersomeofthe oldestprosewritingsinexistence;novelsandprosestoriesearnedthenames"fiction"todistinguishthemfromfactual writingornonfiction,whichwritershistoricallyhavecraftedinprose. The "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries, as advances and specializationhavemadenewscientificresearchinaccessibletomostaudiences;sciencenowappearsmostlyinjournals. ScientificworksofEuclid,Aristotle,Copernicus,andNewtonstillpossessgreatvalue;butsincethescienceinthemhas largelybecomeoutdated,theynolongerserveforscientificinstruction,yettheyremaintootechnicaltositwellinmost programmesofliterarystudy.Outsideof"historyofscience"programmesstudentsrarelyreadsuchworks.Manybooks "popularizing"sciencemightstilldeservethetitle"literature";historywilltell. Philosophy, too, has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major philosophers throughhistoryPlato,Aristotle,August,Descartes,Nietzschehavebecomeascanonicalasanywriters.Somerecent philosophyworksarearguedtomeritthetitle"literature",suchassomeoftheworksbySimonBlackburn;butmuchofit doesnot,andsomeareas,suchaslogic,havebecomeextremelytechnicaltoadegreesimilartothatofmathematics.

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Agreatdealofhistoricalwritingcanstillrankasliterature,particularlythegenreknownascreativenonfiction.Socana greatdealofjournalism,suchasliteraryjournalism.Howevertheseareashavebecomeextremelylarge,andoftenhavea primarilyutilitarianpurpose:torecorddataorconveyimmediateinformation.Asaresultthewritinginthesefieldsoften lacks a literary quality, although it often and in its better moments has that quality. Major "literary" historians include Herodotus,ThucydidesandProcopius,allofwhomcountascanonicalliteraryfigures. Lawoffersalessclearcase.SomewritingsofPlatoandAristotle,oreventheearlypartsoftheBible,mightcountaslegal literature. The law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon might count. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis duringthereignofJustinianIoftheByzantineEmpirehasareputationassignificantliterature.Thefoundingdocumentsof manycountries,includingtheUnitedStatesConstitution,cancountasliterature;howeverlegalwritingnowrarelyexhibits literarymerit. GameDesignScriptsInessenceneverseenbytheplayerofagameandonlybythedevelopersand/orpublishers,the audience for these pieces is usually very small. Still, many game scripts contain immersive stories and detailed worlds makingthemhiddenliterarygems. Mostofthesefields,then,throughspecializationorproliferation,nolongergenerallyconstitute"literature"inthesense under discussion. They may sometimes count as "literary literature"; more often they produce what one might call "technicalliterature"or"professionalliterature".

RelatedNarrativeForms
Graphicnovelsandcomicbookspresentstoriestoldinacombinationofsequentialartwork,dialogueandtext. Films,videosandbroadcastsoapoperashavecarvedoutanichewhichoftenparallelsthefunctionalityofprose fiction. InteractiveFiction,atermforaprosebasedgenreofcomputergames,occupiesasmallliteraryniche. Eletronicliteratureisadevelopingliterarygenremeanttobereadonacomputerscreen,oftenmakinguseof hypertext.

Genresofliterature
Aliterarygenrereferstothetraditionaldivisionsofliteratureofvariouskindsaccordingtoaparticularcriterionofwriting.

Literarygenre
Aliterarygenreisagenreofliterature,thatis"aloosesetofcriteriaforacategoryofliterarycomposition",dependingon literarytechnics,tone,orcontent. Themostgeneralgenresinliteratureare(inchronologicalorder)epic,tragedy,comedy,novel,andshortstiry.Theycanall be in the genresprose and poetry, which shows best how loosely genres are defined. Additionally, a genre like satire, allegory or pastoral might appear in any of the above, not only as a subgenre (see below), but as a mixture of genres. Finally,theyaredefinedbythegeneralculturalmovementsofthehistoricalperiodinwhichtheywerecomposed.

Subgenres
Genres are often divided into subgenres.Literature, for instance, is divided into three basic kinds of literature, classic genres of Ancient Greece, poetry,drama, and prose. Poetry may then be subdivided into epic, lyric, and dramatic. Subdivisions of drama includes formost comedy and tragedy, while eg. comedy itself has subgenres, including farce, comedyofmanners,burlesque,satire,andsoon.However,anyofthesetermswouldbecalled"genre",anditspossible moregeneraltermsimplied. Tobeevenmoreflexible,hybridformsofdifferenttermshavebeenused,likeaprosepoemoratragicomedy.Science Fictionhas many recognizedsubgenres; a science fictionstory may berooted in realscientific expectationsas they are understood at the time of writing (see Hard science fiction). A more general term, coined by Robert A. Heinlein, is "speculative fiction," an umbrella term covering all such genres that depict alternate realities. Even fiction that depicts innovations ruled out by current scientific theory, such as stories about or based on faster than light travel, are still sciencefiction,becausescienceisamainsubjectinthepieceofart.

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Dramatic poetry, for instance, might include comedy, tragedy, melodrama, and mixtures like tragicomedy. This parsing into subgenres can continue: "comedy" has its own genres, for example, including comedy of manners, sentimental comedy,burlesquecomedy,andsatiricalcomedy. Usually,thecriteriausedtodivideupworksintogenresarenotconsistent,andmaychangeconstantly,andbesubjectof argument, change and challenge by both authors and critics. However, even very loose terms like fiction ("literature createdfromtheimagination,notpresentedasfact,thoughitmaybebasedonatruestoryorsituation")arenotapplied toanyfictitiousliterature,whichisalmostrestrictedtotheusefornovel,shortstory,andnovella,butnotfables,andis alsousuallyaprosetext. Asubgenremayjoinnoncontradictingcriteria:Romanceandmysteryaremarkedoutbytheirplots,andWesternbyits setting,whichmeansthataworkcaneasilybeaWesternromanceorWesternmystery. Genres may be easily be confused with literary techniques, but though only loosely defined, they are not the same, examplesareparody,Framestory,constrainedwriting,streamofconsciousness.

Importanttermsforpoetry
allegory (ALehGORee): anarrative thatserves as an extended metaphor.Allegories are written in the form offables, parables,poems,stories,andalmostanyotherstyleorgenre.Themainpurposeofanallegoryistotellastorythathas characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. The difference betweenanallegoryandasymbolisthatanallegoryisacompletenarrativethatconveysabstractideastogetapoint across,whileasymbolisarepresentationofanideaorconceptthatcanhaveadifferentmeaningthroughoutaliterary work(AHandbooktoLiterature).OnewellknownexampleofanallegoryisDantesTheDivineComedy.InInferno,Dante isonapilgrimagetotrytounderstandhisownlife,buthischaracteralsorepresentseverymanwhoisinsearchofhis purposeintheworld(MerriamWebsterEncyclopediaofLiterature).AlthoughVirgilliterallyguidesDanteonhisjourney throughthemysticalinferno,hecanalsobeseenasthereasonandhumanwisdomthatDantehasbeenlookingforinhis life. alliteration(aLITuhRAYshuhn):apatternofsoundthatincludestherepetitionofconsonantsounds.Therepetitioncan belocatedatthebeginningofsuccessivewordsorinsidethewords.Poetsoftenusealliterationtoaudiblyrepresentthe actionthatistakingplace.Forinstance,intheInferno,Dantestates:"Isawitthere,butIsawnothinginit,exceptthe risingoftheboilingbubbles"(261).Therepetitionofthe"b"soundsrepresentsthesoundsofbubbling,orthebursting actionoftheboilingpitch.Inaddition,inSirPhillipSidney'sAstrophelandStella,thepoetstates:"Bitingmytruantpen, beatingmyselfforspite"(Line13).Thisrepetitionofthe"t"soundrepresentstheactionofthepoet;onecanhearand visualizehisanguishashebitesthepen.AlsoinAstrophelandStella,thepoetstates,"Oftturningothers'leaves,toseeif thence wouldflow, /Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn'dbrain"(78). Again, thepoet repeats the "fr" soundstoemphasizethespeaker'sdesireforinspirationinexpressinghisfeelings.Poetsmayalsousealliterationtocall attentiontoaphraseandfixitintothereader'smind;thus,itisusefulforemphasis.Therefore,notonlydoesalliteration providepoetryorprosewithauniquesound,itcanplaceemphasisonspecificphrasesandrepresenttheactionthatis takingplace allusion(aLOOzhuhn):areferenceinaliteraryworktoaperson,place,orthinginhistoryoranotherworkofliterature. Allusionsareoftenindirectorbriefreferencestowellknowncharactersorevents.Specificexamplesofallusionscanbe foundthroughoutDantesInferno.Inapassage,DantealludestotheGreekmythologicalfigures,PhaethonandIcarus,to expresshisfearashedescendsfromtheairintotheeighthcircleofhell.Hestates: IdoubtifPhaethonfearedmorethattime hedroppedthesunreinsofhisfather'schariot andburnedthestreakofskyweseetoday orifpoorIcarusdidfeelinghissides unfeatheringasthewaxbegantomelt, hisfathershouting:"Wrong,yourcourseiswrong"(CantoXVII:106111). Allusionsareoftenusedtosummarizebroad,complexideasoremotionsinonequick,powerfulimage.Forexample,to communicatetheideaofselfsacrificeonemayrefertoJesus,aspartofJesus'storyportrayshimdyingonthecrossin ordertosavemankind(Matthew27:4556).Inaddition,toexpressrighteousness,onemightalludetoNoahwho"hadno

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faultsandwastheonlygoodmanofhistime"(Genesis6:922).Furthermore,theideaoffatherhoodorpatriarchiallove canbewellunderstoodbyalludingtoAbraham,whowastheancestorofmanynations(Genesis17:36).Finally,Cainisan excellentexampletoconveybanishment,rejection,orevil,forhewascastoutofhishomelandbyGod(Genesis4:12). Thus,allusionsserveanimportantfunctioninwritinginthattheyallowthereadertounderstandadifficultconceptby relatingtoanalreadyfamiliarstory. connotation (KAHnuhTAEshun): an association that comes along with a particular word. Connotations relate not to a word'sactualmeaning,ordenotation,butrathertotheideasorqualitiesthatareimpliedbythatword.Agoodexampleis theword"gold."Thedenotationofgoldisamalleable,ductile,yellowelement.Theconnotations,however,aretheideas associatedwithgold,suchasgreed,luxury,oravarice.AnotherexampleoccursintheBookofGenesis.Jacobsays:Dan willbeaserpentbytheroadside,aviperalongthepath,thatbitesthehorsesheelssothatitsridertumblesbackward" (Gen 49:17). In this passage, Dan is not literally going to become a snake. However, describing Dan as a "snake" and "viper"forcesthereadertoassociatehimwiththenegativequalitiesthatarecommonlyassociatedwithreptiles,suchas slyness,danger,andevil.Danbecomeslikeasnake,slyanddangeroustotheriders.Writersuseconnotationtomaketheir writingmorevividandinterestingtoread. couplet (KUPlet): a style of poetry defined as a complete thought written in two lines with rhyming ends. The most popular of the couplets is the heroic couplet. The heroic couplet consists of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter usuallyhavingapauseinthemiddleofeachline.OneofWilliamShakespearestrademarkswastoendasonnetwitha couplet,asinthepoemShallICompareTheetoaSummersDay: Solongasmencanbreatheoreyescansee, Solongaslivesthis,andthisgiveslifetothee. ByusingthecoupletShakespearewouldoftensignaltheendofasceneinhis playsaswell.Anexampleofascenesendsignaledbyacoupletistheendof ActIVofOthello.ThesceneendswithDesdemonaslines: Goodnight.Goodnight.Heavenmesuchusessend. Nottopickbadfrombad,butbybadmend. denotation (DEEnoTAEshuhn): the exact meaning of a word, without the feelings or suggestions that the word may imply. It is the opposite of connotation in that it is the dictionary meaning of a word, without attached feelings or associations.Someexamplesofdenotationsare: 1.heart:anorganthatcirculatesbloodthroughoutthebody.Heretheword"heart"denotestheactualorgan,whilein another context, the word "heart" may connote feelings of love or heartache. 2.sweater:aknittedgarmentfortheupperbody.Theword"sweater"maydenotepulloversweatersorcardigans,while sweatermayalsoconnotefeelingsofwarmnessorsecurity. Denotationallowsthereadertoknowtheexactmeaningofawordsothatheorshewillbetterunderstandtheworkof literature. elegy (ELeje): a type of literature defined as a song or poem, written in elegiac couplets, that expresses sorrow or lamentation,usuallyforonewhohasdied.ThistypeofworkstemmedoutofaGreekworkknownasa"elegus,"asongof mourningorlamentationthatisaccompaniedbytheflute.Beginninginthe16thcentury,elegiestooktheformweknow today.TwofamouselegiesincludeThomasGrays"ElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard"andWaltWhitmans"When LilacsLastintheDooryardBloomd".Grayselegyisnotableinthatitmournedthelossofawayofliferatherthantheloss ofanindividual.Hiswork,whichsomeconsidertobealmostpolitical,showedextremediscontentforstrifeandtyranny set upon EnglandbyOliver Cromwell. This work also acted as an outlet for Grays dissatisfaction with thosepoets who wrote in accordance with the thoughts and beliefs of the upper class. In his elegy, Gray mourned for his country and mournedforitscitizens.Whitman,inspiredbytheassassinationofAbrahamLincoln,wrotehiselegyinitsclassicform, showing sorrow for the loss of an individual. See A Readers Companion to World Literature, and Dictionary of World Literature. epigram(epegram):ashortpoemorversethatseekstoridiculeathoughtorevent,usuallywithwitticismorsarcasm. These literary works were very popular during the Renaissance in Europe in the late 14th century and the Neoclassical period,whichbeganaftertheRestorationin1660.TheyweremostcommonlyfoundinclassicLatinliterature,European and English literature. In Ancient Greek, an epigram originally meant a short inscription, but its meaning was later broadened toinclude any very short poems. Poems that are meditative or satiric all fall into this category. Theseshort poemsformulatedfromthelightversespecies,whichconcentratedonthetoneofvoiceandtheattitudeofthelyricor narrative speaker toward the subject. With a relaxed manner, lyricists would recite poems to their subjects that were comicalorwhimsical.SamuelTaylorColeridge(17711834),anEnglishpoet,essayistandcritic,constructedanepigramto

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showhumorinRomanticism.Histhoughts,OnaVolunteerSinger,comparesandcontraststhedeathofswanswiththat ofhumans: Swanssingbeforetheydietwerenobadthing Shouldcertainpeoplediebeforetheysing! Theballad,LordRandallillustratesayoungmanwhosetofftomeethisonetrue loveandendsupbecomingsickatheartwithwhathefinds.Theyoungmanlater arrives home to his family about to die and to each family member he leaves somethingsentimental.Whenaskedwhatheleavestohistruelove,heresponds: Ileaveherhellandfire Thisepigramtriedtodepictwhathappenstolovegonesour.Epigramshavebeen usedthroughoutthecenturiesnotonlytocriticizebutalsotopromote improvement. figurative language (figYOORative LANgwije): a type of language that varies from the norms of literal language, in whichwordsmeanexactlywhattheysay.Alsoknownasthe"ornamentsoflanguage,"figurativelanguagedoesnotmean exactlywhatitsays,butinsteadforcesthereadertomakeanimaginativeleapinordertocomprehendanauthor'spoint. Itusuallyinvolvesacomparisonbetweentwothingsthatmaynot,atfirst,seemtorelatetooneanother.Inasimile,for example, an author may compare a person to an animal: "He ran like a hare down the street" is the figurative way to describethemanrunningand"Heranveryquicklydownthestreet"istheliteralwaytodescribehim.Figurativelanguage facilitates understanding because it relates something unfamiliar to something familiar. Some popular examples of figurativelanguageincludeasimileandmetaphor. gothic(gothIK):aliterarystylepopularduringtheendofthe18thcenturyandthebeginningofthe19th.Thisstyleusually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other "dark" subjects. Gothic literature was namedfortheapparentinfluenceofthedarkgothicarchitectureoftheperiodonthegenre.Also,manyoftheseGothic tales took places in such "gothic" surroundings, sometimes a dark and stormy castle as shown in Mary Wollstoncraft Shelly's Frankenstein, or Bram Stoker's infamous Dracula. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everydaysetting,suchasthequainthousewherethemangoesmadfromthe"beating"ofhisguiltinEdgarAllanPoe's "TheTellTaleHeart".Inessence,thesestorieswereromances,largelyduetotheirloveoftheimaginaryoverthelogical, andweretoldfrommanydifferentpointofview.Thisliteraturegavebirthtomanyotherforms,suchassuspense,ghost stories,horror,mystery,andalsoPoe'sdetectivestories.Gothicliteraturewasn'tsodifferentfromothergenresinformas itwasincontentanditsfocusonthe"weird"aspectsoflife.Thismovementbegantoslowlyopenmaypeople'seyesto thepossibleusesofthesupernaturalinliterature. hyperbole(hiperbolee):anextravagantexaggeration.FromtheGreekfor"overcasting,"hyperboleisafigureofspeech that is a grossly exaggerated description or statement. In literature, such exaggeration is used for emphasis or vivid descriptions.Indrama,hyperboleisquitecommon,especiallyinheroicdrama.Hyperboleisafundamentalpartofboth burlesque writingand thetall tales from WesternAmerica. The conscious overstatements of these tales are forms of hyperbole.Manyotherexamplesofhyperbolecanbefoundintheromancefictionandcomedygenres.Hyperboleiseven a part of our daytoday speech: Youve grown like a bean sprout or Im older than the hills. Hyperbole is used to increasetheeffectofadescription,whetheritismetaphoricorcomic.Inpoetry,hyperbolecanemphasizeordramatizea personsopinionsoremotions.Skilledpoetsusehyperboletodescribeintenseemotionsandmentalstates.Othellouses hyperboletodescribehisangeratthepossibilityofIagolyingabouthiswifesinfidelityinActIII,SceneIIIofShakespeares playOthello:
Ifthoudostslanderherandtortureme, Neverpraymore;abandonallremorse; Onhorrorsheadaccumulate; Dodeedstomakeheavenweep,allearthamazed; Fornothingcanstthoutodamnationadd Greaterthanthat.

In this passage, Othello is telling Iago that if he is lying then Othello will have no pity and Iago will have no hope for salvation.Addinghorrorswithstillmorehorrors,Othelloisdescribinghispotentialrage.Othelloevendeclaresthatthe EarthwillbeconfoundedwithhorroratOthellosactionsinsuchastateofmadness. lyric(LEERick):alyricisasonglikepoemwrittenmainlytoexpressthefeelingsofemotionsorthoughtfromaparticular person,thusseparatingitfromnarrativepoems.Thesepoemsaregenerallyshort,averagingroughlytwelvetothirtylines, andrarelygobeyondsixtylines.Thesepoemsexpressvividimaginationaswellasemotionandallflowfairlyconcisely. Becauseofthisaspect,aswellastheirsteadyrhythm,theywereoftenusedinsong.Infact,mostpeoplestillseea"lyric"

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as anything that is sung along toa musical instrument. It is believed that the lyricbegan in its earliest stage in Ancient Egyptaround2600BCintheformsofelegies,odes,orhymnsgeneratedoutofreligiousceremonies.Someofthemore noteworthy authors who have used the lyric include William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and William Shakespearewhohelpedpopularizethesonnet,anothertypeoflyric.Theimportanceofunderstandingthelyriccanbest beshownthroughitsremarkableabilitytoexpresswithsuchimaginationtheinnermostemotionsofthesoul. metaphor(metAHfor)[fromtheGk.carryingoneplacetoanother]:atypeoffigurativelanguageinwhichastatementis made that says that one thing is something else but, literally, it is not. In connecting one object, event, or place, to another, a metaphorcan uncover new and intriguing qualities of the original thing that we may not normallynotice or even consider important. Metaphoric language is used in order to realize a new and different meaning. As an effect, a metaphorfunctionsprimarilytoincreasestylisticcolorfulnessandvariety.Metaphorisagreatcontributortopoetrywhen thereaderunderstandsalikenessbetweentwoessentiallydifferentthings.InhisPoetics,Aristotleclaimsthatforoneto mastertheuseofmetaphorisasignofgenius,sinceagoodmetaphorimpliesanintuitiveperceptionofthesimilarityin dissimilars(ThePoet'sDictionary).Ametaphormaybefoundinasimplecomparisonorlargelyastheimageofanentire poem.Forexample,EmilyDickinsonspoemMyLifehadstoodaLoadedGunmakesuseofaseriesofcomparisons betweenthespeakerandagun.Dickinsonopenstheworkwiththefollowing:MyLifehadstoodaLoadedGun/In corners till a Day / The Owner passed identified / And carried me away. Of course, the narrator is not really a gun. The metaphor carries with it all the qualities of a Loaded Gun. The speaker in the poem is making a series of comparisonsbetweenthemselvesandthequalitiesofagun.Thenarratorhadbeenwaitingalongtimebeforetheirlove foundthem.Thenarratorlovesherfellowsodesperatelythatshefeelsasaprotectivegunthatwouldkillanyonewishing to harm him. To this effect, Dickinson writes, "To foe of His Im deadly foe ." Dickinsons poem ends up being one extendedcomparisonthroughtheuseofmetaphorbetweenherselfandagunwithbutthepowertokill. metonymy(meTAHnahme):afigureofspeechwhichsubstitutesonetermwithanotherthatisbeingassociatedwith the that term. A name transfer takes place to demonstrate an association of a whole to a part or how two things are associatedinsomeway.Thisallowsareadertorecognizesimilaritiesorcommonfeaturesamongterms.Itmayprovidea morecommonmeaningtoaword.However,itmaybeaparallelshiftthatprovidesbasicallythesamemeaning;itisjust saidanotherway.Forexample,inthebookofGenesis3:19,itreferstoAdambysayingthatbythesweatofyourbrow, you will eat your food. Sweat represents the hard labor that Adam will have to endure to produce the food that will sustainhislife.Thesweatonhisbrowisavividpictureofhowhardheisworkingtoattainagoal.Anotherexampleisin Genesis27:28whenIsaactellsJacobthatGodwillgiveyou...anabundanceofgrainandnewwine.Thisgrainandwine representsthewealththatJacobwillattainbystealingthebirthright.Theserichesarelikemoneythatisforconsumption or material possessions to trade for other goods needed for survival. Furthermore, in the play Othello, Act I Scene I featuresmetonymywhenIagoreferstoOthelloasthedevilthatwillmakeagrandsireofyou.Thisphraserepresents apersonthatisseenasdeceitfulorevil.Anunderstandingofmetonymyaidsareadertoseehowanauthorinterchanges wordstofurtherdescribeatermsmeaning. narrativepoem(narRAHtivpoEM):apoemthattellsastory.Anarrativepoemcancomeinmanyformsandstyles,both complexandsimple,shortorlong,aslongasittellsastory.Afewexamplesofanarrativepoemareepics,ballads,and metrical romances. In western literature,narrative poetrydatesbackto the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh and Homer's epicstheIliadandtheOdyssey.InEnglandandScotland,storytellingpoemshavelongbeenpopular;inthelateMiddle Ages,balladsorstorytellingsongscirculatedwidely.Theartofnarrativepoetryisdifficultinthatitrequirestheauthorto possesstheskillsofawriteroffiction,theabilitytodrawcharactersandsettingsbriefly,toengageattention,andtoshape aplot,whilecallingforalltheskillsofapoetbesides. personification {PERsonEfihkashEn): A figure of speech where animals, ideas or inorganic objects are given human characteristics.OneexampleofthisisJamesStephensspoem"TheWind"inwhichwindpreformsseveralactions.Inthe poemStephenswrites,Thewindstoodupandgaveashout.Hewhistledonhistwofingers.Ofcoursethewinddidnot actually "stand up," but this image of the wind creates a vivid picture of the wind's wild actions. Another example of personificationinthispoemisKickedthewitheredleavesabout.Andthumpedthebrancheswithhishand.Here,the wind is kicking leaves about, just like a person would and using hands to thump branches like a person would also. By givinghumancharacteristicstothingsthatdonothavethem,itmakestheseobjectsandtheiractionseasiertovisualize forareader.Bygivingthewindhumancharacteristics,Stephensmakesthispoemmoreinterestingandachievesamuch morevividimageofthewaywindwhipsaroundaroom.Personificationismostoftenusedinpoetry,comingtopopularity duringthe18thcentury. rhyme(rime):repetitionofanidenticalorsimilarlyaccentedsoundorsoundsinawork.Lyricistsmayfindmultiplewaysto rhyme within a verse. End rhymes have words that rhyme at the end of a verseline. Internal rhymes have words that rhyme within it. Algernon C. Swinburne (18371909), a rebel and English poet, used internal rhymes in many of his Victorianpoemssuchassister,mysister,Ofleetsweetswallow.Therearecrossrhymesinwhichtherhymeoccursat

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theendofonelineandinthemiddleofthenext;andrandomrhymes,inwhichtherhymesseemtooccuraccidentallyin nospecificcombination,oftenmixedwithunrhymedlines.Thesesortofrhymestrytobringacreativeedgetoversesthat usuallyhaveperfectrhymesinasequentialorder.Historically,rhymecameintopoetrylate,showingintheWesternworld around AD 200 in the Church Latin of North Africa. Its popularity grew in Medieval Latin poetry. The frequently used spelling in English, r*h*y*m*e , comes from a false identification of the Greek word rhythmos. Its true origin comes fromProvencal,whichisarelationtoProvence,aregionofFrance.ThetraditionalScottishballad,Edward,usesend rhymestodescribewhathehasdonewithhisswordandproperty:
Andwhatwulyedoewiyourtowirsandyourha Thatweresaefairtosee,O? Ileletthamestandtultheydounfa Rhymegivespoemsflowandrhythm,helpingthelyricisttellastoryandconveyamood.

rhymescheme(rimeskeem):thepatternofrhymeusedinapoem,generallyindicatedbymatchinglowercaselettersto showwhichlinesrhyme.Theletter"a"notesthefirstline,andallotherlinesrhymingwiththefirstline.Thefirstlinethat doesnotrhymewiththefirst,or"a"line,andallothersthatrhymewiththisline,isnotedbytheletter"b",andsoon.The rhymeschememayfollowafixedpattern(asinasonnet)ormaybearrangedfreelyaccordingtothepoet'srequirements. Theuseofascheme,orpattern,cameaboutbeforepoemswerewrittendown;whentheywerepassedalonginsongor oralpoetry.Sincemanyofthesepoemswerelong,tellingofgreatheroes,battles,andotherimportantculturalevents, the rhyme scheme helped with memorization. A rhyme scheme also helps give a verse movement, providing a break beforechangingthoughts.Thefourlinestanza,orquatrain,isusuallywrittenwiththefirstlinerhymingwiththethirdline, andthesecondlinerhymingwiththefourthline,abab.TheEnglishsonnetgenerallyhasthreequatrainsandacouplet, suchasabab,cdcd,efef,gg.TheItaliansonnethastwoquatrainsandasestet,orsixlinestanza,suchasabba,abba,cde, cde.Rhymeschemeswereadaptedtomeettheartisticandexpressiveneedsofthepoet.HenryHowardSurreyiscredited withintroducingthesonnetformtoEngland.ThisformdifferedfromtheItalianformbecausehefoundthattherewere fewerrhymingwordsinEnglishthantherewereinItalian.
ShallIcomparetheetoasummer'sday? Thouartmorelovelyandmoretemperate. RoughwindsdoshakethedarlingbudsofMay. Andsummer'sleasehathalltooshortadate. ExcerptfromShakespeare's"SonnetXVIII",rhymescheme:abab.

simile(simEHlee):asimileisatypeoffigurativelanguage,languagethatdoesnotmeanexactlywhatitsays,thatmakes a comparison between two otherwise unalike objects or ideas by connecting them with the words "like" or "as." The readercanseeasimilarconnectionwiththeverbsresemble,compareandliken.Similesallowanauthortoemphasizea certaincharacteristicofanobjectbycomparingthatobjecttoanunrelatedobjectthatisanexampleofthatcharacteristic. AnexampleofasimilecanbeseeninthepoemRobinHoodandAllinaDale:
Withthatcameinawealthyknight, Whichwasbothgraveandold, Andafterhimafinikinlass, Didshinelikeglisteninggold.

Inthispoem,thelassdidnotliterallyglistenlikegold,butbycomparingthelasstothegoldtheauthoremphasizesher beauty, radiance and purity,all things associated with gold. Similarly, in N. ScottMomadays simple poem, Simile. he says that the two characters in the poem are like deer who walk in a single line with their heads high with their ears forward and their eyes watchful. By comparing the walkers to the nervous deer, Momaday emphasizes their care and caution. short story (short storeey): a prose narrative that is brief in nature. The short story also has many of the same characteristicsofanovelincludingcharacters,settingandplot.However,duetolengthconstraints,thesecharacteristics anddevicesgenerallymaynotbeasfullydevelopedorascomplexasthosedevelopedforafulllengthnovel.Thereare many authors well known for the short story including Edgar Allan Poe, Sherwood Anderson and Ernest Hemingway. AccordingtothebookLiteraryTermsbyKarlBecksonandArthurGanz,AmericanwriterssincePoe,whofirsttheorizedon thestructureandpurposeoftheshortstory,havepaidconsiderableattentiontotheform(257).Thewrittenprotocol regardingwhatcomprisesashortversusalongstoryisvague.However,ageneralstandardmightbethattheshortstory couldbereadinonesitting.NTCsDictionaryofLiteraryTermsquotesEdgarAllanPoesdescriptionasbeingashortprose narrative, requiring from a halfhour to one or two hours in its perusal (201). Please refer to Literary Terms by Karl Beckson and Arthur Ganz and NTCs Dictionary of Literary Terms by Kathleen Morner and Ralph Rausch for further information.

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slant rhyme (slnt rime) is also known as near rhyme, half rhyme, off rhyme, imperfect rhyme, oblique rhyme, or pararhyme.Adistinctivesystemorpatternofmetricalstructureandversecompositioninwhichtwowordshaveonlytheir finalconsonantsoundsandnoprecedingvowelorconsonantsoundsincommon.Insteadofperfectoridenticalsoundsor rhyme,itistherepetitionofnearorsimilarsoundsorthepairingofaccentedandunaccentedsoundsthatifbothwere accented would be perfect rhymes (stopped and wept, parable and shell). Alliteration, assonance, and consonance are accepted as slant rhyme due to their usage of sound combinations (spilled and spoiled, chitter and chatter). By not allowing the reader to predict or expect what is coming slant rhyme allows the poet to express things in different or certainways.SlantrhymewasmostcommonintheIrish,WelshandIcelandicverseandproselongbeforeHenryVaughn used it in English. Not until William Butler Yeats and Gerald Manley Hopkins began to use slant rhyme did it become regularly used in English.Wilfred Owen was one of the first poets to realize the impact of rhyming consonants in a consistentpattern.AWorldWarIsoldierhesoughtapowerfulmeanstoconveytheharshnessofwar.Killedinaction,his mostfamousworkwaswrittenintheyearpriortohisdeath.
Nowmenwillgocontentwithwhatwespoiled Or,discontent,boilbloody,andbespilled, Theywillbeswiftwiththeswiftnessofthetigress. Nonewillbreakranks,thoughnationstrekfromprogress. Couragewasmine,andIhadmystery, Wisdomwasmine,andIhadmastery: Tomissthemarchofthisretreatingworld Intovaincitadelsthatarenotwalled.

sonnet (sonnIT): a sonnet is a distinctive poetic style that uses system or pattern of metrical structure and verse compositionusuallyconsistingoffourteenlines,arrangedinasetrhymeschemeorpattern.Therearetwomainstylesof sonnet,theItaliansonnetandtheEnglishsonnet.TheItalianorPetrarchansonnet,namedafterPetrarch(13041374)a fourteenthcenturywriterandthebestknownpoettousethisform,wasdevelopedbytheItalianpoetGuittoneofArezzo (12301294)inthethirteenthcentury.Usuallywritteniniambicpentameter,itconsistsfirstofanoctave,oreightlines, whichasksaquestionorstatesaproblemorpropositionandfollowstherhymeschemeabba,abba.Thesestet,or lastsixlines,offersananswer,oraresolutiontotheproposedproblem,andfollowstherhymeschemecdecde.
WhenIconsiderhowmylightisspent Erehalfmydays,inthisdarkworldandwide, Andthatonetalentwhichisdeathtohide Lodgedwithmeuseless,thoughmysoulmorebent ToservetherewithmyMaker,andpresent Mytrueaccount,lesthereturningchide; "DothGodexactdaylabor,lightdenied?" Ifondlyask;butPatiencetoprevent Thatmurmur,soonreplies,"Goddothnotneed Eitherman'sworkorhisowngifts;whobest Bearhismildyoke,theyservehimbest.Hisstate Iskingly.Thousandsathisbiddingspeed Andposto'erlandandoceanwithoutrest: Theyalsoservewhoonlystandandwait."

JohnMilton,"WhenIConsiderHowMyLightIsSpent"ThesonnetwasfirstbroughttoEnglandbyThomasWyattand Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, in the sixteenth century, where the second sonnet form arose. The English or ShakespeareansonnetwasnamedafterWilliamShakespeare(15641616)whomostbelievedtothebestwritertousethe form.AdaptingtheItalianformtotheEnglish,theoctaveandsestetwerereplacedbythreequatrains,eachhavingitsown independentrhymeschemetypicallyrhymingeveryotherline,andendingwitharhymecouplet.InsteadoftheItalianic breakbetweentheoctaveandthesestet,thebreakcomesbetweenthetwelfthandthirteenthlines.Theendingcoupletis oftenthemainthoughtchangeofthepoem,andhasanepigramaticending.Itfollowstherhymeschemeabab,cdcd, efef,gg.
Shakespeare,SonnetXVIII. ShallIcomparetheetoasummersday?a Thouartmorelovelyandmoretemperate:b RoughwindsdoshakethedarlingbudsofMay,a Andsummersleasehathalltoshortadate:b Sometimetoohottheeyeofheavenshines,c Andoftenishisgoldcomplexiondimmd:d Andeveryfairfromfairsometimedeclines,c

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Bychance,ornatureschangingcourse,untrimmd.d Bythyeternalsummershallnotfadee Norlosepossessionofthatfairthouowest;f NorshallDeathbragthouwanderedinhisshade,e Whenineternallinestotimethougrowest:f Solongasmencanbreathe,oreyescansee,g Solonglivesthis,andthisgiveslifetothee.g

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ABRIEFHISTORYOFTHEENGLISHLANGUAGE
AdaptedfromDouglasF.Hasty
WespeakEnglishbutdoweknowwhereitcomesfrom?Wedidnotknowuntilwestarttostudyonthissubjectandwe learnwhereitcomesfromandhowithasdeveloped.Theimportanceofthispartisthatwecannotunderstandreading literatureifwedonotknowthehistoryofthelanguage,theculture,andthepeople. The history of English begins a little after A.D. 600. The ancestors of the language were wandering in the forests of northernEurope.TheirlanguagewasapartofGermanicbranchofIndoEuropeanFamily.Thepeopletalkingthislanguage spread to the northern coast of Europe in the time of Roman Empire. Among this people the tribes called Angels,Saxons,JuteswhichiscalledAngloSaxonscometoEngland.ThefirstLatineffectwasinthatperiod.Latineffected thelanguagewiththemerchantstravelingthetribes.SomeofthewordstakenfromLatinare;kettle,wine,cheese,butter, cheap. When AngloSaxons became Christian in 597 they learned Latin. According to the effects to English, the history of the language divided in to three; Old English(7th century1100), Middle English(11001450/1500), Modern English (1500 now).InsomebooksModernEnglishisdividedintotwoEarlymodern(15001700),LateModern(1700now). WhenEnglandwasestablishedtherewereseveralkingdomsandthemostadvancedonewasNurthumbria.Itwasthis periodthatthebestoftheOldEnglishliteraturewaswritten,includingtheepicpoemBeowulf,thatiswhywemustread partofthisepicpoem. Inthe8thcenturyNurthumbrianpowerdeclined,WestSaxonsbecametheleadingpower.Themostfamouskingofthe West Saxons was Alfred the Great, who founded and established schools, translated or caused to be translated many booksfromLatinintoEnglish. AftermanyyearsofhitandrunraidsbetweentheEuropeankingdoms,theNorsemanlandedintheyearof866andlater theeastcoastoftheislandwasNorsemans.NorselanguageeffectedtheEnglishconsiderably.Norsewasntsodifferent fromEnglishandEnglishpeoplecouldunderstandNorseman.Therewereconsiderableinterchangesandwordborrowings (sky,give,law,egg,outlaw,leg,ugly,talk). Also borrowed pronouns like they,their,them. It is supposed also that the NorsemaninfluencedthesoundstructureandthegrammarofEnglish. Alsointhe14thcenturyRomeEmpireweakenedbecauseGothsattackedtoMediterraneancountriesofRomanEmpire andAngloSaxonsattackedtoempire.OntheotherhandtheCeltictribesinScotlandandWalesdeveloped.Attheendin 410thelastromanemperorlefttheislandtoCelticandAngloSaxons.CelticandAngloSaxonsfoughtfor100yearsand AngloSaxonskilledalltheCeltics.In550AngloSaxonsestablishedEngland.DuringRomaEmpireLatinwasnotthenative languageofthekingdombecausepeopleinthecountryweretalkingCeltic. OldEnglishhadsomesoundwhichwedonotknowhavenow.Ingrammar,OldEnglishwasmuchmorehighlyinflected thatMiddleEnglishbecausetherewerecaseendingsfornouns,morepersonandnumberendingsofwordsandamore complicated pronoun systems, various endings for adjectives. In vocabulary Old English is quiet different from Middle English.MostoftheOldEnglishwordsarenativeEnglishwhichwerenotborrowedfromotherlanguages.Ontheother handOldEnglishcontainsborrowedwordscomingfromNorseandLatin. Old English, until 1066ImmigrantsfromDenmarkandNWGermanyarrivedinBritaininthe5thand6thCenturiesA.D., speakinginrelateddialectsbelongingtotheGermanicandTeutonicbranchesoftheIndoEuropeanlanguagefamily.Today, EnglishismostcloselyrelatedtoFlemish,Dutch,andGerman,andissomewhatrelatedtoIcelandic,Norwegian,Danish, andSwedish.Icelandic,unchangedfor1,000years,isveryclosetoOldEnglish.Vikinginvasions,beguninthe8thCentury, gaveEnglishaNorwegianandDanishinfluencewhichlasteduntiltheNormanConquestof1066. Old English WordsTheAnglescamefromanangleshapedlandareaincontemporaryGermany.Theirname"Angli" from the Latin and commonlyspoken, pre5th Century German mutated into the Old English "Engle". Later, "Engle" changedto"Angelcyn"meaning"Anglerace"byA.D.1000,changingto"Englaland".SomeOldEnglishwordswhich havesurvivedintactinclude:feet,geese,teeth,men,women,lice,andmice.Themodernword"like"canbeanoun, adjective,verb,andpreposition.InOldEnglish,though,thewordwasdifferentforeachtype:gelicaasanoun,geicas anadjective,licianasaverb,andgeliceasapreposition.

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Middle English, from 1066 until the 15th Century The Norman Invasion and Conquest of Britain in 1066 and the resulting French Court of William the Conqueror gave the NorwegianDutch influenced English a NormanParisian Frencheffect.From1066untilabout1400,Latin,French,andEnglishwerespoken.Englishalmostdisappearedentirely into obscurity during this period by the French and Latin dominated court and government. However, in 1362, the ParliamentopenedwithEnglishasthelanguageofchoice,andthelanguagewassavedfromextinction.Presentday Englishisapproximately50%Germanic(EnglishandScandinavian)and50%Romance(FrenchandLatin). Middle English Words Many new words added to Middle English during this period came from Norman French, ParisianFrench,andScandinavian.NormanFrenchwordsimportedintoMiddleEnglishinclude:catch,wage,warden, reward,andwarrant.ParisianFrenchgaveMiddleEnglish:chase,guarantee,regard,guardian,andgage.Scandinavian gave to Middle English the important word of law. English nobility had titles which were derived from both Middle EnglishandFrench.Frenchprovided:prince,duke,peer,marquis,viscount,andbaron.MiddleEnglishindependently developed king, queen, lord, lady, and earl. Governmental administrative divisions from French include county, city, village,justice,palace,mansion,andresidence.MiddleEnglishwordsincludetown,home,house,andhall. EarlyModernEnglish,fromthe15thCenturytothe17thCenturyDuringthisperiod,Englishbecamemoreorganized and began to resemble the modern version of English. Although the word order and sentence construction was still slightlydifferent,EarlyModernEnglishwasatleastrecognizabletotheEarlyModernEnglishspeaker.Forexample,the Old English "To us pleases sailing" became "We like sailing." Classical elements, from Greek and Latin, profoundly influencedworkcreationandorigin.FromGreek,EarlyModernEnglishreceivedgrammar,logic,arithmetic,geometry, astronomy,andmusic.Also,the"tele"prefixmeaning"far"laterusedtodeveloptelephoneandtelevisionwastaken. ModernEnglish,fromthe17thCenturytoModernTimesModernEnglishdevelopedthroughtheeffortsofliteraryand political writings, where literacy was uniformly found. Modern English was heavily influenced by classical usage, the emergenceoftheuniversityeducatedclass,Shakespeare,thecommonlanguagefoundintheEastMidlandssectionof presentdayEngland,andanorganizedefforttodocumentandstandardizeEnglish.Currentinflectionshaveremained almostunchangedfor400years,butsoundsofvowelsandconsonantshavechangedgreatly.Asaresult,spellinghas alsochangedconsiderably.Forexample,fromEarlyEnglishtoModernEnglish,lyfbecamelife,deelbecamedeal,hoom becamehome,monebecamemoon,andhousbecamehouse. AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofModernEnglishModernEnglishiscomposedofseverallanguages,withgrammar rules, spelling, and wordusage both complimentingandcompeting for clarity. Thedisadvantages of ModernEnglish include:analphabetwhichisunabletoadequatelyrepresentallneededsoundswithoutusingrepeatedorcombined letters,alimitof23lettersofthe26inthealphabetwhichcaneffectivelyexpresstwicethenumberofsoundsactually needed, and a system of spelling which is not based upon pronunciation but foreign language word origin and countlesschangesthroughouthistory.TheadvantagesofModernEnglishinclude:singleconsonantswhichareclearly understood and usually represent the same sounds in the same positions, the lack of accent marks found in other languageswhichpermitsquickerwriting,andthepresentspellingdisplaysEuropeanlanguageoriginsandconnections whichallowsEuropeanlanguagespeakerstobecomeimmediatelyawareofthousandsofwords. Modern English Words British English, known as Standard English or Oxford English, underwent changes as the colonization of North American and the creation of the United States occurred. British English words changed into AmericanEnglishwords,suchascentretocenter,metretometer,theatretotheater,favourtofavor,honourtohonor, labourtolabor,neighbourtoneighbor,chequetocheck,connexiontoconnection,gaoltojail,thestoreyofahouseto story, and tyre for tire. Since 1900, words with consistent spelling but different meanings from British English to AmericanEnglishinclude:toletfortorent,dualcarriagewayfordividedhighway,liftforelevator,amberforyellow,to ringfortotelephone,zebracrossingforpedestriancrossing,andpavementforsidewalk. AmericanEnglish,fromthe18thCenturyuntilModernTimesUntilthe18thCentury,BritishandAmericanEnglishwere remarkablysimilarwithalmostnovariance.ImmigrationtoAmericabyotherEnglishpeopleschangedthelanguageby 1700. Noah Webster, author of the first authoritative American English dictionary, created many changes. The "re" endings became "er" and the "our" endings became "or". Spelling by pronunciation and personal choice from Websterwereinfluences. Cough,Sought,Thorough,Thought,andThroughWhydothese"ough"wordshavethesamecentralspellingbutare so different? This is a characteristic of English, which imported similarly spelled or defined words from different languagesoverthepast1,000years.

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CoughFromtheMiddleHighGermankuchenmeaningtobreatheheavily,totheFrenchOldEnglishcohhian,tothe MiddleEnglishcoughenisderivedthecurrentwordcough. SoughtFromtheGreekhegeisthaimeaningtolead,totheLatinsagiremeaningtoperceivekeenly,totheOldHigh Germansuohhenmeaningtoseek,totheFrenchOldEnglishsecan,totheMiddleEnglishsekken,isderivedthepast tensesoughtofthepresenttenseoftheverbtoseek. Thorough From the FrenchOldEnglish thurh andthuruh tothe Middle English thorow is derivedthecurrent word thorough. Thought From the Old English thencan, which is related to the FrenchOld English word hoht, which remained the sameinMiddleEnglish,isderivedthecurrentwordthought. Through From the Sanskrit word tarati, meaning he crossed over, came the Latin word, trans meaning across or beyond.BeginningwithOldHighGermandurh,totheFrenchOldEnglishthurh,totheMiddleEnglishthurh,thruh,or through,isderivedthecurrentwordthrough.

HistoryandStructureoftheEnglishLanguage
GeneralConsiderations
EnglishthelanguagewhichoriginatedinEnglandandisnowwidelyspokenonsixcontinents.Itistheprimarylanguage oftheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Canada,Australia,Ireland,NewZealand,andvarioussmallislandnationsin theCaribbeanSeaandthePacificOcean.ItisalsoanofficiallanguageofIndia,thePhilippines,andmanycountriesin subSaharanAfrica,includingSouthAfrica.EnglishisamemberofthewesterngroupoftheGermaniclanguages(itself part of the IndoEuropean language family) and is closely related to Frisian, German, and Netherlandic (Dutch and Flemish). Inthe16thcentury,EnglishwasthemothertongueofonlyafewmillionpeoplelivinginEngland,butowingtothat nation'scolonizationofotherpartsoftheglobeandotherhistoricalfactors,Englishwasthenativelanguageofmore than350millionpeoplebythelate20thcentury.Itisthusthemothertongueofmorepeoplethananyotherlanguage exceptMandarinChinese.Englishisthemostwidelytaughtforeignlanguageandisalsothemostwidelyusedsecond languagei.e., one that two people communicate in when they cannot understand each other's native speech. It became the international language of scientific and technical discourse in the 20th century and was also widely adoptedforuseinbusinessanddiplomacy.Intheentireworld,onepersoninsevenspeaksEnglishaseitheraprimary orsecondarylanguage. Englishisananalytic(i.e.,relativelyuninflected)language,whereasProtoIndoEuropean,theancestraltongueofmost European,Iranian,andNorthIndianlanguages,issynthetic,orinflected.(Inflectionsarechangesintheformofwords toindicatesuchdistinctionsastense,person,number,andgender.)Overthousandsofyears,Englishhaslostmostof its inflections, while other European languages have retained more of theirs. Indeed, English is the only European language in which adjectives have no distinctive endings, aside from determiners and endings denoting degrees of comparison. Another characteristic is flexibility of function. This means that one word can function as various parts of speech in differentcontexts.Forexample,theword"book"canbeanadjectivein"bookreview,"anounin"readabook,"ora verb in "book a room." Because other European languages retain more inflectional endings than does English, they almost never have this characteristic. A third feature, openness of vocabulary, allows English to admit words freely fromotherlanguagesandtocreatecompoundsandderivatives. In England, British Received Pronunciation (RP) is the usual speech of educated people. In the United States, Inland Northern(popularlyknownasGeneralAmerican)iscommonlyused.Inbothcountries,however,otherpronunciations areacceptable. British Received Pronunciation and American Inland Northern show several divergences: (1) After some vowels Americanhasasemiconsonantalglide.(2)Thevowelin"cod,""box,"and"dock"ispronouncedlike"aw"inBritishand asoundsimilarto"ah"inAmerican.(3)Thevowelin"but,""cut,"and"rung,"iscentralinAmericanbutisfrontedin British.(4)ThevowelsintheAmerican"bath"and"bad"andintheBritish"bad"areallpronouncedthesame,butthe

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vowelintheBritish"bath"ispronouncedlike"ah,"sinceitisbeforeoneofthefricativess,f,orth(asin"thin").(5) When a high back vowel is preceded by t, d, or n in British, a glide (consonantal y) is inserted between them (e.g., "tulip,""news");inAmericantheglideisomitted. The 24 consonantal sounds comprise six stops (plosives): p, b, t, d, k, g; the fricatives f, v, th (as in "thin"), th (as in "then"),s,z,sh(asin"ship"),zh(asin"azure"),andh;twoaffricatives,ch(asin"church")andj(asin"jam");thenasals m,n,andng(asin"young");thelaterall;thevibrantorretroflexr;andthesemivowelsyandw.AmericanandBritish consonantshavethesamepronunciationwithtwoexceptions:(1)Whenroccursafteravowel,itisdroppedinBritish butpronouncedinAmerican.(2)Atbetweentwovowelsispronouncedliketin"top"inBritish,butinAmericanthe soundisclosetothatofad. Englishisastronglystressedlanguage,withfourdegreesofstress:primary,secondary,tertiary,andweak.Achangein stresscanchangethemeaningofasentenceoraphrase.AlthoughincomparisonwithotherlanguagesEnglishstressis less predictable, there is a tendency toward antepenultimate (third syllable from the last) primary stress. This is apparent in such fivesyllable words as equanmity, longitdinal, and notorety. French stress is often sustained in borrowedwords,e.g.,bizrre,critque,andhotl. Pitch,ormusicaltone,maybefalling,rising,orfallingrising.Wordtone,whichisalsocalledpitch,caninfluencethe meaningofaword.Sentencetoneiscalledintonationandisespeciallyimportantattheendofasentence.Thereare three important endofsentence intonations: falling, rising, and fallingrising. The falling intonation is used in completedstatements,commands,andsomequestionscallingfor"yes"or"no"answers.Risingintonationisusedin statementsmadewithsomereservation,inpoliterequests,andincertainquestionsanswerableby"yes"or"no."The third type of intonation, first falling and then rising pitch, is used in sentences that imply concessions or contrasts. AmericanintonationislesssingsongandstaysinanarrowerrangethandoesBritish. ThewordsoftheEnglishlanguagecanbedividedaccordingtotheirfunctionorformintoroughlyeightcategories,or parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Modern Englishnouns,pronouns,andverbsareinflected,butadjectives,adverbs,prepositions,conjunctions,andinterjections are not.MostEnglishnounshave theplural inflection(e)s, though some remain unchanged(e.g.,deer).Five of the sevenpersonalpronounshaveseparateformsforsubjectandobject.Englishverbsarenotcomplex.Regularorweak verbshaveonlyfourforms,strongverbshavefive,and"tobe"haseight.Someverbsendingintordhaveonlythree forms. Besides employing inflection, English exhibits two other main morphological (structural) processes affixation and composition and two subsidiary ones backformationand blend. Affixes, word elements attached to a word,may eitherprecedeasprefixes(pre,dis)orfollowassuffixes(able,er).Theycanbenative(over,ness),Greek(hyper), orLatin(ment).Englishmakesvarieduseofaffixes;often,manydifferentoneshavethesamemeaning,orthesame onehasmanymeanings.Suffixesareattachedmorecloselytothestemthanareprefixesandoftenremainpermanent. Composition,orcompounding,describesputtingtwofreeformstogethertoformanewword.Thenewwordcandiffer from the previous forms in phonology, stress, and juncture. Five types of compounds are defined by describing the relationship of the free forms to each other: (1) a compound in which the first component noun is attributive and modifiesthesecondnoun(e.g.,cloverleaf,beehive,vineyard);(2)onemadeupofanounplusanagentnoun,itself consistingofaverbplusagentsuffix(e.g.,icebreaker,landowner,timekeeper);(3)averbplusanobject(e.g.,pastime, scarecrow,daredevil);(4)anattributiveadjectiveplusanoun(e.g.,bluebell,grandson,shorthand);and(5)anounand apresentparticiple(e.g.,factfinding,heartrending,lifegiving). Backformation, the reverse of affixation, is the analogical formation of a new word falsely assumed to be its derivation.Theverbs"toedit"and"toact"havebeenformedfromthenouns"editor"and"actor,"respectively.Blends fall into two groups: (1) coalescences, such as "bash" from "bang" and "smash," and (2) telescoped forms, called portmanteauwords,suchas"motorcade"from"motorcavalcade." InEnglishsyntax,themaindeviceforindicatingtherelationshipbetweenwordsiswordorder.Inthesentence"Thegirl loves the boy," the subject is in initial position, and the object follows the verb; transposing the order of "boy" and "girl" would change the meaning. In contrast to this system, most other languages use inflections to indicate grammaticalrelationships.Inpuerumpuellaamat,whichistheLatinequivalentof"Thegirllovestheboy,"thewords canbegiveninanyorder(forexample,amatpuellapuerum)becausetheumendingontheformfor"boy"(puerum) indicatestheobjectoftheverbregardlessofitspositioninthesentence.

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Englishsentencesgenerallystartwiththesubjectfirst,followedbytheverbandthenbytheobject.Adjectivesorother singlewordsthatmodifynounsareplacedbeforethenoun,whilewholephrasesactingasmodifiersareusuallyplaced afterthenoun.Adverbsarenormallymoremobilethanadjectives,andtheycanoccureitherbeforeoraftertheverb theymodify.Astheiretymologyimplies,prepositionsusuallyprecedenouns,butthereareafewexceptions,e.g.,"the wholeworldover."Becauseofthelaxityofsyntacticprinciples,Englishisaveryeasylanguagetospeakpoorly. English has the largest vocabulary of any language in the world, chiefly because of its propensity for borrowing and because the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century introduced vast numbers of French words into the language.ThevocabularyofModernEnglishisthusapproximatelyhalfGermanic(OldEnglishandScandinavian)and halfRomanceorItalic(FrenchandLatin),withcopiousimportationsfromGreekinscienceandborrowingsfrommany other languages. Almost all basic concepts and things come from Old English, or AngloSaxon, as do most personal pronouns,allauxiliaryverbs,mostsimpleprepositions,allconjunctions,andalmostallnumbers.Manycommonnouns, adjectives, and verbs are of Scandinavian origin, a fact due to the Scandinavian invasions of Britain. The English languageowesagreatdebttoFrench,whichgaveitmanytermsrelatingtodressandfashion,cuisine,politics,law, society, literature, and art. Comparison between French and English synonyms reveals the former to be more intellectualandabstract,andthelattermorehumanandconcrete.ManyoftheGreekcompoundsandderivativesin EnglishhaveLatinequivalentswitheithersimilarorconsiderablydifferentmeanings. TheEnglishadoptedthe23letterLatinalphabet,towhichtheyaddedthelettersW,J,andV.Forthemostpart,English spellingisbasedonthatofthe15thcentury.Pronunciation,however,haschangedgreatlysincethen.Duringthe17th and18thcenturies,fixedspellingswereadopted,althoughtherehavebeenafewchangessincethattime.Numerous attemptshavebeenmadetoreformEnglishspelling,mostofthemunsuccessful. The history of the English language begins with the migration of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons from Germany and DenmarktoBritaininthe5thand6thcenturies.TheirAngloSaxonlanguageisknownasOldEnglish.Theformationof separate kingdoms in Britain to some extent coincided with the development of the Old English dialects of Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish. Northumbrian was in a position of cultural superiority until the destructiveVikingraidsofthe9thcenturycausedculturalleadershiptopasstotheWestSaxonkingdomofWessex. TheNormanConquestof1066setinmotionthetransitiontoMiddleEnglish.ForthefirstcenturyaftertheConquest,a vastnumberofloanwordsenteredtheEnglishlanguagefromthedialectsofnorthernFrance.TheConquestalsoserved toplaceallfourOldEnglishdialectsonthesameculturallevelandtoallowthemtodevelopindependently.SoWest Saxonlostitssupremacy,andthecentreofculturegraduallyshiftedtoLondon.DuringthisMiddleEnglishperiodthe NorthumbriandialectsplitintoScottishandNorthern,andMercianbecameEastandWestMidland.Anotheroutcome of the Norman Conquest was the adoption of the Carolingian script, then in use on the European continent, and changesinspelling. The transition from Middle to Modern English started at the beginning of the 15th century. This century witnessed threeimportantdevelopments:theriseofLondonEnglish,theinventionofprinting,andthespreadofnewlearning. TheRenaissanceinEnglandproducedmanymorescholarswhowereknowledgeableinforeignlanguages,especially GreekandClassicalLatin.Theirliberalattitudetowardlanguagemadepossibletheintroductionofagreatnumberof words into English. Scholars generally date the beginning of the Modern English period at 1500. The language was subsequently standardized through the work of grammarians and the publication of dictionaries, and its vocabulary underwentanothervastexpansioninthe19thand20thcenturiestoaccommodatedevelopmentsinthesciencesand technology.

OriginsandBasicCharacteristics
EnglishisaWestGermaniclanguageoftheIndoEuropeanlanguagefamilythatiscloselyrelatedtoFrisian,German, andNetherlandiclanguages.EnglishoriginatedinEnglandandisnowwidelyspokenonsixcontinents.Itistheprimary languageoftheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Canada,Australia,Ireland,NewZealand,andvarioussmallisland nationsintheCaribbeanSeaandthePacificOcean.ItisalsoanofficiallanguageofIndia,thePhilippines,andmany countriesinsubSaharanAfrica,includingSouthAfrica. EnglishbelongstotheIndoEuropeanfamilyoflanguagesandisthereforerelatedtomostotherlanguagesspokenin Europe and western Asia from Iceland to India. The parent tongue, called ProtoIndoEuropean, was spoken about 5,000yearsagobynomadsbelievedtohaveroamedthesoutheastEuropeanplains.Germanic,oneofthelanguage groups descended from this ancestral speech, is usually divided by scholars into three regional groups: East (Burgundian, Vandal, and Gothic, all extinct), North (Icelandic, Faeroese, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish), and West

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(German, Netherlandic [Dutch and Flemish], Frisian, English). Though closely related to English, German remains far more conservative than English in its retention of a fairly elaborate system of inflections. Frisian, spoken by the inhabitants of the Dutch province of Friesland and the islands off the west coast of Schleswig, is the language most nearlyrelatedtoModernEnglish.Icelandic,whichhaschangedlittleoverthelastthousandyears,isthelivinglanguage mostnearlyresemblingOldEnglishingrammaticalstructure. ModernEnglishisanalytic(i.e.,relativelyuninflected),whereasProtoIndoEuropean,theancestraltongueofmostof themodernEuropeanlanguages(e.g.,German,French,Russian,Greek),wassynthetic,orinflected.Duringthecourse ofthousandsofyears,EnglishwordshavebeenslowlysimplifiedfromtheinflectedvariableformsfoundinSanskrit, Greek,Latin,Russian,andGerman,towardinvariableforms,asinChineseandVietnamese.TheGermanandChinese wordsfor"man"areexemplary.Germanhasfiveforms:Mann,Mannes,Manne,Mnner,Mnnern.Chinesehasone form:jen.Englishstandsinbetween,withfourforms:man,man's,men,men's.InEnglishonlynouns,pronouns,and verbs are inflected. Adjectives have no inflections aside from the determiners "this, these" and "that, those." (The endingser,est,denotingdegreesofcomparison,arebetterregardedasnoninflectionalsuffixes.)Englishistheonly European language to employ uninflected adjectives; e.g., "the tall man," "the tall woman," compared to Spanish el hombrealtoandlamujeralta.Asforverbs,iftheModernEnglishwordrideiscomparedwiththecorrespondingwords in Old English and Modern German, it will be found that English now has only five forms (ride, rides, rode, riding, ridden),whereasOldEnglishridanhad13,andModernGermanreitenhas16forms.Inadditiontothissimplicityof inflections,Englishhastwootherbasiccharacteristics:flexibilityoffunctionandopennessofvocabulary. Flexibilityoffunctionhasgrownoverthelastfivecenturiesasaconsequenceofthelossofinflections.Wordsformerly distinguishedas nouns or verbs bydifferences in their forms are nowoftenused asboth nouns and verbs.One can speak,forexample,of"planningatable"or"tablingaplan,""bookingaplace"or"placingabook,""liftingathumb"or "thumbingalift."IntheotherIndoEuropeanlanguages,apartfromrareexceptionsinScandinavian,nounsandverbs are never identical because of the necessity of separate noun and verb endings. In English, forms for traditional pronouns,adjectives,andadverbscanalsofunctionasnouns;adjectivesandadverbsasverbs;andnouns,pronouns, andadverbsasadjectives.OnespeaksinEnglishoftheFrankfurtBookFair,butinGermanonemustaddthesuffixer totheplacenameandputattributiveandnountogetherasacompound,FrankfurterBuchmesse.InFrenchonehasno choicebuttoconstructaphraseinvolvingtheuseoftwoprepositions:FoireduLivredeFrancfort.InEnglishitisnow possibletoemployapluralnounasadjunct(modifier),asin"wagesboard"and"sportseditor";orevenaconjunctional group,asin"pricesandincomespolicy"and"parksandgardenscommittee." Openness of vocabulary implies both free admission of words from other languages and the ready creation of compoundsandderivatives.Englishadopts(withoutchange)oradapts(withslightchange)anywordreallyneededto namesomenewobjectortodenotesomenewprocess.LikeFrench,Spanish,andRussian,Englishfrequentlyforms scientifictermsfromClassicalGreekwordelements.Englishpossessesasystemoforthographythatdoesnotalways accuratelyreflectthepronunciationofwords;thisisdiscussedbelowinthesectionOrthography.

CharacteristicsofModernEnglish

Phonology
British Received Pronunciation (RP), by definition, the usual speech of educated people living in London and southeasternEngland,isoneofthemanyformsofstandardspeech.Otherpronunciations,althoughnotstandard,are entirelyacceptableintheirownrightonconversationallevels. The chief differences between British Received Pronunciation, as defined above, and a variety of American English, suchasInlandNorthern(thespeechformofwesternNewEnglandanditsderivatives,oftenpopularlyreferredtoas General American), are in the pronunciation of certain individual vowels and diphthongs. Inland Northern American vowelssometimeshavesemiconsonantalfinalglides(i.e.,soundsresemblinginitialw,forexample,orinitialy).Aside fromthefinalglides,thisAmericandialectshowsfourdivergencesfromBritishEnglish:(1)thewordscod,box,dock, hot,andnotarepronouncedwithashort(orhalflong)lowfrontsoundasinBritish"bard"shortened(thetermsfront, back,low,andhighrefertothepositionofthetongue);(2)wordssuchasbud,but,cut,andrungarepronouncedwith acentralvowelasintheunstressedfinalsyllableof"sofa";(3)beforethefricativesoundss,f,and (thelastoftheseis thethsoundin"thin")thelonglowbackvowela,asinBritish"bath,"ispronouncedasashortfrontvowela,asin British"bad";(4)highbackvowelsfollowingthealveolarsoundstanddandthenasalsoundninwordssuchastulips, dew,andnewsarepronouncedwithoutaglideasinBritishEnglish;indeed,thewordssoundliketheBritish"twolips," "do,"and"nooze"in"snooze."(InseveralAmericandialects,however,theseglidesdooccur).

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The 24 consonant sounds comprise six stops (plosives): p, b, t, d, k, g; the fricatives f, v, (as in "thin"), [eth] (as in "then"),s,z, (asin"ship"), (asin"pleasure"),andh;twoaffricatives:t (asin"church")andd (asthejin"jam");the nasalsm,n, (thesoundthatoccursattheendofwordssuchas"young");thelaterall;thevibrantorretroflexr;and thesemivowelsj(oftenspelledy)andw.Theseremainfairlystable,butInlandNorthernAmericandiffersfromBritish Englishintworespects:(1)rfollowingvowelsispreservedinwordssuchas"door,""flower,"and"harmony,"whereas itislostinBritish;(2)tbetweenvowelsisvoiced,sothat"metal"and"matter"soundverymuchlikeBritish"medal" and"madder,"althoughthepronunciationofthistissofterandlessaspirated,orbreathy,thanthedofBritishEnglish. LikeRussian,Englishisastronglystressedlanguage.Fourdegreesofstressmaybedifferentiated:primary,secondary, tertiary,andweak,whichmaybeindicated,respectively,byacute( ),circumflex(),andgrave()accentmarksandby thebreve( ).Thus,"Tllmthetrth"(thewholetruth,andnothingbutthetruth)maybecontrastedwith"Tllm the trth" (whatever you may tell other people); "blck brd" (any bird black in colour) may be contrasted with "blckbrd"(thatparticularbirdTurdusmerula).Theverbs"permt"and"recrd"(henceforthonlyprimarystressesare marked)maybecontrastedwiththeircorrespondingnouns"prmit"and"rcord."Afeelingforantepenultimate(third syllable from the end) primary stress, revealed in such fivesyllable words as equanmity, longitdinal, notorety, opportnity, parsimnious, pertincity, and vegetrian, causes stress to shift when extra syllables are added, as in "histrical,"aderivativeof"hstory"and"theatriclity,"aderivativeof"thetrical."Vowelqualitiesarealsochanged here and in such word groups as priod, peridical, periodcity; phtograph, photgraphy, photogrphical. French stressmaybesustainedinmanyborrowedwords;e.g.,bizrre,critque,durss,hotl,prestge,andtechnque. Pitch,ormusicaltone,determinedbytherateofvibrationofthevocalcords,maybelevel,falling,rising,orfalling rising.Incounting"one,""two,""three,""four,"onenaturallygiveslevelpitchtoeachofthesecardinalnumerals.Butif a person says "I want two, not one," he naturally gives "two" falling pitch and "one" fallingrising. In the question "One?" rising pitch is used. Word tone is called pitch, and sentence tone is referred to as intonation. The endof sentencecadenceisimportantformeaning,anditthereforevariesleast.Threemainendofsentenceintonationscan bedistinguished:falling,rising,andfallingrising.Fallingintonationisusedincompletedstatements,directcommands, andsometimesingeneralquestionsunanswerableby"yes"or"no";e.g.,"Ihavenothingtoadd.""Keeptotheright." "Whotoldyouthat?"Risingintonationisfrequentlyusedinopenendedstatementsmadewithsomereservation,in politerequests,andinparticularquestionsanswerableby"yes"or"no":"Ihavenothingmoretosayatthemoment." "Let me know how you get on." "Are you sure?" The third type of endofsentence intonation, first falling and then risingpitch,isusedinsentencesthatimplyconcessionsorcontrasts:"Somepeopledolikethem"(butothersdonot). "Don't say I didn't warn you" (because that is just what I'm now doing). Intonation is on the whole less singsong in AmericanthaninBritishEnglish,andthereisanarrowerrangeofpitch.Americanspeechmayseemmoremonotonous butatthesametimemaysometimesbeclearerandmorereadilyintelligible.EverywhereEnglishisspoken,regional dialectsdisplaydistinctivepatternsofintonation.

HistoricalBackground
AmonghighlightsinthehistoryoftheEnglishlanguage,thefollowingstandoutmostclearly:thesettlementinBritain of Jutes, Saxons, and Angles in the 5th and 6th centuries; the arrival of St. Augustine in 597 and the subsequent conversionofEnglandtoLatinChristianity;theVikinginvasionsofthe9thcentury;theNormanConquestof1066;the StatuteofPleadingin1362(thisrequiredthatcourtproceedingsbeconductedinEnglish);thesettingupofCaxton's printingpressatWestminsterin1476;thefullfloweringoftheRenaissanceinthe16thcentury;thepublishingofthe King James Bible in 1611; the completion of Johnson's Dictionary of 1755; and the expansion to North America and SouthAfricainthe17thcenturyandtoIndia,Australia,andNewZealandinthe18th.

Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Modern English is approximately half Germanic (Old English and Scandinavian) and half Italic or Romance(FrenchandLatin),withcopiousandincreasingimportationsfromGreekinscienceandtechnologyandwith considerableborrowingsfromDutch,LowGerman,Italian,Spanish,German,Arabic,andmanyotherlanguages.Names ofbasicconceptsandthingscomefromOldEnglishorAngloSaxon:heavenandearth,loveandhate,lifeanddeath, beginning and end, day and night, month and year, heat and cold, way and path, meadow and stream. Cardinal numeralscomefromOldEnglish,asdoalltheordinalnumeralsexcept"second"(OldEnglishother,whichstillretains its older meaning in "every other day"). "Second" comes from Latin secundus "following," through French second, relatedtoLatinsequi"tofollow,"asinEnglish"sequence."FromOldEnglishcomeallthepersonalpronouns(except "they," "their," and "them," which are from Scandinavian), the auxiliary verbs (except the marginal "used," which is fromFrench),mostsimpleprepositions,andallconjunctions.

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NumerousnounswouldbeidenticalwhethertheycamefromOldEnglishorScandinavian:father,mother,brother(but not sister); man, wife; ground, land, tree, grass; summer, winter; cliff, dale. Many verbs would also be identical, especially monosyllabic verbsbring, come, get, hear, meet, see, set, sit, spin, stand, think. The same is true of the adjectivesfullandwise;thecolournamesgray,green,andwhite;thedisjunctivepossessivesmineandthine(butnot oursandyours);thetermsnorthandwest(butnotsouthandeast);andtheprepositionsoverandunder.Justafew EnglishandScandinaviandoubletscoexistincurrentspeech:noandnay,yeaanday,fromandfro,rear(i.e.,tobring up) and raise, shirt and skirt (both related to the adjective short), less and loose. From Scandinavian, "law" was borrowed early, whence "bylaw," meaning "village law," and "outlaw," meaning "man outside the law." "Husband" (husbondi)meant"householder,"whethersingleormarried,whereas"fellow"(felagi)meantonewho"laysfee"or sharespropertywithanother,andso"partner,shareholder."FromScandinaviancomethecommonnounsaxle(tree), band,birth,bloom,crook,dirt,egg,gait,gap,girth,knife,loan,race,rift,root,score,seat,skill,sky,snare,thrift,and window; the adjectives awkward, flat, happy, ill, loose, rotten, rugged, sly, tight, ugly, weak, and wrong; and many verbs,includingcall,cast,clasp,clip,crave,die,droop,drown,flit,gape,gasp,glitter,life,rake,rid,scare,scowl,skulk, snub,sprint,thrive,thrust,andwant. The debt of the English language to French is large. The terms president, representative, legislature, congress, constitution,andparliamentareallFrench.So,too,areduke,marquis,viscount,andbaron;butking,queen,lord,lady, earl,andknightareEnglish.City,village,court,palace,manor,mansion,residence,anddomicileareFrench;buttown, borough,hall,house,bower,room,andhomeareEnglish.ComparisonbetweenEnglishandFrenchsynonymsshows thattheformeraremorehumanandconcrete,thelattermoreintellectualandabstract;e.g.,thetermsfreedomand liberty,friendshipandamity,hatredandenmity,loveandaffection,likelihoodandprobability,truthandveracity,lying and mendacity. The superiority of French cooking is duly recognized by the adoption of such culinary terms as boil, broil,fry,grill,roast,souse,andtoast."Breakfast"isEnglish,but"dinner"and"supper"areFrench."Hunt"isEnglish, but"chase,""quarry,""scent,"and"track"areFrench.CraftsmenbearnamesofEnglishorigin:baker,builder,fisher (man),hedger,miller,shepherd,shoemaker,wainwright,andweaver,orwebber.Namesofskilledartisans,however, areFrench:carpenter,draper,haberdasher,joiner,mason,painter,plumber,andtailor.Manytermsrelatingtodress andfashion,cuisineandviniculture,politicsanddiplomacy,dramaandliterature,artandballetcomefromFrench. InthespheresofscienceandtechnologymanytermscomefromClassicalGreekthroughFrenchordirectlyfromGreek. PioneersinresearchanddevelopmentnowregardGreekasakindofinexhaustiblequarryfromwhichtheycandraw linguisticmaterialatwill.ByprefixingtheGreekadverbtele"faraway,distant"totheexistingcompoundphotography, "light writing," they create the precise term "telephotography" to denote the photographing of distant objects by means of a special lens. By inserting the prefix micro "small" into this same compound, they make the new term "photomicrography," denoting the electronic photographing of bacteria and viruses. Such neoHellenic derivatives would probably have been unintelligible to Plato and Aristotle. Many Greek compounds and derivatives have Latin equivalentswithslightorconsiderabledifferentiationsinmeaning. At first sight it might appear that some of these equivalents, such as "metamorphosis" and "transformation," are sufficientlysynonymoustomakeoneortheotherredundant.Infact,however,"metamorphosis"ismoretechnicaland therefore more restricted than "transformation." In mythology it signifies a magical shape changing; in nature it denotesapostembryonicdevelopmentsuchasthatofatadpoleintoafrog,acocoonintoasilkworm,orachrysalis intoabutterfly.Transformation,ontheotherhand,meansanykindofchangefromonestatetoanother. Ever since the 12th century, when merchants from the Netherlands made homes in East Anglia, Dutch words have infiltratedintoMidlandspeech.ForcenturiesaformofLowGermanwasusedbyseafaringmeninNorthSeaports.Old nauticaltermsstillinuseincludebuoy,deck,dock,freebooter,hoist,leak,pump,skipper,andyacht.TheDutchinNew Amsterdam (later New York) and adjacent settlements gave the words boss, cookie, dope, snoop, and waffle to Americanspeech.TheDutchinCapeProvincegavethetermsapartheid,commandeer,commando,spoor,andtrekto SouthAfricanspeech. ThecontributionofHighGermanhasbeenonadifferentlevel.Inthe18thand19thcenturiesitlayintechnicalitiesof geologyandmineralogyandinabstractionsrelatingtoliterature,philosophy,andpsychology.Inthe20thcenturythis contributionhassometimesbeenindirect."Unclear"and"meaningful"echoedGermanunklarandbedeutungsvoll,or sinnvoll."Ringroad"(aBritishtermappliedtoroadsencirclingcitiesorpartsofcities)translatedRingstrasse;"round trip," Rundfahrt; and "the turn of the century," die Jahrhundertwende. The terms "classless society," "inferiority complex," and "wishful thinking" echoed die klassenlse Gesellschaft, der Minderwertigkeitskomplex, and das Wunschdenken. AlongwiththerestoftheWesternworld,EnglishhasacceptedItalianasthelanguageofmusic.Thenamesofvoices, parts, performers, instruments, forms of composition, and technical directions are all Italian. Many of the latter

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allegro,andante,cantabile,crescendo,diminuendo,legato,maestoso,obbligato,pizzicato,staccato,andvibratoare also used metaphorically. In architecture, the terms belvedere, corridor, cupola, grotto, pedestal, pergola, piazza, pilaster,androtundaareaccepted;inliterature,burlesque,canto,extravaganza,stanza,andmanymoreareused. FromSpanish,Englishhasacquiredthewordsarmada,cannibal,cigar,galleon,guerrilla,matador,mosquito,quadroon, tornado,andvanilla,someoftheseloanwordsgoingbacktothe16thcentury,whenseadogsencounteredhidalgoson the high seas. Many names of animals and plants have entered English from indigenous languages through Spanish: "potato"throughSpanishpatatafromTainobatata,and"tomato"throughSpanishtomatefromNahuatltomatl.Other words have entered from Latin America by way of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California; e.g., such words as canyon,cigar,estancia,lasso,mustang,pueblo,androdeo.Somehavegatherednewconnotations:bonanza,originally denoting "goodness," came through miners' slang to mean "spectacular windfall, prosperity"; maana, "tomorrow," acquiredanundertoneofmysteriousunpredictability. From Arabic through European Spanish, through French from Spanish, through Latin, or occasionally through Greek, English has obtained the terms alchemy, alcohol, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, arsenal, assassin, attar, azimuth, cipher, elixir, mosque, nadir, naphtha, sugar, syrup, zenith, and zero. From Egyptian Arabic, English has recently borrowedthetermloofah(alsospelledluffa).FromHebrew,directlyorbywayofVulgateLatin,comethetermsamen, cherub,hallelujah,manna,messiah,pharisee,rabbi,sabbath,andseraph;jubilee,leviathan,andshibboleth;and,more recently,kosher,andkibbutz. English has freely adopted and adapted words from many other languages, acquiring them sometimes directly and sometimes by devious routes. Each word has its own history. The following lists indicate the origins of a number of English words: Welshflannel, coracle, cromlech, penguin, eisteddfod; Cornishgull, brill, dolmen; Gaelic and Irish shamrock, brogue, leprechaun, ogham, Tory, galore, blarney, hooligan, clan, claymore, bog, plaid, slogan, sporran, cairn,whisky,pibroch;Bretonmenhir;Norwegianski,ombudsman;Finnishsauna;Russiankvass,ruble,tsar,verst, mammoth, ukase, astrakhan, vodka, samovar, tundra (from Sami), troika, pogrom, duma, soviet, bolshevik, intelligentsia(fromLatinthroughPolish),borscht,balalaika,sputnik,soyuz,salyut,lunokhod;Polishmazurka;Czech robot;Hungariangoulash,paprika;Portuguesemarmalade,flamingo,molasses,veranda,port(wine),dodo;Basque bizarre; Turkishjanissary, turban, coffee, kiosk, caviar, pasha, odalisque, fez, bosh; Hindinabob, guru, sahib, maharajah,mahatma,pundit,punch(drink),juggernaut,cushy,jungle,thug,cheetah,shampoo,chit,dungaree,pucka, gymkhana, mantra, loot, pajamas, dinghy, polo; Persianparadise, divan, purdah, lilac, bazaar, shah, caravan, chess, salamander, taffeta, shawl, khaki; Tamilpariah, curry, catamaran, mulligatawny; Chinesetea (Amoy), sampan; Japaneseshogun, kimono, mikado, tycoon, harakiri, gobang, judo, jujitsu, bushido, samurai, banzai, tsunami, satsuma, No (the dance drama), karate, Kabuki; Malayketchup, sago, bamboo, junk, amuck, orangutan, compound (fenced area), raffia; Polynesiantaboo, tattoo; Hawaiianukulele; African languageschimpanzee, goober, mumbo jumbo, voodoo; Inuitkayak, igloo, anorak; Yupikmukluk; Algonquiantotem; Nahuatlmescal; languages of the Caribbeanhammock, hurricane, tobacco, maize, iguana; Aboriginal Australiankangaroo, corroboree, wallaby, wombat,boomerang,paramatta,budgerigar.

OldEnglish
TheJutes,Angles,andSaxonslivedinJutland,Schleswig,andHolstein,respectively,beforesettlinginBritain.According totheVenerableBede,thefirsthistorianoftheEnglishpeople,thefirstJutes,HengistandHorsa,landedatEbbsfleetin theIsleofThanetin449;andtheJuteslatersettledinKent,southernHampshire,andtheIsleofWight.TheSaxons occupiedtherestofEnglandsouthoftheThames,aswellasmodernMiddlesexandEssex.TheAngleseventuallytook theremainderofEnglandasfarnorthastheFirthofForth,includingthefutureEdinburghandtheScottishLowlands.In bothLatinandCommonGermanictheAngles'namewasAngli,latermutatedinOldEnglishtoEngle(nominative)and Engla(genitive)."Englaland"designatedthehomeofallthreetribescollectively,andbothKingAlfred(knownasAlfred theGreat)andAbbotAelfric,authorandgrammarian,subsequentlyreferredtotheirspeechasEnglisc.Nevertheless, alltheevidenceindicatesthatJutes,Angles,andSaxonsretainedtheirdistinctivedialects. TheRiverHumberwasanimportantboundary,andtheAnglianspeakingregiondevelopedtwospeechgroups:tothe north of the river, Northumbrian, and, to the south, Southumbrian, or Mercian. There were thus four dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, andKentish (see Figure 13). In the 8th century,Northumbrian led in literature and culture, but that leadership was destroyed by the Viking invaders, who sacked Lindisfarne, an island near the Northumbrianmainland,in793.Theylandedinstrengthin865.ThefirstraiderswereDanes,buttheywerelaterjoined by Norwegians from Ireland and the Western Isles who settled in modern Cumberland, Westmorland, northwest Yorkshire,Lancashire,northCheshire,andtheIsleofMan.Inthe9thcentury,asaresultoftheNorwegianinvasions, culturalleadershippassedfromNorthumbriatoWessex.DuringKingAlfred'sreign,inthelastthreedecadesofthe9th

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century,Winchesterbecamethechiefcentreoflearning.TheretheParkerChronicle(amanuscriptoftheAngloSaxon Chronicle)waswritten;theretheLatinworksofthepriestandhistorianPaulusOrosius,St.Augustine,St.Gregory,and theVenerableBedeweretranslated;andtherethenativepoetryofNorthumbriaandMerciawastranscribedintothe WestSaxondialect.ThisresultedinWestSaxon'sbecoming"standardOldEnglish";andlater,whenAelfric(c.955c. 1010) wrote his lucid and mature prose at Winchester, Cerne Abbas, and Eynsham, the hegemony of Wessex was strengthened. InstandardOldEnglish,adjectiveswereinflectedaswellasnouns,pronouns,andverbs.Nounswereinflectedforfour cases (nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative) in singular and plural. Five nouns of first kinshipfaeder, modor, brothor,sweostor,anddohtor("father,""mother,""brother,""sister,"and"daughter,"respectively)hadtheirownset ofinflections.Therewere25nounssuchasmon,men("man,""men")withmutated,orumlauted,stems.Adjectives hadstrongandweakdeclensions,thestrongshowingamixtureofnounandpronounendingsandtheweakfollowing the patternof weak nouns.Personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, and relative pronounshad fullinflections.Thepronounsofthe1stand2ndpersonsstillhaddistinctivedualforms: Thereweretwodemonstratives:se,seo,thaet,meaning"that,"andthes,theos,this,meaning"this,"butnoarticles, the definite article being expressed by use of the demonstrative for "that" or not expressed at all. Thus, "the good man"wassegodamonorplaingodmon.Thefunctionoftheindefinitearticlewasperformedbythenumeralan"one" inanmon"aman,"bytheadjectivepronounsuminsummon"a(certain)man,"ornotexpressed,asinthueartgod mon"youareagoodman." Verbs had two tenses only (presentfuture and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), two numbers(singular and plural), andthreepersons (1st,2nd, and 3rd).There were two classes of verb stems. (A verb stem is that part of a verb to which inflectional changeschanges indicating tense, mood, number, etc.are added.) Onetypeofverbstem,calledvocalicbecauseaninternalvowelshowsvariations,isexemplifiedbytheverbfor"sing": singan,singth,sang,sungon,gesungen.Thewordfor"deem"isanexampleoftheother,calledconsonantal:deman, demth,demde,demdon,gedemed.Suchverbsarecalledstrongandweak,respectively. Allnewverbs,whetherderivedfromexistingverbsorfromnouns,belongedtotheconsonantaltype.Someverbsof greatfrequency(antecedentsofthemodernwords"be,""shall,""will,""do,""go,""can,""may,"andsoon)hadtheir ownpeculiarpatternsofinflections. GrammaticalgenderpersistedthroughouttheOldEnglishperiod.JustasGermansnowsayderFuss,dieHand,anddas Auge(masculine,feminine,andneutertermsfor"thefoot,""thehand,"and"theeye"),so,forthesesamestructures, Aelfric said se fot, seo hond, and thaet eage, also masculine, feminine, and neuter. The three words for "woman," wifmon, cwene, and wif, were masculine, feminine, and neuter, respectively. Hors "horse," sceap "sheep," and maegden "maiden" were all neuter. Eorthe "earth" was feminine, but lond "land" was neuter. Sunne "sun" was feminine,butmona"moon"wasmasculine.Thissimplificationofgrammaticalgenderresultedfromthefactthatthe gender of Old English substantives was not always indicated by the ending but rather by the terminations of the adjectivesanddemonstrativepronounsusedwiththesubstantives.Whentheseendingswerelost,alloutwardmarks of gender disappeared with them. Thus, the weakening of inflections and loss of gender occurred together. In the North,whereinflectionsweakenedearlier,themarksofgenderlikewisedisappearedfirst.TheysurvivedintheSouth aslateasthe14thcentury. Because of the greater use of inflections in Old English, word order was freer than today. The sequence of subject, verb, and complement was normal, but when there were outer and inner complements the second was put in the dativecaseafterto:SebiscophalgodeEadredtocyninge"ThebishopconsecreatedEdredking."Afteranintroductory adverboradverbialphrasetheverbgenerallytooksecondplaceasinmodernGerman:Nubyddeicanthing"NowIask [literally, "ask I"] one thing"; Th ilcan geare gesette Aelfred cyning Lundenburg "In that same year Alfred the king occupiedLondon."Impersonalverbshadnosubjectexpressed.Infinitivesconstructedwithauxiliaryverbswereplaced at the ends of clauses or sentences: Hie ne dorston forth bi thre ea siglan "They dared not sail beyond that river" (siglan is the infinitive); Ic wolde thas lytlan boc awendan "I wanted to translate this little book" (awendan is the infinitive).Theverbusuallycamelastinadependentclausee.g.,awritanwileingifhwathasbocawritanwile(gerihte hehiebethrebysene)"Ifanyonewantstocopythisbook(lethimcorrecthiscopybytheoriginal)."Prepositions(or postpositions)frequentlyfollowedtheirobjects.Negationwasoftenrepeatedforemphasis.

MiddleEnglish

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One result of the Norman Conquest of 1066 was to place all four Old English dialects more or less on a level. West SaxonlostitssupremacyandthecentreofcultureandlearninggraduallyshiftedfromWinchestertoLondon.Theold NorthumbriandialectbecamedividedintoScottishandNorthern,althoughlittleisknownofeitherofthesedivisions before the end of the13thcentury(Figure 14). The old Mercian dialect was split into East andWest Midland.West SaxonbecameslightlydiminishedinareaandwasmoreappropriatelynamedtheSouthWesterndialect.TheKentish dialectwasconsiderablyextendedandwascalledSouthEasternaccordingly.AllfiveMiddleEnglishdialects(Northern, West Midland, East Midland, South Western, and South Eastern) went their own ways and developed their own characteristics.ThesocalledKatherineGroupofwritings(11801210),associatedwithHereford,atownnotfarfrom theWelshborder,adheredmostcloselytonativetraditions,andthereissomethingtobesaidforregardingthisWest Midlanddialect,leastdisturbedbyFrenchandScandinavianintrusions,asakindofStandardEnglishintheHighMiddle Ages. Another outcome of the Norman Conquest was to change the writing of English from the clear and easily readable insular hand of Irish origin to the delicate Carolingian script then in use on the Continent. With the change in appearancecameachangeinspelling.NormanscribeswroteOldEnglishyasu,asui,uasou(owwhenfinal).Thus, mycel("much")appearedasmuchel,fr("fire")asfuir,hus("house")ashous,andhu("how")ashow.Forthesakeof clarity(i.e.,legibility)uwasoftenwrittenobeforeandafterm,n,u,v,andw;andiwassometimeswrittenybefore andaftermandn.Sosunu("son")appearedassoneandhim("him")ashym.OldEnglishcwwaschangedtoqu;hwto wh,qu,orquh;ctochortch;sctosh;cgtogg;andhttoght.SoOldEnglishcwenappearedasqueen;hwaetas what,quat,orquhat;dicasditch;scipasship;secgeassegge;andmihtasmight. For the first century after the Conquest, most loanwords came from Normandy and Picardy, but with the extension southtothePyreneesoftheAngevinempireofHenryII(reigned115489),otherdialects,especiallyCentralFrench,or Francien,contributedtothespeechofthearistocracy.Asaresult,ModernEnglishacquiredtheformscanal,catch,leal, real, reward, wage, warden, and warrant from Norman French side by side with the corresponding forms channel, chase,loyal,royal,regard,gage,guardian,andguarantee,fromFrancien.KingJohnlostNormandyin1204.Withthe increasingpoweroftheCapetiankingsofParis,Franciengraduallypredominated.Meanwhile,Latinstoodintactasthe language of learning. For three centuries, therefore, the literature of England was trilingual. Ancrene Riwle, for instance, a guide or rule (riwle) of rare quality for recluses or anchorites (ancren), was disseminated in all three languages. Thesoundsofthenativespeechchangedslowly.EveninlateOldEnglishshortvowelshadbeenlengthenedbeforeld, rd,mb,andnd,andlongvowelshadbeenshortenedbeforeallotherconsonantgroupsandbeforedoubleconsonants. In early Middle English short vowels of whatever origin were lengthened in the open stressed syllables of disyllabic words.Anopensyllableisoneendinginavowel.BothsyllablesinOldEnglishnama"name,"mete"meat,food,"nosu "nose," wicu "week," and duru "door" were short, and the first syllables, being stressed, were lengthened to name, mete, nose, weke, and dore in the 13th and 14th centuries. A similar change occurred in 4thcentury Latin, in 13th centuryGerman,andatdifferenttimesinotherlanguages.ThepopularnotionhasarisenthatfinalmuteeinEnglish makesaprecedingvowellong;infact,itisthelengtheningofthevowelthathascausedetobelostinpronunciation. Ontheotherhand,OldEnglishlongvowelswereshortenedinthefirstsyllablesoftrisyllabicwords,evenwhenthose syllables were open; e.g., haligdaeg "holy day," rende "message, errand," cristendom "Christianity," and sutherne "southern," became holiday (Northern haliday), errende, christendom, and sutherne. This principle still operates in current English. Compare, for example, trisyllabic derivatives such as the words chastity, criminal, fabulous, gradual, gravity,linear,national,ominous,sanity,andtabulatewiththesimplenounsandadjectiveschaste,crime,fable,grade, grave,line,nation,omen,sane,andtable. There were significant variations in verb inflections in the Northern, Midland, and Southern dialects. The Northern infinitivewasalreadyonesyllable(singratherthantheOldEnglishsingan),whereasthepastparticipleeninflectionof Old English was strictly kept. These apparently contradictory features can be attributed entirely to Scandinavian, in whichthefinalnoftheinfinitivewaslostearlyinsinga,andthefinalnofthepastparticiplewasdoubledinsunginn. TheNorthernunmutatedpresentparticipleinandwasalsoofScandinavianorigin.OldEnglishmutatedende(German end)inthepresentparticiplehadalreadybecomeindeinlateWestSaxon,anditwasthisSouthernindethatblended withtheingsuffix(Germanung)ofnounsofactionthathadalreadybecomeneargerundsinsuchcompoundnouns asathswering"oathswearing"andwritingfether"writingfeather,pen."Thisblendingofpresentparticipleandgerund wasfurtherhelpedbythefactthatAngloNormanandFrenchantwasitselfacoalescenceofLatinpresentparticiples in antem, entem, and Latin gerunds in andum, endum. The Northern second person singular singis was inherited unchangedfromCommonGermanic.ThefinaltsoundinMidlandestandSouthernstwasexcrescent,comparable with the final t in modern "amidst" and "amongst" from older amiddes and amonges. The Northern third person singularsingishadaquitedifferentorigin.Likethesingisoftheplural,itresultedalmostcasuallyfromaninadvertent retraction of the tongue in enunciation from an interdental th sound to postdental s. Today the form "singeth"

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survivesasapoeticarchaism.Shakespeareusedbothethandsendings("It[mercy]blessethhimthatgivesandhim thattakes,"TheMerchantofVenice).TheMidlandpresentpluralinflectionenwastakenfromthesubjunctive.The pastparticipleprefixydevelopedfromtheOldEnglishperfectiveprefixge. Chaucer, who was born and died in London, spoke a dialect that was basically East Midland. Compared with his contemporaries, he was remarkably modern in his use of language. He was in his early 20s when the Statute of Pleading(1362)waspassed,bythetermsofwhichallcourtproceedingswerehenceforthtobeconductedinEnglish, though "enrolled in Latin." Chaucer himself used four languages; he read Latin (Classical and Medieval) and spoke FrenchandItalianonhistravels.ForhisownliteraryworkhedeliberatelychoseEnglish.

ThehistoryofEnglandfromtheNormaninvasionencapsulatesallthe majortrendsofthetimes.
Politically,theNormankingsandtheirheirsaretheprimarylocusinEuropeanhistorywherefeudalismisconverted intoaworkingmodelofacentralizedmonarchy.ThehistoryofEnglandallthroughouttheMiddleAgesisone,long, almostuninterruptedsetofconflictsengenderedbytheattempttoconvertfeudalismintomonarchy.Ontheonehand are attempts to consolidate the power of the monarch over the power of feudatories; on the other hand is the resistancetomonarchicalaggrandizementandthesubsequentassertionofprivilegesbyfeudatoriesoverthemonarch. The high point of monarchical power was attained during the reign of Edward I (12721307); the low points of monarchicalpowerwerescatteredallthroughoutmedievalEnglishhistory:thereignsofJohn,EdwardII,andRichardII beingthebleakest. Fromaculturalstandpoint,thehistoryofEnglandinvolvedagradualabsorptionintoalarger,Europeanculture.While AngloSaxons had been fairly insular and unique culturally and politically, medieval England came increasingly dominatedbycontinentalculture.BythetimeofChaucerandRichardIIinthelatefourteenthcentury,whenEngland emergesasamajorculturalforceinEurope,veryfewindigenousAngloSaxonculturalpracticesremainedinthe"high" cultureofEngland.TheGermanlanguageofEngland,AngloSaxon,stillremainedinsomeofitsmostessentialaspects, but for the most part, the language of England, Middle English, had more in common with continental languages, particularlyFrench.Thisculturaltransformationoccurredfromthetopdown,sotospeak.TheNormansbroughtwith them Norman culture, institutions, and social practices, but did not largely impose these on the native AngloSaxon populations. Beginning in the 13th century, however, almost all educated people in England had learned Norman, French,andLatinculturalmodelsonlyafeweccentricsstillattachedthemselvestoAngloSaxonculturalpractices.

TheNormanKings
William and the Norman kings who followed him had as their principle objective the breaking of the power of the AngloSaxonearlsandtheimportationofNormanfeudalism.Theyhad,however,tomakeoneimportantmodification to feudalismthe overlord would be the king rather than a duke. They followed the same model that had been developedinNormandythekingownedthelandunderhimeitherdirectlyorindirectly.Landwasenfeoffed,thatis, grantedasa"fief,"toindividualtenantswhocollectedtherevenuesfromthisland.Inexchange,thetenantsinchief (called"barons")enteredintocertainobligationswiththeoverlordtheseincludedrevenuesandacertainamountof military forces. This system had a complicated set of "privileges": on the one hand, the tenantsinchief enjoyed a certain autonomy in the administration of lands and its revenuethis included rights of inheritance, that is, a feudatorywasgrantedtoafamilyratherthantoanindividual.Ontheotherhand,themonarchdirectlyorindirectly ownedthelandsohadacertainclaimtotherevenues,theland,itsinheritability,andtotheservicesandobligationsof itstenants. The challenge to the Norman kings was to convert this system into a working monarchy. In order to maintain centralizedauthorityoverthemoreorlessindependenttenants,Williamretainedasmonarchtherighttocollecttaxes, coin money, and to oversee the administration of justice. But William did not have a wealth of professional administratorssinceAngloSaxonEnglandlargelyconsistedofaseriesofindependentearldoms,therewereveryfew peoplecapableofcarryingoutthecentralizedfunctionsheneeded.Power,then,slowlydevolvedtothebaronshehad created. ItfelltoHenryI(11001135),William'ssuccessor,tocreateaprofessionalclassofadministratorsforthecrown.The only real administrators that William had relied on were the individuals filling the AngloSaxon office of sheriff who servedasthelocalrepresentativeoftheking.HenryI,however,turnedhiscourtintoanadministrativebureaucracyby creating special offices. These court offices would each serve a limited and specialized set of functions so that the

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officeholders would themselve become efficient administrators in that one area. Most significantly, one of these specializedofficeswastheExchequer,whichoversawtheacquisitionanddispersalofrevenuesforthecrown.

HenryII
In the development oftheEnglish monarchy, the mostdramatic events occurred during the reign of Henry II (1154 1189),thegrandsonofHenryI.Themonarchyhadfallenontroubledtimes,enduringacivilwarandcontraryclaimsto the throne. When Henry II came to the throne, he instituted a series of measures designed to consolidate power aroundtheking.Themostsignificantofthesemeasureswasthenarrowingofprivilegesgrantedtothechurchandto the clergy. While William and Henry I had managed to gain privileges from the nobility, the church still remained relativelyautonomous. Henry'sproblemwiththeRomanchurchwasthatitexistedoutsideofthelegalsystemthattheEnglishmonarchswere trying to impose across England. When a member of the clergy committed a crime, that criminal fell under the jurisdictionofthechurchratherthantheking.Thecriminalwouldbetriedinanecclesiastical("church")courtusing canonlawoftheRomanchurch,ratherthantriedinamanorialorstatecourtusingtheking'slaws.Theecclesiastical judicialsystemoftheRomanchurchwasbyandlargehighlycorrupt(asitsremnantsinthepresentdaystillare)even themostheinouscrimes,suchasmurder,resultedinminorpenaltiesimposedbythechurchcourt. This not only rankled the king, it threatened the social order and the peace that the king was trying to establish by centralizingthejudicialsystem.Henry'sbiggestfight,then,waswiththechurch.Henrytriedtolimitthechurchcourts in1164byallowingthechurchcourtstotryaclericalcriminalbutdemandingthatthecriminalbesentencedinaroyal court. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, refused to yieldhe would later be assassinated by four of Henry'sknights. Despite his failure to bring the church under a centralized judiciary, Henry was one of the most successful kings in Europeanmedievalhistorytoconsolidatemonarchicalpoweranddeveloptheinstitutionofmonarchicalgovernment. He greatly expanded the role of the judiciary in the life of the English. In particular, he charged the sheriff of each regiontocallbeforeitinerantjudgesanylocalpersonthathepleasedinordertoquestionthembeforethejudge.The sheriff would ask these people if they knew of any crimes that had occurred since the last visit of the judge. This practicewouldeventuallyevolveintothejudicialpracticeweknowasthegrandjury.Healsointroducedtheoriginal formofjurytrials.InHenry'stime,jurytrialswereonlyappliedtocivilcasesinvolvingproperty.Whensomeonemadea complaintofdispossession,thesheriffwasempoweredtobringbeforethejudgetwelvemenwhowerefamiliarwith thecase.Thesemenwouldthentellthejudgewhattheyknewofthecaseandwouldgivetheiropinionastothetruth ofthecomplaintorthedefense.Thistwelvemantestimonialwouldeventuallydevelopintothecivilandcriminaljury trial. These were significant innovations in many ways. First, they equalized the law in a profound way. People with little powercouldmakecomplaintsagainstmorepowerfulpeopleandprevailthismadethejudicialsomethingthatpeople supported and sought after. In addition, the use of the twelve men expanded participation in the judiciary and in governmenttomorethanjustthemonarch,hisministers,andthepowerfulbarons.Governmentwasnowpartlyinthe hands of common peoplethus would begin a growing interest among more and more classes in the conduct of government.Finally,Henry'sinnovationscreatedamoreorlessindependentbureaucracythat,inthehandsofawell trainedadministrativestaff,couldrunthecentralgovernmentnomatterwhowasking. Andthat'swhathappenedwhenHenryIIdied.Hewassucceededbyhisson,RichardI(11891199),who,becauseofhis interest in the Crusades, spent all of six months in England during his ten year reign. Even in his absence, the government ran efficiently. In fact, itgot even more efficient as theadministrative beauracracy was able to develop withouttheinterferenceoftheking.

MagnaCarta
ItwasduringthereignofRichard'ssuccessor,John(11991214),thatthesteadydevelopmentofmonarchicalauthority was partly checked. As with his predecessors, John ruled not only England as a monarch, but he also ruled much of FranceasavassaloftheFrenchking.ThisrankledtheFrenchkingsallduringthereignsoftheearlyNormankings.By 1204, the French king, PhilipAugustus, retook for Francethe lands that John ruled inNormandy. InPhilip Augustus, John faced one of the most capable military and administrative kings in French historyhe was dealt defeat after defeatinhisattempttofirstdefendandthenregainhislands.

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FedupwithhiswarinFrance,John'snoblesresentedthepowerofthekingtoraisemoneyforwhattheyfeltwasa losing war. In the famous Magna Carta of 1215, they forced the king to sign a charter that renounced much of his power. The Magna Carta was not really a document about rights, it was a document about limiting monarchical government and the power of the king. First and foremost, it revoked the right of the king to raise revenues independentlyinordertoraiserevenues,thekingfirsthadtoobtainpermissionfromhisvassals.Thedocumentalso limitedthepoweroftheking'sjudgesarbitrarilytotryandsentencefreemen;allfreemencouldonlybetriedand sentencedbytheirequals.Finally,itcreatedacouncilofvassalsthatcouldapproveordisapproveoftheking'srevenue raising;thiscouncilwouldeventuallydevelopintotheParliament.ThegreatexperimentwithmonarchyinEuropewas enteringanewphasethefirstinvolvedthecreationofmonarchicalpowerandtheinstitutionstorunit;thesecond phasedinvolvedthecreationofinstitutionstocheckandlimitthegrowingpowerofthemonarch.Everythingwasin placenowforthesubsequenthistoryofgovernmentinEurope.

EdwardI
ThemostpowerfulkinginmedievalEnglishhistorywasEdwardI(12721307),anaggressive,warriorkingthatnotonly consolidatedpowerinEnglandbutthroughwarsofconquestbecamethefirstkingofallofBritain,albeitbriefly. OfallthemedievalmonarchsinEurope,Edwardwasperhapsthemostbrilliantatconsolidatingpower.Theinstitution heinventedtoachievethisendwasParliament,or"Talking."ThepurposeofParliamentwastogatherallthemajor vassalsofthekinginoneplace,explaintothemthereasonsforcollectingtaxes,gettheirapproval,andthendiscuss methodsofcollection.Whilethismayseemtobeanexpansionoftheroleofthebaronsingovernment,itwasactually theopposite.TheentirepurposeofthedevelopmentofParliamentwasefficiency,therapidgenerationofconsensus amongthenobility,noneofwhomreallywereinapositiontochallengetheking.Eventually,however,afterthereign of Edward, the Parliament would develop as a powerful check on the monarch's powerthis was not Edward's intentionorpractice. Edward's Parliament included more than nobilityhe had the genius to include knights and other commoners to represent local counties at the Parliament. These commoners probably had no role at all in the Parliament, but the practice was enormously effective as propaganda. Local commoners were not only presented with an aweinspiring theaterofpoweratthecourt,buttheyalsowerebeinggivenpropagandaandreasonsfortaxationonthemselvesand thepeopletheyrepresented.CommonerswouldeventuallybecomeanintegralpartofParliamentanddeveloptheir ownindependencefromthenobilityinParliamentsufficeittosayhere,though,thattheinclusionofcommonerswas part of the trend of increasing participation in the monarchical and local government by more people begun by the earliestNormankings. Edward made the most determined assault on baronial power among all the English kings. He instituted a series of proceedingscalledquowarrantoproceedings("bywhatwarrant")theseproceedingswouldsystematicallyquestion bywhatwarrantnobleshadcertainprivilegesandrightsfromtheking.Iftherewasnowarrantfortheseprivileges, theywererevokedandgrantedtothemonarch.Theresultwasamassiveconsolidationofpowerintheking'shands. AmongotherinnovationswasEdward'spracticeofissuingstatutes,whichwerepiecesofpubliclegislationarbitrarily imposedontheentirekingdombythewilloftheking. Edwardneededanefficientsystemforraisingrevenuesforhisconstantwarfare.Onthecontinenthefoughtagainst theFrenchkingforGascony,aterritoryunderhiscontrolthathadbeenseizedbytheFrenchking.Itwasauselesswar foughtfrom12941303thatsimplyresultedinGasconybeingreturnedtoEdwardasavassal.Hismostsignificantwars, however,wereagainstWalesandScotland.BothoftheseCelticcountrieswereindependentofEnglandWaleswasa principality ruled by the Prince of Wales and Scotland was a monarchy. However, in both Wales and Scotland a substantialnumberofthenobilitywereAngloNormanratherthanWelshorScottish.Whiletheywerenominallyunder thePrinceofWalesortheScottishking,mostofthemhadcloserculturaltieswithEnglandandtheNormans.Itwas with their help that he conqueredWalesand brought it underhiscontrol. It was adifferent setup than theEnglish feudalsystemWaleswasasystemofmoreorlessindependentlordshipsthatwerevassalsoftheking. Scotland,however,wasamuchmoredifficultmatter.WhentheScottishking,AlexanderIII,diedin1290withoutan heir, two nobles stepped forward to claim the throne: John Balliol and Robert Bruce, both AngloNorman lords in Scotland.TheScotsturnedtoEdwardtoresolvethedispute,whichheagreedtodoifthedisputerweresettledusing English and if he was made regent of Scotland until a decision was made. So, without shedding any blood, Edward became the overlord of Scotland. When the English finally declared John Balliol king, many of the Scottish nobles preferredbeingunderEdward.WhenBalliol,however,alliedwiththeFrench,EdwardinvadedandconqueredScotland

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in1296.ButScotlandwastohardtoholdtwomajorrebellions,oneledbyWilliamWallaceandthesecondbyRobert Bruce,thegrandsonoftheBrucethatclaimedthethrone,temporarilyexpelledEdwardfromScotland.

The1300s
The history of the monarchy after Edward I involved the steady dissolution of monarchical power at the hands of restivenobility.Englandsufferedmanymajorshocksthroughoutthiscentury:theBlackDeath,warswithFrance,and Peasant revolts. By 1400, England had developed its own unique system of government through checks on the monarch'spowerandthefurtherdevelopmentofjudiciarypractices. Edward I was succeeded by his son, Edward II (13071330), who on account of his arbitrary government and his favoringofoftencorruptcouncilors,inspiredamajorrevoltbythenobility.ThereignofEdwardIII(13301377)was largely occupied with fighting in France to regain possessions seized by the French kingthese series of skirmishes, whichlasteduntil1453wereknownastheHundredYearsWar.Theendresultofwouldbethepermanentexpulsionof Englishpowerfromthecontinent. Life changed dramatically after the advent of the Black Death in 1349, to say the least. For England and the rest of Europe,theDeathmeantastartlingdecreaseinlaborandasubsequentriseinthevalueoflabor.Intheearlyyears,a substantial amount of wealth was redistributed from the nobility downwardsmost importantly, the value of labor inspired people to uproot themselves and relocate. The social consequences would be tremendous and begin to producea"commoner"cultureofremarkableresiliencyanddiffusionallthroughoutEngland.Thiscommonerculture wouldproduceabodyofliteratureandmusicaswellasasensibilitythatwouldeventuallydiffuseintocourtandhigher culture.ThefirstmajorEnglishliteraryfigure,GeoffreyChaucer,wouldinpartdrawonmodelsandsensibilitiesofthis lowerculture. Mostimportantly,theBlackDeathchangedtheeconomyofEngland.ThroughouttheentireperiodofNormanrulethe economy centered, entirely, on agriculture with some export of raw materials, such as wool. Agriculture was dominatedbythelandednobilitywhocollectedrentsfromtenantsloweronthehierarchy.Theentirestructurewas builtontheshouldersofthevilleinwhoreceivedthesmallestshareofarableland.Thevilleinwastiedtothelandthat hefarmed,whichwasoftenbarelyenoughtoprovideforhisfamily'ssurvival.Hepaidacertainamountofhiscropas rent but he also paid in labor. He was forced to work a certain amount of time on the lands of the nobility who collectedalltherevenuesfromtheselands.Thiswasaphenomenallylucrativesystemforthelandholdersbutwasa desperateandtorturousexistenceforvillein. WiththeDeath,however,landholdersfoundthemselvesdesperatelyshortofvilleinstoworktheirlands.Inaddition, theshortageoflaborinducedmanyvilleinstorunawayandlookformoregainfulemploymentonotherlandsaswage laborersortoseekworkinthecities.Eventhoughitwasaseriouscrimetorunaway(thevilleinswereineffectslaves), theprospectofamoresecurelifewasinducementenough.Withthelossofvilleins,thelandholdershadtoresortto wagelabor,whichwasconsiderablymoreexpensive,particularlyinthelightoffallingfoodpricesbecauseoflowered demand!Thelandholderssolvedtheproblemintwoways:thefirstwasbyconvertingtheirlandstorentedlands.By 1500,almostnolandholderswereusingtheirownlandsbuthadrentedthemallout.Thesecondandmostinnovative approach was to stop growing crops but instead use the land to graze sheep for woolthis practice was called "enclosure"sincethelandwouldbeenclosedtokeepthesheepin.Enclosureturnedouttobeanevenmorelucrative use of the land and all throughout the later fourteenth and fifteenth centuries massive amounts of land were convertedfromagriculturetosheepraising. ThephenomenalincreaseinwoolproductionmadeEnglandoneofthecentersofEuropeancommerce.ButtheEnglish soon turned from exportingraw wool to exporting finished cloth.Why, after all, collect moneyfrom exporting wool onlytohavetopayitoutagainforthefinishedcloth?Bytheendofthefifteenthcentury,Englandhadbecomethe major manufacturing commercial power of Europe primarily because of the growth of the cloth industry. The conversion of the English economy to a commercial and manufacturing economy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuriescontributedtothegrowthofanewcommonerclass,whatwewouldcallthemiddleclass.Thesecommoners sometimesattainedincrediblewealthnotonlythroughtradeandmanufacturing,butoftenasrentersonagricultural land. The reign of Richard II (13771399), who came to the throne as a boy, was marked by arbitrary use of power and extremeeffortsofthenobilitytocheckthepoweroftheking.Sotroubledwasthereign,thatRichardwasthefirstking tobedeposedbyarebellion,thatofHenryBolingbroke,whousurpedthethronetobecomeHenryIV.

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ItwasduringthelateryearsofEdwardIIIandthereignofRichardIIthatEnglandemergedaspotentculturalforcein Europe.SomeAngloSaxonpracticesstillhungon,suchasthewritingofalliterativepoetry,thatis,poetrywhosemeter ismarkedbyalliterationortheuseofidenticalconsonantstobeginwords.Onthewhole,however,Englanddeveloped adistinctcultureusingFrenchandclassicalmodelsaswellasanew,growingcommonerculture.Combinedwithboth ofthesewasanewandinnovativeanticlericalismthatgainedramaticculturalforceinthelatterpartofthefourteenth century. TheRomanchurchhadnevertrulybroughtaboutecclesiasticalunityinEurope.Intheearlyperiod,severaldifferent practices and theologies vied with one another, the most significant being the conflict between the Celtic and the continentalchurches.Moreover,theeasternEuropeanareasneverfellunderRomancontrolaseparatechurch,the churchofByzantium,exercisedspiritualandpoliticalauthorityovertheseChristians. TheRomanchurchintheWestwasapowerfulmediumthroughwhichacommonEuropeanculturewasforgedand wasinstrumentalinbringingfirstAngloSaxonandthenAngloNormancultureintotheEuropeanmainstream.Butthe Romanchurchwasalsohopelesslycorrupt.ItwaslargelyrunaccordingtothesocialmodelsofEuropethehierarchy ofthechurchmirroredthehierarchyofsociety.Infact,thetopofthechurchhierarchywasdrawnalmostentirelyfrom Europeannobles. The church concentratedits energies on the top ofthe hierarchy and on the various monasteries, whichforallpracticalpurposesweretheequivalentofnobleestatesandpracticedthesamekindofslavelaborthe useofvilleinstofarmmonasticlandsthattheEnglishmanorsused.Almostnoresourcesweredevotedtothevillage, thetown,andthecommoner.Clergyatthislevelweredesperatelypoorandlivedahandtomouthexistenceselling prayersandothersacraments. Itwasinevitablethatthehierarchyandwealthofthechurch,itsmanifestmeddlingincommerceandpolitics,itscruel disdain for the lowest levels of society, and the added insult of the relative immunity of clergy from criminal prosecution,wouldalleventuallyproducestrongreactionsagainstthechurchandtheclergythisanticlericalfeeling duringtheMiddleAgesreacheditsheightinEngland. Thereactiontothechurchrangedfromaggressivedenunciationsoftheentireinstitutiontostingingcritiquesofchurch clergythatstillupheldthelegitimacyofthechurchitself. The most famous and important of the anticlerical agitators was John Wycliff who originally began his career as a doctor of divinity atOxford in the1360's and speculatedon such abstruse questionsas the natureof universals. He soon, however, developed strong critiques of the church and eventually assumed in the late 1370's a revolutionary stance towards the church. He rejected all church hierarchy and declared that the Christian consisted of the people who had faith but did not consist of the church hierarchy (this would eventually become the "priesthood of all believers"inMartinLuther).Herejectedtransubstantiationasalegitimatedoctrine(theideathatthebreadandwine oftheEucharistactuallychangeintothebodyandbloodofChrist),arguingthatthereisnoScripturalauthorityforthis. HealsoarguedthattheBibleshouldbetranslatedintovernacularlanguages,thatitdoesnogoodtoreadfromthe BibleinalanguagethatmostChristianscan'tunderstand.Tothisend,heproducedthefirstEnglishBible.Theseand otherhereticaldoctrineslandedhiminaworldoftrouble,buthewasprotectedbypowerfulnobleswhousedthemfor theirownpoliticalends.Hismostrevolutionaryidea,however,losthimtheprotectionofeventhenobility.Heargued that all human authority comes from God's grace alone. This doctrine of "authority through grace" allowed him to argue that no corrupt official or authority should be obeyed. If a priest, bishop, or pope were corrupt, parishioners werejustifiedinopposinganyauthorityexercisedbythatchurchofficialthejudgementofsuchcorruptionlaywith the conscience of the believer. This was not only a radical challenge to the church, it also quickly became a radical challengetosecularauthorityaswell. Wycliff'sradicalideasledtoadistinctanticlericalmovementinEngland:Lollardry.Lollardideasinpartimpelledthe Peasant'sRebellionof1381andwouldsurfaceintheremainderofthecentury.WhileLollardrywaseffectivelystamped outintheearly1400's,itreemergedwithavengeancewhenProtestantismwasintroducedintoEnglandinthe1510's. Lollardideas,however,diddiffuseacrossthecontinentandmanyofthetheologicalandsocialideasoftheProtestant ReformationaretraceablebacktothehaplessLollards. ThemostimportantthingaboutLollardryandthegeneralanticlericalismofthefourteenthcenturyisthatitfoundeda newculturedeliberatelyresistanttothedominant,homogenizingcultureofthechurch.Thisnewanticlericalculture led a number of theologians, writers, and poets in England to begin to speculate about the nature of society, government,economicsandhumaninstitutionsandtoforgeradicallynewideasonallthesefronts.Anyspeculation aboutthelegitimacyofpoliticalpowerwouldhavelandedthewriterinserioustrouble;churchgovernment,however, wasrelativelyopentocriticismanditwasherethatthecriticaltraditioninEuropeanpoliticaltheorydeveloped,andin

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noplaceinEuropediditdevelopasstronglyasitdidinmedievalEngland.Theanticlericalculturewasnotsomucha theologicalorevenadoctrinalcultureitwasamoralandpoliticalcultureinpartforgedoutoftheincreasingrolethat allindividualswereplayinginEnglishgovernment.Anticlericalculturemanifesteditselfinreligiousworks,suchasPiers Plowman written by a desperately poor cleric named William Langland, in mystical literature such as The Book of MargeryKempe,andinanentirecorpusofsecularliteratureandpractices. NoindividualbetterrepresentsthisnewculturalfusionofEuropean,commoner,andanticlericalculturethanGeoffrey Chaucer(13431400).HisearliestwritingsimportedItalianandFrenchmodelsintoEnglishliterature,buthisgreatest workwasTheCanterburyTales,whichfusedanumberofculturalformsandanticlericalcriticisminaseriesofstories narratedbyacrosssectionofEnglishculture. TheemergenceofChaucerasamajorliteraryfigurepointstoanothervitalchangeinEnglishcultureinthefourteenth century: the emergence of English as an official and a literary language. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the languageofgovernmentwasprimarilyFrenchinspokenlanguageandLatininwrittenlanguage.Theliterarylanguage of early Norman England was Norman Frencha number of the earliest masterpieces of English literature are in actualityFrench.Inthefourteenthcentury,however,Englishbecamethespokenlanguageofgovernmentandinpart replacedLatinastheofficialwrittenlanguage.LiteratureinEnglishbegantothrivefromthemiddleofthefourteenth centuryonwardsandculminatedinthecareerofChaucerandWycliff'stranslationoftheBible.By1400,Englishhad becomethelanguageofEngland. ThisEnglish,however,wassubstantiallydifferentfromtheEnglishspokenbeforetheNormaninvasion.TheEnglishof theAngloSaxonperiod,called"OldEnglish,"wascompletelyaGermaniclanguagethathadmoreincommonwiththe Germanic languages spoken on the continent than it had with modern English. The Norman invasion, however, introducedalongperiodinwhichNormanFrenchandAngloSaxonexistedsidebyside.Theresultwasacuriousmixof the two languages, in fact, almost a lingua franca, that produced the English of the fourteenth century. This was an EnglishthatusedmanyGermanicformsbutwasdominatedbyFrenchwordsandaFrenchworldview.

TheLancasters
WhenHenryBolingbrokedeposedRichardII,hedeclaredhimselfkingofEnglandasHenryIVonaverytenuousclaim to the throne. This was a radical departure in English history that would determine historical practices for the next hundredyearsandbeyond.BecauseHenryhadprovidedtheprecedentfordeposingaking,itsoonbecameevident thatthemonarchycouldbeclaimedthroughanyvagueconnectioniftheclaimanthadsufficientarmstoenforcethe claim.Thehistoryofthefifteenthcenturyisonelong,dismalhistoryoftheproblemscreatedbyHenry'susurpation. Theproblemsbeganimmediately.HenryspentmostofhisreignputtingdownarebellionfirstbyaWelshnobleman, OwenGlyndwr,andthenlaterbypowerfulEnglishmagnates. Hisson,however,whoreignedasHenryV(14131422),wasdeterminedtoregainEnglishrightsoftheFrenchareasof Normandy and Gascon. To this end, he launched an invasion of France which soon gained him all the territory the English had lost in these areas. He was helped by two major accidents. The first was an allout schism in French governmentbetweentheDukeofBurgundyandsonoftheKing,CharlesVI.BothclaimedthethroneandHenrytook advantageofthisdivision.ThesecondaccidentwastheuseoflongbowarchersagainsttheFrenchforcesthatwere primarilycavalryandinfantry.Becausethelongbowarcherscouldfirefromadistanceandrearmthemselvesquickly afterreleasingavolley,theFrenchforcesfellquickly. Attheendofhisconquests,HenryextortedtwothingsfromCharlesVI:hewasmarriedtoCharles'daughterCatherine andtheFrenchkingcededthethroneuponhisdeathtothechildofHenryandCatherine.WhenHenryVdiedofan illnessin1322attheageof35,theirninemontholdchild,HenryVI,becamethefirstandonlykingofbothEnglandand France. The invasions of Henry and the steady loss of French territories under Henry VI comprise what historians call the Hundred Years War. The English held on to their possessions until 1429 when, under the inspired leadership of a teenagegirl,JoanofArc,theFrenchralliedagainsttheEnglishandtheirBurgundianallies.WhentheDukeofBurgund realliedhimselfwiththeFrench,thetideofbattleturneddistinctivelyagainsttheEnglish.HenryVhadthebenefitofa politicallydividedFrance;theEnglishnowfacedarival,FrenchclaimanttothethronetheDauphin,thesonofCharles VIbacked by aunified France. By 1453, theEnglish were permanently kickedout ofFrance exceptfor the townof Calais.

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HenryVIwastheyoungestmantobecomekingofEnglandandreignedanimmenselylongtime.Hisreign,however, wasgenerallymarkedbyhisnonpresenceasakingsincehedespisedwarfareandhadnointerestingovernment.The government instead fell to his magnates and to his wife, Margaret of Anjou. This began a period of severe rivalries betweenmagnatesthatwouldeventuallyeruptintotheWarsoftheRoses.

TheWarsoftheRoses
The"WarsoftheRoses"issomewhatofamisnomer.Thenamereferstothesymbolsusedtorepresentthetwomajor factionstheYorksrepresentedthemselveswiththesymbolofthewhiteroseandtheTudorsrepresentedthemselves witharedrose.Itwasn'tuntiltheendofthestruggle,however,thattheTudorsadoptedtheredrosetodistinguish themselvesfromtheYorks.Norwerethesereallywars,butratheraseriesofsmall,albeitdecisive,skirmishesbetween variousmagnates. Theissue,ofcourse,oweditsoriginstoHenryBolingbroke'susurpationofthecrown.Therewereseveralnoblesand families who had better claims to the throne and Henry had introduced the dangerous precedent that the crown belongedtowhoevercouldseizeit. The nonpresence of Henry VI as a king was even more decisive. Since the government fell to a clique of nobles surroundingMargaretofAnjou,thosenobleswhofeltleftoutwerebitterandrebellious.Theonehavingthegreatest causeforbitternesswasRichard,DukeofYork.ItwasnotjustsimplythatRichardhadabetterclaimtothethrone;it was that HenryVIhad proven himselfuseless as a king.When Henry VI went mad in 1453, Richard managed to get himself declared the Protector of the Realmin executive functions, he was the equivalent of the king. He then surrounded the monarch's government with fellow Yorkists and allies and he arrested the major figures in Henry's court. After the king regained his sanity, the first major battle occurred between Richard and these rival court governors.Thisfirstbattle,foughtatSaintAlbans,istraditionallyreckonedasthestartoftheWarsoftheRoses. By 1460, however, Richard controlled the government and, in an incredibly audacious move, declared himself to be kingofEnglandsinceHenrywasbothunfitandwasthedescendantofausurper.Thenobility,however,backedoffof this proposal and promised Richard the crown after the death of Henry. But Henry didn't die soon enoughwhen Richarddied,thesuccessionfelltohisson,EdwardIV. EdwardIV(14611483)didwhatRichardcouldn'tdo:hedeposedHenryandassumedthethroneofEngland.Hecould neverreallyconsolidatehisrule,however,andfacedintenseandaggressiverestivenessfromhisbrother,George,the DukeofClarenceandslightlylessresistancefromhisotherbrother,Richard,theDukeofGloucester.In1471,Margaret ofAnjouandHenryVIlandedwithaninvasionforceandtemporarilyretookthecrownforacouplemonths.Thiswas soonovercomebyEdwardandHenrydiedinprison,old,mad,andbroken. OnthedeathofEdwardin1483,thesuccessionfelltohisson,EdwardV.ButEdwardVwasonlytwelveyearsold,so theProtectoratefelltohisuncle,Richard,DukeofGloucester.Richard,followingthetraditionssetdownbyHenryIV, Richard,DukeofYork,hisfather,andhisbrotherEdward,seizedthethronerapidlyandefficiently.Heimprisonedthe twosonsofEdwardandmayevenhavehadthemexecuted(itismorelikelythatHenryTudorexecutedthem).The thronewasusurpedyetagaininlessthanahundredyears. By all accounts, Richard III was an extremely effective administrator, militarily brilliant, and of immense physical courage. His assumption of the crown, however, was challenged immediately from several sides. His two year reign consistedentirelyoffightingrebellions,includinganearly,indirectrebelliontoputHenryTudoronthethrone.When thisrebellionfailed,HenryTudortookmattersintohisownhandsanddirectlyconfrontedRichard.Henryhadonlythe mosttenuousclaimtothethroneandtheTudormonarchswouldspendthenexthundredyearspropagandizingthat tenuousclaim.Thelastfightofthisrebellion,atBosworthin1485,resultedinthedeathofRichard.Anewusurper, HenryTudortookthethroneasHenryVIIjustasEuropewasenteringthemodernperiod.
Copyright19942000EncyclopdiaBritannica,Inc. MedievalEnglandbyRichardHooker

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LITERARYPERIODSOFBRITISHANDAMERICANLITERATURE SUMMARY
Periods in literature are named for rulers, historical events, intellectual or political or religious movements, or artistic styles.Mostliteraryperiodsthereforehavemultiplenames.What'sworse,someofthesenamesaredebated.Isthelater 17thCenturytheBaroqueera?Thetermbaroqueisanintractabletermderivedfromartcriticism,thoughitmayusefully beapplicabletosomewritersaswell.Istheearly17thCenturytheShakespeareanera?IsittheManneristera?Howwidely dowewishtoapplythetermElizabethanperiod?Otherquestionsarise.DoesRomanticismbeginwithWordsworth?With Blake? In addition, Romanticism has various dates according to the national literature we refer to. In the separate art formsmusic,painting,andevensomeliterarygenresthedatesmayvaryyetmore.Recenthistoriesofliteratureand thelatestNortonAnthologyofEnglishLiteratureofferthelatestexamplesoftermsappliedtoliteraryperiods.

PeriodsofBritishLiterature
6001200OldEnglish(AngloSaxon) 12001500MiddleEnglish 15001660TheEnglishRenaissance 15001558 15581603 TudorPeriod ElizabethanPeriod HumanistEra HighRenaissance ThomasMore,JohnSkelton EdmundSpenser, SirPhilipSidney, WilliamShakespeare 16031625 JacobeanPeriod ManneristStyle(15901640) otherstyles:Metaphysical Poets;DevotionalPoets Shakespeare,JohnDonne,George Herbert, EmiliaLanyer 16251649 16491660 16601700 17001800 CarolinePeriod TheCommonwealth &TheProtectorate TheRestoration TheEighteenth Century BaroqueStyle,andlater, RococoStyle TheEnlightenment; NeoclassicalPeriod; TheAugustanAge SamuelJohnson 17851830 18301901 19011960 1960 Romanticism VictorianPeriod ModernPeriod Postmodernand Contemporary Period TheAgeofRevolution Early,MiddleandLate Victorian
TheEdwardianEra(19011910); TheGeorgianEra(19101914)

Beowulf GeoffreyChaucer

JohnFord,JohnMilton Milton,AndrewMarvell,ThomasHobbes JohnDryden AlexanderPope, JonathanSwift,

WilliamWordsworth,S.T.Coleridge,Jane Austen,theBronts CharlesDickens,GeorgeEliot,Robert Browning,Alfred,LordTennyson G.M.Hopkins,H.G.Wells,JamesJoyce, D.H.Lawrence,T.S.Eliot TedHughes,DorisLessing,JohnFowles, DonDeLillo,A.S.Byatt

TheOldEnglishPeriodortheAngloSaxonPeriodreferstotheliteratureproducedfromtheinvasionofCelticEnglandby GermanictribesinthefirsthalfofthefifthcenturytotheconquestofEnglandin1066byWilliamtheConqueror. DuringtheOld EnglishPeriod,writtenliteraturebegantodevelopfromoraltradition,andintheeighthcenturypoetry writteninthevernacularAngloSaxonorOldEnglishappeared.OneofthemostwellknowneighthcenturyOldEnglish piecesofliteratureisBeowulf,agreatGermanicepicpoem.TwopoetsofOldEnglishPeriodwhowroteonbiblicaland religiousthemeswereCaedmonandCynewulf.

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 The Middle English Period consists of the literature produced in the four and a half centuries between the Norman Conquest of 1066 and about 1500, when the standard literary language, derived from the dialect of the London area, becamerecognizableas"modernEnglish." Prior to the second half of the fourteenth century, vernacular literature consisted primarily of religious writings. The secondhalfofthefourteenthcenturyproducedthefirstgreatageofsecularliterature.Themostwidelyknownofthese writings are Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Thomas Malory'sMortedArthur. While the English Renaissance began with the ascent of the House of Tudor to the English throne in 1485, the English LiteraryRenaissancebeganwithEnglishhumanistssuchasSirThomasmoreandSirThomasWyatt. In addition, the English Literary Renaissance consists of four subsets: The Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Age, the CarolineAge,andtheCommonwealthPeriod(whichisalsoknownasthePuritanInterregnum). TheElizabethanAgeofEnglishLiteraturecoincideswiththereignofElizabethI,15581603.Duringthistime,medieval traditionwasblendedwithRenaissanceoptimism.Lyricpoetry,prose,anddramawerethemajorstylesofliteraturethat flowered during the Elizabethan Age. Some important writers of the Elizabethan Age include William Shakespeare, ChristopherMarlowe,EdmundSpenser,SirWalterRaleigh,andBenJonson. The Jacobean Age ofEnglish Literaturecoincides with the reign of James I,1603 1625.Duringthis time the literature became sophisticated, sombre, and conscious of social abuse and rivalry. The Jacobean Age produced rich prose and dramaaswellasThekingJamestranslationoftheBible.ShakespeareandJonsonwroteduringtheJacobeanAge,aswell asJohnDonne,Francisbacon,andThomasMiddleton. TheCarolineAgeofEnglishLiteraturecoincideswiththereignofCharlesI,16251649.Thewritersofthisagewrotewith refinementandelegance.ThiseraproducedacircleofpoetsknownastheCavalierPoetsandthedramatistsofthisage werethelasttowriteintheElizabethantradition. TheCommonwealthPeriod,alsoknownasthePuritanInterregnum,ofEnglishLiteratureincludestheliteratureproduced during the time of Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell. This period produced the political writings of John Milton, Thomas HobbespoliticaltreatiseLeviathan,andtheproseofAndrewMarvell.InSeptemberof1642,thePuritansclosedtheatres on moral and religious grounds. For the next eighteen years the theatres remained closed, accounting for the lack of dramaproducedduringthistimeperiod. TheNeoclassicalPeriodofEnglishliterature(16601785)wasmuchinfluencedbycontemporaryFrenchliterature,which wasinthemidstofitsgreatestage.Theliteratureofthistimeisknownforitsuseofphilosophy,reason,skepticism,wit, andrefinement.TheNeoclassicalPeriodalsomarksthefirstgreatageofEnglishliterarycriticism. MuchliketheEnglishLiteraryRenaissance,theNeoclassicalPeriodcanbedividedintothreesubsets:theRestoration,the AugustanAge,andtheAgeofSensibility. TheRestoration,16601700,ismarkedbytherestorationofthemonarchyandthetriumphofreasonandtoleranceover religiousandpoliticalpassion.TheRestorationproducedanabundanceofproseandpoetryandthedistinctivecomedyof manners known as Restoration comedy. It was during the Restoration that John Milton published Paradise Lost and ParadiseRegained. OthermajorwritersoftheeraincludeJohnDryden,JohnWilmot2ndEarlofRochester,andJohnLocke. TheEnglishAugustanAgederivesitsnamefromthebrilliantliteraryperiodofVirgilandOvidundertheRomanemperor Augustus(27B.C.A.D.14).InEnglishliterature,theAugustanAge,17001745,referstoliteraturewiththepredominant characteristicsofrefinement,clarity,elegance,andbalanceofjudgment.WellknownwritersoftheAugustanAgeinclude JonathanSwift,AlexanderPope,andDanielDefoe.Asignificantcontributionofthistimeperiodincludedthereleaseofthe firstEnglishnovelsbyDefoe,andthe"novelofcharacter,"Pamela,bySamuelRichardson,in1740. During the Age of Sensibility, literature reflectedthe worldview of Enlightenment and began to emphasize instinctand feeling,ratherthanjudgmentandrestraint.AgrowingsympathyfortheMiddleAgesduringtheAgeofSensibilitysparked

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an interest in medieval ballads and folk literature. Another name for this period is the Age of Johnson because the dominant authors of this period were Samuel Johnson andhis literaryand intellectual circle. Thisperiod alsoproduced someofthegreatestearlynovelsoftheEnglishlanguage,includingRichardson'sClarissa(1748)andHenryFielding'sTom Jones(1749). TheRomanticPeriodofEnglishliteraturebeganinthelate18thcenturyandlasteduntilapproximately1832.Ingeneral, Romanticliteraturecanbecharacterizedbyitspersonalnature,itsstronguseoffeeling,itsabundantuseofsymbolism, anditsexplorationofnatureandthesupernatural.Inaddition,thewritingsoftheRomanticswereconsideredinnovative based on their belief that literature should be spontaneous, imaginative, personal, and free. The Romantic Period producedawealthofauthorsincludingSamuelTaylorColeridge,WilliamWordsworth,JaneAusten,andLordByron. ItwasduringtheRomanticPeriodthatGothicliteraturewasborn.TraitsofGothicliteraturearedarkandgloomysettings andcharactersandsituationsthatarefantastic,grotesque,wild,savage,mysterious,andoftenmelodramatic.Twoofthe mostfamousGothicnovelistsareAnneRadcliffeandMaryShelley. TheVictorian PeriodofEnglishliteraturebeganwiththeaccessionofQueenVictoriatothethronein1837,andlasted untilherdeathin1901.BecausetheVictorianPeriodofEnglishliteraturespansoversixdecades,theyear1870isoften usedtodividetheerainto"earlyVictorian"and"lateVictorian."Ingeneral,Victorianliteraturedealswiththeissuesand problemsoftheday.SomecontemporaryissuesthattheVictoriansdealtwithincludethesocial,economic,religious,and intellectual issues and problems surrounding the Industrial Revolution, growing class tensions, the early feminist movement, pressures toward political and social reform, and the impact of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution on philosophyandreligion.SomeofthemostrecognizedauthorsoftheVictorianeraincludeAlfredLordTennyson,Elizabeth Barrett Browning, her husband Robert, Matthew Arnold, Charles Dickens, Charlotte Bront, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. WithintheVictorianPeriod,twootherliterarymovements,thatofThePreRaphaelites(18481860)andthemovement ofAestheticismandDecadence(18801900),gainedprominence. In1848,agroupofEnglishartists,includingDanteGabrielRossetti,formedthe"PreRaphaeliteBrotherhood."Itwasthe aimofthisgrouptoreturnpaintingtoastyleoftruthfulness,simplicity,andreligiousdevotionthathadreignedpriorto RaphaelandthehighItalianRenaissance.Rossettiandhisliterarycircle,whichincludedhissisterChristina,incorporated theseidealsintotheirliterature,andtheresultwasthatoftheliteraryPreRaphaelites. TheAestheticismandDecadencemovementofEnglishliteraturegrewoutoftheFrenchmovementofthesamename. Theauthorsofthismovementencouragedexperimentationandheldtheviewthatartistotallyopposed"natural"norms ofmorality.Thisstyleofliteratureopposedthedominanceofscientificthinkinganddefiedthehostilityofsocietytoany artthatwasnotusefulordidnotteachmoralvalues.ItwasfromthemovementofAestheticismandDecadencethatthe phraseartforart'ssakeemerged.AwellknownauthoroftheEnglishAestheticismand DecadencemovementisOscar Wilde. The Edwardian Period is named for King Edward VII and spans the time from Queen Victoria's death (1901) to the beginning of World War I (1914). During this time, The British Empire was at its height and the wealthy lived lives of materialisticluxury.However,fourfifthsoftheEnglishpopulationlivedinsqualor.ThewritingsoftheEdwardianPeriod reflect and comment on these social conditions. For example, writers such as George Bernard Shaw and H.G. Wells attackedsocialinjusticeandtheselfishnessoftheupperclasses.OtherwritersofthetimeincludeWilliamButlerYeats, JosephConrad,RudyardKipling,HenryJames,andE.m.Forster. The Georgian Period refers to the period of British Literature that is named for the reign of George V (191036). Many writersoftheEdwardianPeriodcontinuedtowriteduringtheGeorgianPeriod.Thiseraalsoproducedagroupofpoets knownastheGeorgianpoets.Thesewriters,nowregardedasminorpoets,werepublishedinfouranthologiesentitled Georgian Poetry, publishedbyEdward Marsh between 1912 and1922. Georgianpoetry tends tofocus on rural subject matterandistraditionalintechniqueandform. The Modern Periodapplies to British literature written sincethe beginning ofWorldWar I in1914. The authorsof the Modern Periodhaveexperimentedwithsubjectmatter,form,andstyleandhaveproducedachievementsinallliterary genres.PoetsoftheperiodincludeYeats,T.S.Eliot,DylanThomas,andSeamusHeaney.NovelistsincludeJamesJoyce, D.H.Lawrence,andVirginiaWoolf.DramatistsincludeNoelCowardandSamuelBeckett.. Following World War II (19391945), the Postmodern Period of British Literature developed. Postmodernism blends literarygenresandstylesandattemptstobreakfreeofmodernistforms.WhiletheBritishliterarysceneattheturnofthe

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new millennium is crowded and varied, the authors still fall into the categories of modernism and postmodernism. However,withthepassageoftimetheModerneramaybereorganizedandexpanded

LiteraryPeriodsofAmericanLiterature

16071776:ColonialPeriod 17651790:TheRevolutionaryAge 17751828:TheEarlyNationalPeriod 18281865:TheRomanticPeriod (Alsoknownas:TheAmericanRenaissanceorTheAgeofTranscendentalism) 18651900:TheRealisticPeriod 19001914:TheNaturalisticPeriod 19141939:AmericanModernistPeriod 1920s:JazzAge,HarlemRenaissance 1920s,1930s:The"LostGeneration" 1939present:TheContemporaryPeriod 1950s:BeatWriters1 1960s,1970s:Counterculture

EthnicLiteratures,including,butnotlimitedto: AfricanAmericanWriters/NativeAmericanWriters/AsianAmericanWriters TheColonialPeriodofAmericanLiteraturespansthetimebetweenthefoundingofthefirstsettlementatJamestownto theoutbreakoftheRevolution.Thewritingsofthistimecenteredonreligious,practical,orhistoricalthemes.Themost influentialwritersoftheColonialPeriodincludeJohnWinthrop,CottonMather,BenjaminFranklin,andAnneBradstreet. DuringtheRevolutionaryAge,17651790,someofthegreatestdocumentsofAmericanhistorywereauthored.In1776, Thomas Paine authored Common Sense and Thomas Jefferson wrote The Declaration of Independence. In 1781, The ArticleofConfederationwereratified.Between1787and1788,AlexanderHamilton,JamesMadison,andJohnJaywrote TheFederalistPapers.Finally,in1787,TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatewasdraftedandin1789itwasratified. The Early National Period of American Literature saw the beginnings of literature that could be truly identified as "American". The writers of this new American literature wrote in the English style, but the settings, themes, and characterswereauthenticallyAmerican.Inaddition,poetsofthistimewrotepoetrythatwasrelativelyindependentof Englishprecursors.ThreeofthemostrecognizedwritersofthistimeareWashingtonIrving,JamesFennimoreCooper,and EdgarAllanPoe. Theperiod18281865inAmericanLiteratureiscommonlyidentifiedastheRomanticPeriodinAmerica,butmayalsobe referredtoastheAmericanRenaissanceortheAgeofTranscendentalism.Thewritersofthisperiodproducedworksof originalityandexcellencethathelpedshapetheideas,ideals,andliteraryaimsofmanyAmericanwriters.Writersofthe American Romantic Period include Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, NathanielHawthorne,HarrietBeecherStowe,HenryWadsworthLongfellow,EmilyDickinson,andWaltWhitman. FollowingtheCivilWar,AmericanLiteratureenteredintotheRealisticPeriod.Themajorformofliteratureproducedin this era was realistic fiction. Unlike romantic fiction, realistic fiction aims to represent life as it really is and make the reader believe that the characters actually might exist and the situations might actually happen. In order to have this effectonthereader,realisticfictionfocusesontheordinaryandcommonplace.ThemajorwritersoftheRealisticPeriod includeMarkTwain,HenryJames,BretHarte,andKateChopin. The years 19001914 mark American Literature's Naturalistic Period. Naturalism claims to give an even more accurate depictionoflifethanrealism.InaccordancewithapostDarwinianthesis,naturalisticwritersholdthatthecharactersof their works are merely higherorder animals whose character and behavior is entirely based upon heredity and

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environment.Naturalisticwritingstrytopresentsubjectswithscientificobjectivity.Thesewritingsareoftenfrank,crude, andtragic.StephenCrane,JackLondon,andTheodoreDreiserarethemoststudiedAmericanNaturalists. Between1914and1939,AmericanLiteratureenteredintoaphasewhichisstillreferredtoas"TheBeginningsofModern Literature".LiketheirBritishcounterparts,theAmericanModernistsexperimentedwithsubjectmatter,form,andstyle and produced achievements in all literary genres. Some wellknown American Modernist Poets include Robert Frost, WilliamCarlosWilliams,EdnaSt.VincentMillay,ande.e.Cumming.IncludedamongAmericanModernistProseWriters areEdithWharton,SinclairLewis,andWillaCather. TheAmericanModernistPeriodalsoproducedmanyotherwritersthatareconsideredtobewritersofModernistPeriod Subclasses.Forexample,F.ScottFitzgeraldisconsideredawriterofThe Jazz Age,LangstonHughes,andW.E.B.DuBois writersofThe HalemRenaissance,andGertrudStein,T.S.Eliot,ErzaPound,andErnestHemingwaywritersofThe Lost Generation. The Great Depression marked the end of the American Modernist Period, and writers such as William Faulkner, John Steinbeck,andEugeneONeilldealtwiththesocialandpoliticalissuesofthetimeintheirliteraryworks. 1939 marked the beginning of the Contemporary Period of American Literature. This period includes an abundance of importantAmericanliteraryfiguresspanningfromWorldWarIIintotheNewMillennium.Thesewritersinclude,butare notlimitedto,EudoraWelty,JohnUpdike,KurtVonnegut,SylviaPlath,ArthurMiller,TennesseeWilliams,ralphEllison, GwendolynBrooks,ZoraNealHurston,AliceWalker,ToniMorrison,andMayaAngelou. Duringthe1950s,avigorousantiestablishmentandantitraditionalliterarymovementemerged.Themainwritersofthis movement,AllenGinsbergandJackKerouac,arecalledBeatWriters.Muchwritingofthe1960sand1970s,referredtoas CountercultureWriting,continuedtheliteraryidealsoftheBeatMovement,butinamoreextremeandfeveredmanner. Currently,thecontemporaryAmericanliterarysceneiscrowdedandvaried.WiththepassageoftimetheContemporary Periodmaybereorganizedand/orexpanded.InthefuturewillwriterssuchasAnneRice,JohnGrisham,orAmyTanbe includedinthecanonofAmericanLiterature?Wewilljusthavetowaitandsee.
AGlossaryofLiteraryTerms,6thed.,byM.H.AbramsandLongmanCompaniontoEnglishLiteraturebyChristopherGillie

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INTRODUCTIONTOBRITISHLITERATURE

Englishliterature,literaturewritteninEnglishsincec.1450bytheinhabitantsoftheBritishIsles;itwasduringthe15th centurythattheEnglishlanguageacquiredmuchofitsmodernform.Fortheliteratureofpreviouslinguisticperiods,Anglo Saxonliterature, the literary writings in Old English, and Middle English Literature, literature of the medieval period, c.1100toc.1500.

AngloSaxonliterature

Poetry
TherearetwotypesofOldEnglishpoetry:theheroic,thesourcesofwhicharepreChristianGermanicmyth,history,and custom; and the Christian. Although nearly all Old English poetry is preserved in only four manuscriptsindicating that whathassurvivedisnotnecessarilythebestormostrepresentativemuchofitisofhighliteraryquality.Moreover,Old English heroic poetry is the earliest extant in all of Germanic literature. It is thus the nearest we can come to the oral pagan literature of Germanic culture, and is also of inestimable value as a source of knowledge about many aspects of Germanic society. The 7thcentury work known as Widsith, 7thcentury AngloSaxon poem found in the Exeter Book (manuscriptvolumeofOldEnglishreligiousandsecularpoetry,ofvariousdatesofcomposition,compiledc.975andgiven to Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofric (d. 1072).). It is an account of the wanderings of a Germanic minstrel and of the legendsherelates.ThepoemgivesanexcellentdescriptionofminstrellifeintheGermanicheroicage.

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ItisoneoftheearliestOldEnglishpoems,andthusisofparticularhistoricandlinguisticinterest. Beowulf1,acompleteepic,istheoldestsurvivingGermanicepicaswellasthelongestandmostimportantpoeminOld English.Itoriginatedasapagansagatransmittedorallyfromonegenerationtothenext;courtpoetsknownasscopswere the bearers of tribal history and tradition. The version of Beowulf that is extant was composed by a Christian poet, probablyearlyinthe8thcent.However,intermittentChristianthemesfoundintheepic,althoughaffectinginthemselves, are not integrated into the essentially pagan tale. The epic celebrates the hero's fearless and bloody struggles against monstersandextolscourage,honor,andloyaltyasthechiefvirtuesinaworldofbrutalforce. Theelegiactheme,astrongundercurrentinBeowulf,iscentraltoDeor,TheWanderer,TheSeafarer,andotherpoems.In theseworks,ahappypastiscontrastedwithaprecariousanddesolatepresent.TheFinnsburghfragment,TheBattleof Maldon,andTheBattleofBrunanburh,whichareallbasedonhistoricalepisodes,mainlycelebrategreatheroisminthe faceofoverwhelmingodds.Inthisheroicpoetry,allofwhichisanonymous,greatnessismeasuredlessbyvictorythanby perfectloyaltyandcourageinextremity. Much of the Old English Christian poetry is marked by the simple belief of a relatively unsophisticated Christianity; the namesoftwoauthorsareknown.CdmonwhosestoryischarminglytoldbytheVenerableBede,whoalsorecordsa few lines of his poetryis the earliest known English poet. Although the body of his work has been lost, the school of Cdmonisresponsibleforpoeticnarrativeversionsofbiblicalstories,themostdramaticofwhichisprobablyGenesisB. Cynewulf,alaterpoet,signedthepoemsElene,Juliana,andTheFatesoftheApostles;nomoreisknownofhim.Thefinest poem of the school of Cynewulf is The Dream of the Rood, the first known example of the dream vision, a genre later popular in Middle English Literature. Other Old English poems include various riddles, charms (magic cures, pagan in origin),saints'lives,gnomicpoetry,andotherChristianandheroicverse. TheverseformforOldEnglishpoetryisanalliterativelineoffourstressedsyllablesandanunfixednumberofunstressed syllables broken by a caesura and arranged in one of several patterns. Lines are conventionally endstopped and unrhymed.Theformlendsitselftonarrative;thereisnolyricpoetryinOldEnglish.Astylisticfeatureinthisheroicpoetry is the kenning, a figurative phrase, often a metaphorical compound, used as a synonym for a simple noun, e.g., the repeateduseofthephraseswhaleroadforseaandtwilightspoilerfordragon.

Prose
OldEnglishliteraryprosedatesfromthelatterpartoftheAngloSaxonperiod.ProsewaswritteninLatinbeforethereign ofKingAlfred(reigned87199),whoworkedtorevitalizeEnglishcultureafterthedevastatingDanishinvasionsended.As hardlyanyonecouldreadLatin,AlfredtranslatedorhadtranslatedthemostimportantLatintexts.Healsoencouraged writing in the vernacular. Didactic, devotional, and informative prose was written, and the AngloSaxon Chronicle, probablybeguninAlfred'stimeasanhistoricalrecord,continuedforoverthreecenturies.TwopreeminentOldEnglish prosewriterswerelfric2,AbbotofEynsham,andhiscontemporaryWulfstan,d.1023,Englishchurchman,archbishopof York(10031023)andbishopofWorcester,whoseLatinnamewasLupus.HeisburiedatEly.Homiliesareattributedto
1 Beowulf (b'uwoolf), oldest English epic, probably composed in the early 8th cent. by an Anglian bard in the vicinity of Northumbria. It survives in only one manuscript, written c.A.D. 1000 by two scribes and preserved in the British Museum in the collection of Sir Robert Cotton. The materials for the poem are derived mainly from Scandinavian history, folk tale, and mythology. Its narrative consists of two parts: The first relates Beowulf's successful fights with the water monster Grendel and with Grendel's mother; the second narrates the hero's victory in his old age over a dragon and his subsequent death and funeral at the end of a long life of honor. These events take place entirely in Denmark and Sweden. The poem contains a remarkable fusion of pagan and Christian elements and provides a vivid picture of old Germanic life. It is written in a strongly accentual, alliterative verse. There have been some 65 translations of the work into modern English; one of the most accomplished is by the Irish poet Seamus Heany (2000).

See The Beowulf Poet: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. by D. K. Fry (1968); studies by K. Sisam (1965), J. C. Pope (rev. ed. 1966), E. B. Irving (1968), R. Girvan and R. Bruce-Mitford (1971), K. S. Kiernan (1981), W. F. Bolston (1982), and J. D. Ogilvy and D. C. Baker (1986).

2 lfric

c.9551020, English writer and Benedictine monk. He was the greatest English scholar during the revival of learning fostered by the

Benedictine monasteries in the second half of the 10th cent. His aim was to educate the laity as well as the clergy. He wrote in English a series of saints' lives and homiliesdesigned for use as sermons by the preachers who were generally unable to read Latin. lfric was also the author of a grammar, a glossary, and a colloquy, which were for many years the standard texts for Latin study in English monasteries. Among his other writings are the Heptateuch, a free English version of the first seven books of the Bible. lfric is considered the chief prose stylist of the period. His later writings were strongly influenced by the balance, alliteration, and rhythm of Latin prose.

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him,butmostofthemaredoubtful;fromthemasfromthoseoflfricwrittenforWulfstan,manydetailsofEnglishlaw werederived.AhomilyonthemillenniuminEnglishalliterativeprose,styledLupisermoadAnglosisusuallyascribedto him.Theirsermons(writteninthelate10thorearly11thcent.)setastandardforhomiletics. AgreatdealofLatinproseandpoetrywaswrittenduringtheAngloSaxonperiod.Ofhistoricaswellasliteraryinterest,it providesanexcellentrecordofthefoundingandearlydevelopmentofthechurchinEnglandandreflectstheintroduction andearlyinfluencethereofLatinEuropeanculture.

Beowulf
THOUGH IT IS OFTEN VIEWED both as the archetypal AngloSaxon literary work and as a cornerstone of modern literature, Beowulf has a peculiarhistory that complicatesboth itshistorical and its canonicalposition in English literature.By the time the story was composed by an unknown AngloSaxon poet around 700 A.D., much of its material had been in circulationinoralnarrativeformanyyears.TheAngloSaxonandScandinavianpeopleshadinvadedtheislandofBritain andsettledthereseveralhundredyearsearlier,bringingwiththemseveralcloselyrelatedGermaniclanguagesthatwould evolve into Old English. Elements of the Beowulf storyincluding its setting and charactersdate back to the period before the migration. The action of the poem takes place around 500 A.D. Many of the characters in the poemthe SwedishandDanishroyalfamilymembers,forexamplecorrespondtoactualhistoricalfigures.Originallypaganwarriors, the AngloSaxon and Scandinavian invaders experienced a largescale conversion to Christianity at the end of the sixth century.Thoughstillanoldpaganstory,BeowulfthuscametobetoldbyaChristianpoet.TheBeowulfpoetisoftenat painstoattributeChristianthoughtsandmotivestohischaracters,whofrequentlybehaveindistinctlyunChristianways. TheBeowulfthatwereadtodayisthereforeprobablyquiteunliketheBeowulfwithwhichthefirstAngloSaxonaudiences werefamiliar.TheelementofreligioustensionisquitecommoninChristianAngloSaxonwritings(TheDreamoftheRood, for example), but the combination of a pagan story with a Christian narrator is fairly unusual. The plot of the poem concerns Scandinavian culture, but much of the poems narrative intervention reveals that the poets culture was somewhatdifferentfromthatofhisancestorsandthatofhischaractersaswell. TheworldBeowulfdepictsandtheheroiccodeofhonor,whichdefinesmuchofthestory,isarelicofpreAngloSaxon culture. The story is set in Scandinavia, before the migration. Though it is a traditional storypart of a Germanic oral traditionthe poem as we have it is thought to be the work of a single poet. It was composed in England (not in Scandinavia)andishistoricalinitsperspective,recordingthevaluesandcultureofabygoneera.Manyofthosevalues, includingtheheroiccode,werestilloperativetosomedegreeinwhenthepoemwaswritten.Thesevalueshadevolvedto someextentintheinterveningcenturiesandwerecontinuingtochange.IntheScandinavianworldofthestory,tinytribes of people rally around strong kings, who protect their people from dangerespecially from confrontations with other tribes.Thewarriorculturethatresultsfromthisearlyfeudalarrangementisextremelyimportant,bothtothestoryandto ourunderstandingofSaxoncivilization.Strongkingsdemandbraveryandloyaltyfromtheirwarriors,whomtheyrepay with treasures won in war. Meadhalls such as Heorot in Beowulf were places where warriors would gather in the presenceoftheirlordtodrink,boast,tellstories,andreceivegifts.Althoughthesemeadhallsofferedsanctuary,theearly Middle Ages were a dangerous time, and the paranoid sense of foreboding and doom that runs throughout Beowulf evidencestheconstantfearofinvasionthatplaguedScandinaviansociety. Only a single manuscript of Beowulf survived the AngloSaxon era. For many centuries, the manuscript was all but forgotten, and, in the 1700s, it was nearly destroyed in a fire. It was not until the nineteenth century that widespread interestinthedocumentemergedamongscholarsandtranslatorsofOldEnglish.ForthefirsthundredyearsofBeowulfs prominence, interest in the poem was primarily historicalthe text was viewed as a source of information about the AngloSaxonera.Itwasnotuntil1936,whentheOxfordscholarJ.R.R.Tolkien(wholaterwroteTheHobbitandTheLordof theRings,worksheavilyinfluencedbyBeowulf)publishedagroundbreakingpaperentitledBeowulf:TheMonstersand theCriticsthatthemanuscriptgainedrecognitionasaseriousworkofart. Beowulf is now widely taught and is often presented as the first important work of English literature, creating the impression that Beowulf is in some way the source of the English canon. But because it was not widely read until the 1800s and not widely regarded as an important artwork until the 1900s, Beowulf has had little direct impact on the developmentofEnglishpoetry.Infact,Chaucer,Shakespeare,Marlowe,Pope,Shelley,Keats,andmostotherimportant Englishwritersbeforethe1930shadlittleornoknowledgeoftheepic.Itwasnotuntilthemidtolatetwentiethcentury that Beowulf began to influence writers, and, since then, it has had a marked impact on the work of many important novelistsandpoets,includingW.H.Auden,GeoffreyHill,TedHughes,andSeamusHeaney,the1995recipientoftheNobel Prizeinliterature,whotranslatedtheepic

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OldEnglishPoetry
BeowulfisoftenreferredtoasthefirstimportantworkofliteratureinEnglish,eventhoughitwaswritteninOldEnglish, an ancient form of the language that slowly evolved into the English now spoken. Compared to modern English, Old English is heavily Germanic, with little influence from Latin or French. As English history developed, after the French NormansconqueredtheAngloSaxonsin1066,OldEnglishwasgraduallybroadenedbyofferingsfromthoselanguages. Thus modern English is derived from a number of sources. As a result, its vocabulary is rich with synonyms. The word kingly, for instance, descends from the AngloSaxon word cyning, meaning king, while the synonym royal comes fromaFrenchwordandthesynonymregalfromaLatinword. Fortunately,moststudentsencounteringBeowulfreaditinaformtranslatedintomodernEnglish.Still,afamiliaritywith the rudiments of AngloSaxon poetry enables a deeper understanding of the Beowulf text. Old English poetry is highly formal,butitsformisquiteunlikeanythinginmodernEnglish.EachlineofOldEnglishpoetryisdividedintotwohalves, separatedbyacaesura,orpause,andisoftenrepresentedbyagaponthepage,asthefollowingexampledemonstrates: Settonhimtoheafdonhilderandas....

BecauseAngloSaxonpoetryexistedinoraltraditionlongbeforeitwaswrittendown,theverseformcontainscomplicated rulesforalliterationdesignedtohelpscops,orpoets,rememberthemanythousandsoflinestheywererequiredtoknow byheart.EachofthetwohalvesofanAngloSaxonlinecontainstwostressedsyllables,andanalliterativepatternmustbe carriedoveracrossthecaesura.Anyofthestressedsyllablesmayalliterateexceptthelastsyllable;sothefirstandsecond syllables mayalliterate withthe third together, or the first andthird may alliterate alone, orthe second and third may alliteratealone.Forinstance: Ladeneletton.Leohteastancom. Lade,letton,leoht,andeastanarethefourstressedwords. Inadditiontotheserules,OldEnglishpoetryoftenfeaturesadistinctivesetofrhetoricaldevices.Themostcommonof theseisthekenning,usedthroughoutBeowulf.Akenningisashortmetaphoricaldescriptionofathingusedinplaceof thethingsname;thusashipmightbecalledasearider,orakingaringgiver.Sometranslationsemploykennings almost as frequently as they appear in the original. Others moderate the use of kennings in deference to a modern sensibility. But the Old English version of the epic is full of them, and they are perhaps the most important rhetorical devicepresentinOldEnglishpoetry.

PlotOverview
KINGHROTHGAROFDENMARK,adescendantofthegreatkingShieldSheafson,enjoysaprosperousandsuccessfulreign.He buildsagreatmeadhall,calledHeorot,wherehiswarriorscangathertodrink,receivegiftsfromtheirlord,andlistento storiessungbythescops,orbards.ButthejubilantnoisefromHeorotangersGrendel,ahorribledemonwholivesinthe swamplandsofHrothgarskingdom.GrendelterrorizestheDaneseverynight,killingthemanddefeatingtheireffortsto fightback.TheDanessuffermanyyearsoffear,danger,anddeathatthehandsofGrendel.Eventually,however,ayoung GeatishwarriornamedBeowulfhearsofHrothgarsplight.InspiredbythechallengeBeowulfsailstoDenmarkwithasmall companyofmendeterminedtodefeatGrendel. Hrothgar,whohadoncedoneagreatfavorforBeowulfsfatherEcgtheow,acceptsBeowulfsoffertofightGrendeland holdsafeastintheheroshonor.Duringthefeast,anenviousDanenamedUnferthtauntsBeowulfandaccuseshimof beingunworthyofhisreputation.Beowulfrespondswithaboastfuldescriptionofsomeofhispastaccomplishments.His confidence cheers the Danish warriors, and the feast lasts merrily into the night. At last, however, Grendel arrives. Beowulffightshimunarmed,provinghimselfstrongerthanthedemon,whoisterrified.AsGrendelstrugglestoescape, Beowulftearsthemonstersarmoff.Mortallywounded,Grendelslinksbackintotheswamptodie.Theseveredarmis hunghighinthemeadhallasatrophyofvictory. Overjoyed,HrothgarshowersBeowulfwithgiftsandtreasureatafeastinhishonour.SongsaresunginpraiseofBeowulf, andthecelebrationlastslateintothenight.Butanotherthreatisapproaching.Grendelsmother,aswamphagwholives inadesolatelake,comestoHeorotseekingrevengeforhersonsdeath.ShemurdersAeschere,oneofHrothgarsmost trusted advisers, before slinking away. To avenge Aescheres death, the company travels to the murky swamp, where BeowulfdivesintothewaterandfightsGrendelsmotherinherunderwaterlair.Hekillsherwithaswordforgedfora giant,then,findingGrendelscorpse,decapitatesitandbringstheheadasaprizetoHrothgar.TheDanishcountrysideis nowpurgedofitstreacherousmonsters.

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The Danes are again overjoyed, and Beowulfs fame spreads across the kingdom. Beowulf departs after a sorrowful goodbyetoHrothgar,whohastreatedhimlikeason.HereturnstoGeatland,whereheandhismenarereunitedwith theirkingandqueen,HygelacandHygd,towhomBeowulfrecountshisadventuresinDenmark.Beowulfthenhandsover mostofhistreasuretoHygelac,who,inturn,rewardshim. Intime,HygelaciskilledinawaragainsttheShylfings,and,afterHygelacssondies,Beowulfascendstothethroneofthe Geats. He rules wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity to Geatland. When Beowulf is an old man, however, a thief disturbsabarrow,ormound,whereagreatdragonliesguardingahordeoftreasure.Enraged,thedragonemergesfrom thebarrowandbeginsunleashingfierydestructionupontheGeats.Sensinghisowndeathapproaching,Beowulfgoesto fightthedragon.WiththeaidofWiglaf,hesucceedsinkillingthebeast,butataheavycost.ThedragonbitesBeowulfin theneckanditsfieryvenomkillshimmomentsaftertheirencounter.TheGeatsfearthattheirenemieswillattackthem nowthatBeowulfisdead.AccordingtoBeowulfswishes,theyburntheirdepartedkingsbodyonahugefuneralpyreand thenburyhimwithamassivetreasureinabarrowoverlookingthesea.

Characters
TheGeats
TheGeatswereBeowulf'sclanaseafaringtriberesidinginthesouthofSweden.Asthepoemsuggests,theGeatsappear to have beenconquered and disappeared into history.The seafaringGeats appearto be the invading `Danes' of whom Gregory of Tours writes concerning an attack by Chlochilaicus (Hygelac) against the Franks in 520. Later they were connectedtotheGautarpeoplewhowereeventuallysubjugatedbytheSwedesinterritoryinlandofSweden. Giventhishistory,F.R.KlaeberspeculatesthatBeowulfhimselfwasborninabouttheyear495.HedefeatsGrendeland hismothertosaveHrogar'skingdomin515.FollowingHygelac'sraidin520,heeventuallybecomeskingoftheGeats when Heardred was killed in 533. Fifty years after that, the poem says that Beowulf is killed by the dragon, but few scholarsarewillingtocommittoanyspecificdate. TheGeatsarereferredtoastheGeatas,GuGeatas(War),theSGeatas(Sea),andtheWederGeatas(Weather).

TheDanes
TheDaneswereresidentsofDenmark.Hrogar'sHeorotislikelytohavebeenlocatedontheislandofSjaellandnearthe presentdaycityofRoskilde. The Scylding line is known through Scandinavian and AngloSaxon sources; the AngloSaxon king Cnut (10161042, a periodcoincidentwiththecompositionoftheBeowulfmanuscript)isknowntohavedescendedfromthisline.Thepoem Widsi, with its catalogue of Germanic kings, list Hrogar and Hroulf as corulers of the Danes at Heorot, and of the marriagearrangementwithIngeldoftheHeaoBards. TheDanesarereferredtoastheDena,BeorhtDena(Bright),GarDena(Spear),HringDena(Ring,Corselet),EastDena, NorDena (North), SuDena (South), WestDena, Scyldings (Sons of Scyld), ArScyldingas (Honour), HereScyldingas (Army),SigeScyldingas(Victory),eodScyldingas(People),andIngwines(Ing'sFriends).

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TheSwedes
TheSwedeslivedinSwedennorthoftheVanerandVolterlakes,northoftheGeats.ArchaeologyinSwedenrevealsthe gravemoundsofOngeneowwhowasburiedin510515,andhisgrandsonEadgils,buriedin575.Thesedatescorrespond with the events described in Beowulf. KnownastheSweon(Swedes),theScylfingas(SonsofScylf),GuScylfingas(War),andHeaoScylfingas(War

TheFightatFinnsburhThefragmentoftheFinnsburhpoemandtheFinnsburhreferenceinBeowulfsomewhatoverlap. ThesongsungduringthecelebrationatHeorotfollowstheeventsdescribedinthepoem.Thisoverlapinnarrativesisone reasonwhythesetwoworksarestudiedtogether. The original manuscript of the Fight at Finnsburh is now lost, but it is known to have existed on a single leaf in the LambethPalaceLibrary,page489.ThetextwaspublishedinatranscriptionmadebyGeorgeHikesin1705. The Fight at Finnsburh is an example of a typical Germanic `heroic lay' describing warriors' deeds in battle and the speeches of significant warriors during the battle. The poem resembles others of the same genre such as The Battle of Maldon,andisquitedifferentfromtheepicformofBeowulf.

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BeowulfistheonlypoemthatassociatesthepartiesinvolvedasDanesandFrisians.

Grendel was a monster, one of a giant race which survived the great flood, slain by Beowulf. It is told that his origins stretchbacktoCain,whokilledAbel.HeisofparticularcauseoftroubletoHrothgarbecauseofhisdisregardforlawand custom:herefusestonegotiateapeacesettlementortoaccepttributesofgold. Thereisreferenceto"Grendel'sMere","Grendel'sPit"and"Grendel'sPeck"intheAngloSaxonChronicle.Thereferences seem to collaborate the underground or water lair of the Beowulf epic, but it is unclear what the true origins of these nameswere. Grendel'smotherissupposedlyasmallercreaturethanherson.Sheisavengefulcreaturewhoillustratestheconstant cycleofwarinthepoem,evenwhentheenemyappearstobedefeated. Aspartofamythicalgiantrace,bothGrendelandhismotherappearimpervioustonormalswords,hencethedifficulty theDanesmusthavehadintryingtodealwiththem.Beowulfeventuallyfindsaswordforgedbythegiantsthemselvesin ordertodefeatthem,buttheirbloodrunshotenoughtomelteventhatblade.

WhowroteBeowulf?
Theauthordidnotsignanddatethemanuscript,andnorecordswerekeptofwhenthepoemwaswritten.Giventhelack ofinformationpointingtotheoriginsofthepoem,scholarsmustdeducethetext'shistorybytheartifactthatexists.But why study the authorship of the poem? Colin Chase summarises the reasons for this quest in the prologue of the collectionTheDatingofBeowulf: ThedateofBeowulf,debatedforalmostacentury,isasmallquestionwithlargeconsequences.Doesthepoemprovide us with an accurate if idealized view of early Germanic Culture? Or is it rather a creature of nostalgia and imagination, bornofthedesireofalateragetocreateforitselfagloriouspast?Ifwecannotdecidewhen,betweenthefifthandthe eleventh centuries, the poem was composed, we cannot distinguish what elements in Beowulf belong properly to the history of material culture,to the historyof mythand legend, topolitical history,or tothe development of theEnglish literaryimagination. The quickest and easiest assumption about the origins of the poem is that it was an oral poem that was eventually transcribedandhassincebeenpasseddownintheformofthemanuscript.Scholarshavepresumedtostudythepoemas ifitwereClassical,andfindmuchdifficultyinthenoncontinuousnarrativeandtheunfamilliarform.AllenFrantzen,in `WritingtheUnreadableBeowulf',isuncomfortablewiththewayatraditionmaybeimposedby`canonical'editionssuch astheNortonAnthology;heisalsocriticalofthequesttofindasingleauthorofthe`pure'poem.Instead,heislookingfor thegapsinthetextthatindicatetohimthatithadbeenconstantlyrewrittentosuitthecultureofthattime.Ineffect, theremayhavebeensomanyauthorsspannedthesixcenturiesthattheauthorshipremainsinquestion;therewritingof Beowulfcontinuesinthepostmodernperiod.SeamusHeaney'spoetictranslationisthelatest. Paull F. Baum finds a "literary vacuum without historical perspective" when the authorship and purpose of the poem remains in question. In The Beowulf Poet he suggests that a single author had combined two folk stories with some historicaleventsasabackdropandsomeChristiandoctrinetocreateanewformofheroicepic,orasTolkiensuggests,an "heroicelegaic" poem. Baum even goes so far as to hypothesize an eighthcentury female author of the poem as explanation for their pronounced roles, and for the lack of gory fighting (compared with the Finnsburh Fragment). The brief historical digressions and Christian colouring suggest an audience familiar with those ideas and events in the late eighthcentury.Withthedifficultlanguageandsometimesobscurereferences,hisconclusionisthatthepoemmayhave beenacollectionoffolkloreandhistory,butintendedforasmallaudience. It seems clear that the origin of Beowulf stems from a mix of Scandinavian, Germanic, and Anglian influences. What is consistentlyuncleariswhichoftheseaudiencesthepoemwasintendedfor.AsastoryofDanes,Geats,andSwedes,one

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mightsupposethatthepoemwasofScandinavianorigin,finallywrittendowninEngland,butthereisnoreferencetothe charactersinScandinavianlore. PerhapslookingcloselyattheartifactthatisBeowulfitself,themanuscript,canshedlightontheauthorshipofthepoem. KevinS.Kiernansuggestsaneleventhcenturyorigin,andthatthesingleextantmanuscriptis,infact,thefirstcomposition ofthepoeminhisbookBeowulfandtheBeowulfManuscriptandsummarizedinhisessayTheEleventhCenturyOriginof Beowulf and the Beowulf Manuscript. Noting the efforts taken by the second scribe of the MS in proofreading and correctingthetextofBeowulfandnottherestoftheNowellCodex,Kiernanbeginstofigurethatthecompositionofthe textisnotamerecopyofsomeearliermanuscript,buttheoriginal.Anabruptshiftfromonescribetothenextonfolio 174vsuggeststhattwodistinctpoemsmayhavebeencombinedatthelastminute. Whatismoststrikingaboutthemanuscriptisthedigressionfromthe20linegridoftherestofthecodexstartingfrom folio163untiltheendofthepoem.Kiernanspeculatesthatthesecondscribehadcompletedhislasttwogatheringsof pagesbeforethefirstscribe,thusrequiringhimtofitmoreperfoliothanhehadstartedwith.Kiernanconcludesthatthis isaresultoftwoscribestryingtointegratetwopreviouslyunrelatedtextstogether.LeonardBoyle'sarticleBeowulfand theNowellCodex,arguesthatbothscribeswereworkinginconcertwhiletheBeowulfsectionoftheNowellCodexwas some36linesoftextunsynchronizedwiththemanuscripttheywerecopying;thusthediscrepanciesattempttofixthe foliationintermsofthewholecodex. Boylealsonotesthealterationoffittnumberscouldeitherbeamistakeonthefirstscribe'spart,orthatafitthadbeen deliberatelyomittedwhilecopying.WithfittXXIIIImissingonthemanuscript,alaterscribehadchosentocorrectthisby alteringfittsXXIIIIthroughXXVIIII.Boylealsosuggeststhatthefittsmayhaverecievedtheirnumberingforthefirsttime on this manuscript. Kiernan takes this suggestion as further proof of the authorship being contemporary with the manuscript.

TheSuttonHooShipBurial
TheshipatSuttonHoounderexcavation:

In 1939, a seventhcentury ship burial was excavated at Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge in Suffolk. Its significance to the studyofBeowulfistheinterestingmixofChristianandpaganpracticesinvolvedintheburialthatmirrorsasimilarmixin beliefsinthepoem.Effectively,someoftheartifactsbreathelifeintotheeventsofBeowulfwhilethepoemhelpsexplain thecontentsofSuttonHoo.Together,archaeologyandliteraturepaintadetailedpictureofAngloSaxonculture.

PoliticsandWarfare
Warfare,orthethreatofwarfare,isaregularpartofAngloSaxonlife.Fromthenumberoffeudsandstoriesofclanfealty throughoutBeowulf,thisisclear.OtherAngloSaxontexts,suchasTheBattleofMaldon,CynewulfandCyneheard,and The Battle at Finnsburh are essentially of the Germanic `heroic lay' tradition commemorating the heroic efforts of individualwarriors,theirstrategiesandfates. twsgodcyning! WhatmakesBeowulfsignificantlydifferentfromtheseotherworksisnottheportrayalofwarfare,buttheexaltationof peaceandpeacekeepingthroughtheruleofpowerfulkings.

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Beowulfopensbydemonstratingthepowerofthosekings.ScyldScefing,whowassostrongtohavetakenmanymead benchesandwasofferedmuchtributarygoldkeptthepeacebecausenoothertribedaredfacehim.Sheermilitarymight isamajorpeacekeeperinsuchtroubledtimes. Ofthemostprevalentvirtuesofkingshipistheresponsibledistributionofweaponsandtreasure.Thetreasuresbestowed uponBeowulfbyHrogarfollowingthedefeatofGrendelanexampleoftheproperdistributionoftreasuretoawarrior whohasprovenhimselfworthytoaking(*XV,*XXVI). Hrogar'sexemplarystoryofHeremod,theDanishkingwhofailedtorewardhisretainerswithgoldandsoonlosttheir loyalty,servesasanexampletoBeowulfonhownottobecomeabadking. Theloyaltyoffollowersandtheconnexionsbetweenthatloyalty,successinbattleandingoldareintimate.WhileBeowulf expoundsthisrelationship,itgivesreasonfortheveritabletreasurehordefoundatSuttonHoo. Sinceaemg, goldongrundegumcynnesgehwone oferhigan,hydeseewylle. JamesCampbellobservesthesecylcesofpowerinBeowulf.Heseeshowtreasuremustfeedthetribe's capacity for war, and how war requires the supply and flow of treasure victory breeds thirst for revenge,andfeudbringsuponfeud.Lookingattheintricatebeautyofthetreasuresinvolved,hehasfew doubtsthatthoseancientwarriorswouldliveanddieforsuchtreasures. ThesourceofthetechnologyinvolvedincreatingthetreasuresoftheAngloSaxonsclearlyevidenced in the famousbelt buckle atSutton Hoo is still unclear.Worn openly,they serve asa symbol of one warrior'sworthinesstohistribe. Eoforlicscionon oferhleorbergangehrodengolde, fahondfyrheardferhweardeheold gumodgrimmon.

TheboarwasasymbolofprotectionferocityinbattlefortheangloSaxons.Beowulf wearsashininghelmetthatisintheaudiences'imaginationnotunliketheonefoundatBentyGrange,Derbys. With textual descriptions matching arms, armour, and other artifacts so well, scholars who argue that the poem's composition is in the seventh century, about the time of the Sutton Hoo burial, have a strong case, considering this evidence. Oftseldanhwrfterleodhryre lytlehwilebongarbuge. Swords(particularlytheirhilts)areasintricatelydecoratedbytheAngloSaxonsastheirjewellery.As toolsofwar,theyarethegiftsthatmostsymbolizetheworthinessofawarriortoaclan. The swords themselves have their own stories to tell. Some are given names such as `Hrunting', Unfer'ssword,or`Ngling',Beowulf'ssword.Theyareoftenheirloomspasseddownfromfatherto son,fromkingtoretainer,orcapturedinbattle.Therunesordecorationsonthehiltsmayrepresenta

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story,suchastheswordofEotensthatBeowulfretrievesfromGrendel'slairandappearstotellthestoryofhisorigins (*XXIIII). Whileswordsmaybeasymbolofworthinessandpower,theycanalsoincitefuryforrevenge.Beowulf'spredictionof disasterforthemarriagebetweenFreawaruandIngeldisbasedontheimportanceofswordstothehonourofindividual warriorsandtheirclan(*XXXVIIIXXXX). `Healdunu,hruse,nuhlenemoston,eorlahte!' The poem begins with the gilded Heorot a palace only possible through many years of peace of tribesman collecting treasures and ends with Beowulf's death in front of the dragon's barrow where a long dead tribe had buried their treasure.Thepoemdescribesaculturesodeeplyconnectedtoitsmaterialgoodsthattheyburyitalongwiththeirdead. There is an understanding that with thegold goes a balance ofpower,and when a powerful (readrich) leader dies, to redistributehisgoldirresponsiblywouldbeanimbalanceofpower.TheGeats'reburialofthegoldinBeowulf'sfuneral moundindicatesakindofdespair:thegoldcandothemnogoodwithoutakingtodistributeit.

ChristianColouringinBeowulf
F.A.BlackburnsummarisesthepossiblesourcesfortheChristianelementsofthepoeminhisessayTheCristianColouring intheBeowulf: 1. 2. 3. ThepoemwascomposedbyaChristian,whohadheardthestoriesandusedthemasthematerialofthework. ThepoemwascomposedbyaChristian,whousedoldlaysashismaterial. Thepoemwascomposedbyaheathen,eitherfromoldstoriesorfromoldlays.Atalaterdateitwasrevisedbya Christian,towhomweowetheChristianallusionsfoundinit.

Unfortunately,withoutrecordsofthoseoldstoriesorlaysuponBeowulfmayhavebeenbased,wecannotbesurewhich oneoftheseistrue. BlackburnalsoclassifiestheseChristianelements: 1. 2. 3. 4. Passagescontainingbiblicalhistoryorallusionstosomescripturalnarrative.TheseincludereferencestoCain, Abel,andtheflood. Passagescontainingexpressionsindisapprovalofheathenideasorheathenworship.Thereisoneoftheseinthe introductiontotheDanesnearthebeginningofthepoem. PassagescontainingreferencestodoctrinesdistinctivelyChristian:referencestoheaven,hell,andthedayof judgement.Hefindstencases. IncidentalallusionstotheChristianGod.Hefindssome53cases.

Lookingcloselyattheseelements,Blackburnspeculatesonhoweasilyonecanrefigurethemtobepaganbythe replacementofawordoromissionofaphrase,thusseeinghowscribesmayhavedonesointhepast.Reversingthe Christianizingprocess,heconcludesthatatsomepoint,Beowulfmayhavebeenanentirelypagantext. OtherschoosetoexaminehowwelltheChristianelementsfittogetherandformsuchanintegralpartofthepoem.Unlike otherpoems,suchasTheWandererorTheSeafarer,inwhichitappearstomanyeditorsthattheChristianexhortations appear[toearlycritics]tohavebeenappendedtotheotherwisepaganpoems,BeowulfhasChristianelements throughoutthenarrative. MariePadgettHamilton,inheressayTheReligiousPrinciple,arguesthatthepoemisconsistentwithAugustine'smodelof God'sgrace:thatasocietyoftheRighteouslivetogetherwithoneoftheReprobateonearth.Thisprincipleandtheways inwhichtheyarepresentedinthepoem,Hamiltonargues,wouldhavebeenfamilliartotheEnglishatthattime.Beowulf's concern over his honour and wyrd his fate are concerns about Providence or Divine will. In wyrd, we can see the beginningsofachangeinwhatwasapaganconceptanditsacceptanceofanewChristianizedmeaning.Ontheotherside, GrendelisequatedtotheraceofCain,andthedragontobeanincarnationofthedevil.Again,thesecharacterizationsof themonstrousandevilwerewellknowntotheEnglish. WhatisclearaboutthereligiouscolouringofBeowulfisthatwhileitisclearlyChristian,thereislittleChristiandoctrine. ReferencesareonlytotheOldTestamentnarrativesandconceptseasilyrefiguredfromtheirpaganequivalents.Itseems

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thatBeowulftellsofaperiodinthemidstofreligiouschangebeingneitherentirelypagan,norfullyChristian[ortobean attempttointegrateGermanichistoryintoanOldTestamenttimeframe].Wecanletthedecisiontoyou,afterreading andanalyzingthisEpic.

MiddleEnglishLiterature

PicturetakenfromthesiteLuminarium

TheMiddleAgesislikenootherperiodinTheNortonAnthologyofEnglishLiteratureintermsofthetimespanitcovers. Caedmon'sHymn,theearliestEnglishpoemtosurviveasatext(NAEL8,1.2527),belongstothelatterpartoftheseventh century. The morality play, Everyman, is dated "after 1485" and probably belongs to the earlysixteenth century. In addition,fortheMiddleAges,thereisnoonecentralmovementoreventsuchastheEnglishReformation,theCivilWar, ortheRestorationaroundwhichtoorganizeahistoricalapproachtotheperiod. Whendid"EnglishLiterature"begin?Anyanswertothatquestionmustbeproblematic,fortheveryconceptofEnglish literature is a construction of literary history, a concept that changed over time. There are no "English" characters in Beowulf, and English scholars and authors had no knowledge of the poem before it was discovered and edited in the nineteenthcentury.Althoughwritteninthelanguagecalled"AngloSaxon,"thepoemwasclaimedbyDanishandGerman scholarsastheirearliestnationalepicbeforeitcametobethoughtofasan"OldEnglish"poem.Oneoftheresultsofthe NormanConquestwasthatthestructureandvocabularyoftheEnglishlanguagechangedtosuchanextentthatChaucer, evenifhehadcomeacrossamanuscriptofOldEnglishpoetry,wouldhaveexperiencedfarmoredifficultyconstruingthe languagethanwithmedievalLatin,French,orItalian.IfaKingArthurhadactuallylived,hewouldhavespokenaCeltic languagepossiblystillintelligibletonativespeakersofMiddleWelshbutnottoMiddleEnglishspeakers. TheliterarycultureoftheMiddleAgeswasfarmoreinternationalthannationalandwasdividedmorebylinesofclassand audience than by language. Latin was the language of the Church and of learning. After the eleventh century, French becamethedominantlanguageofsecularEuropeanliteraryculture.Edward,thePrinceofWales,whotookthekingof France prisoner at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, had culturally more in common with his royal captive than with the commonpeopleofEngland.AndthelegendaryKingArthurwasaninternationalfigure.Storiesabouthimandhisknights originatedinCelticpoemsandtalesandwereadaptedandgreatlyexpandedinLatinchroniclesandFrenchromanceseven beforeArthurbecameanEnglishhero. ChaucerwascertainlyfamiliarwithpoetrythathaditsrootsintheOldEnglishperiod.HereadpopularromancesinMiddle English,mostofwhichderivefrommoresophisticatedFrenchandItaliansources.Butwhenhebeganwritinginthe1360s and1370s,heturneddirectlytoFrenchandItalianmodelsaswellastoclassicalpoets(especiallyOvid).Englishpoetsin the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries looked upon Chaucer and his contemporary John Gower as founders of English literature,asthosewhomadeEnglishalanguagefitforcultivatedreaders.IntheRenaissance,Chaucerwasreferredtoas the"EnglishHomer."Spensercalledhimthe"wellofEnglishundefiled." Nevertheless,ChaucerandhiscontemporariesGower,WilliamLangland,andtheGawainpoetallwritinginthelatter thirdofthefourteenthcenturyareheirstoclassicalandmedievalculturesthathadbeenevolvingformanycenturies.

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Culturesisputinthepluraldeliberately,forthereisatendency,evenonthepartofmedievalists,tothinkoftheMiddle AgesasasinglecultureepitomizedbytheGreatGothiccathedralsinwhicharchitecture,art,music,andliturgyseemto joininmagnificentexpressionsofaunifiedfaithanapproachonerecentscholarhasreferredtoas"cathedralism."Such aviewoverlooksthediversityofmedievalculturesandthesocial,political,religious,economic,andtechnologicalchanges thattookplaceoverthisvastlylongperiod. Thetextsincludedherefrom"TheMiddleAges"attempttoconveythatdiversity.Theydatefromthesixthtothelate fifteenthcentury.EightwereoriginallyinOldFrench,sixinLatin,fiveinEnglish,twoinOldSaxon,twoinOldIcelandic,and oneeachinCatalan,Hebrew,Greek,andArabic. "TheLinguisticandLiteraryContextsofBeowulf"demonstratesthekinshipoftheAngloSaxonpoemwiththeversification and literature of other early branches of the Germanic language group. An AngloSaxon poet who was writing an epic basedonthebookofGenesiswasabletoinsertintohisworktheepisodesofthefalloftheangelsandthefallofmanthat headaptedwithrelativelyminorchangesfromanOldSaxonpoemthoughttohavebeenlostuntilafragmentfromitwas found late in the nineteenth century in the Vatican Library. Germanic mythology and legend preserved in Old Icelandic literature centuries later than Beowulf provide us with better insights into stories known to the poet than anything in ancientGreekandRomanepicpoetry. "EstatesandOrders"samplesideasaboutmedievalsocietyandsomeofitsmembersandinstitutions.Particularattention is given to religious orders and to the ascetic ideals that were supposed to rule the lives of men and women living in religiouscommunities(suchasChaucer'sPrioress,Monk,andFriar,whohonorthoserulesmoreinthebreachthaninthe observance)andanchorites(suchasJulianofNorwich)livingapart.TheRuleofSaintBenedict,writtenforasixthcentury religiouscommunity,canservethemodernreaderasaguidebooktotheidealsanddailypracticesofmonasticlife.The mutualinfluenceofthoseidealsandnewaristocraticidealsofchivalryisevidentintheselectionfromtheAncreneRiwle (RuleforAnchoresses,NAEL8,[1.157159])andTheBookoftheOrderofChivalry.Thoughmedievalsocialtheoryhaslittle tosayaboutwomen,womenweresometimestreatedsatiricallyasiftheyconstitutedtheirownestateandprofessionin rebellionagainstthedivinelyordainedruleofmen.Anoutstandinginstanceisthe"OldWoman"fromtheRomanceofthe Rose,whomChaucerreinventedastheWifeofBath.ThetenthcenturyEnglishBenedictinemonkAelfricgivesoneofthe earliestformulationsofthetheoryofthreeestatesclergy,nobles,andcommonersworkingharmoniouslytogether. ButthedeepseatedresentmentbetweentheupperandlowerestatesflaredupdramaticallyintheUprisingof1381and is revealed by the slogans of the rebels, which are cited here in selections from the chronicles of Henry Knighton and ThomasWalsingham,andbytheattackofthepoetJohnGowerontherebelsinhisVoxClamantis.Inthelatemedieval genre of estates satire, all three estates are portrayed as selfishly corrupting and disrupting a mythical social order believedtohaveprevailedinapasthappierage. Theselectionsunder"ArthurandGawain"tracehowFrenchwritersinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiestransformed theLegendaryHistoriesofBritain(NAEL8,1.117128)intothenarrativegenrethatwenowcall"romance."Theworksof ChrtiendeTroyesfocusontheadventuresofindividualknightsoftheRoundTableandhowthoseadventuresimpinge uponthecultofchivalry.SuchadventuresoftentaketheformofaquesttoachievehonororwhatSirThomasMalory often refers to as "worship." But in romance the adventurous quest is often entangled, for better or for worse, with personalfulfillmentofloveforaladyachievingherlove,protectingherhonor,and,inrarecasessuchasSirGawainand theGreenKnight,resistingalady'sadvances.Inthethirteenthcentury,clericsturnedthesagasofArthurandhisknights especiallySirLancelotintoimmenselylongproseromancesthatdisparagedworldlychivalryandtheloveofwomen andadvocatedspiritualchivalryandsexualpurity.Thesewerethe"Frenchbooks"thatMalory,ashiseditorandprinter William Caxton tells us, "abridged into English," and gave them the definitive form from which Arthurian literature has survivedinpoetry,prose,art,andfilmintomoderntimes. "The First Crusade," launched in 1096, was the first in a series of holy wars that profoundly affected the ideology and cultureofChristianEurope.PreachedbyPopeUrbanII,theaimofthecrusadewastounitewarringChristianfactionsin thecommongoalofliberatingtheHolyLandfromitsMoslemrulers.ThechronicleofRoberttheMonkisoneofseveral versionsofUrban'saddress.TheHebrewchronicleofEliezerbarNathangivesamovingaccountofattacksmadebysome ofthecrusadersonJewishcommunitiesintheRhinelandthebeginningsofthepersecutionofEuropeanJewsinthe laterMiddleAges.Inthebiographyofherfather,theByzantineemperorAlexiusI,theprincessAnnaComnenaprovidesus withstillanotherperspectiveoftheleadersoftheFirstCrusadewhomshemetontheirpassagethroughConstantinople enroutetotheHolyLand.ThetakingofJerusalembythecrusaderscametobecelebratedbyEuropeanwritersofhistory andepicpoetryasoneofthegreatestheroicachievementsofalltimes.TheaccountsbytheArabhistorianIbnAlAthir andbyWilliamofTyretelluswhathappenedafterthecrusadersbreachedthewallsofJerusalemfromcomplementary butverydifferentpointsofview.

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Near the beginning of Chaucer's General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales, the narrator tells his audience that he will describethe"condicioun"ofthepilgrims,their"degree"(socialrank),"whichetheywere,"andalso"whatarraythatthey wereinne";attheendhesaysthathehasnowtoldtheir"estaat"and"array"andapologizesifhehasnotarrangedthem inthe"degree...asthattheysholdestonde,"i.e.,theircorrectsocialorder(NAEL8,1.219,lines3841;235,line718; 236, lines 74547). This professed concern for putting people in their proper place is obviously of great interest to the poetandhisaudience.Itshouldalsobeamatterofinterestandamusementtomodernreaders,especiallyiftheyrealize thatthepoet'sostensibleconcernforproprietyisamaskheputson.WhatisinterestingaboutChaucer'sPrologueisnot thatitportraysanarchaicandclosedsocialorderbutthatitrevealsthatorderintheprocessofbreakingdown.Mostof Chaucer'spilgrimsarebynomeanscontenttostayintheirproperplacesbutareengagedinthepursuitofwealth,status, andrespectability.Theconflictbetweentheoldandthenew,betweentraditionandambitionisevidentnotonlyinthe GeneralProloguebutthroughoutTheCanterburyTalesintheindividualpilgrims'prologuesandtales. Everysocietydevisesterminologymeanttoexpresssocialstratificationsbutalsooftenusedtodisguisethem.Class,the principal term in both popular and academic discourse about our society, is not very useful or accurate in analyzing medieval society or the ways in which that society thought about itself. Although there may be some justification in applying notions of class, especially middleclass, to Chaucer's world, that of the late fourteenth century, one needs to keepinmindthattheMiddleAgescovertheperiodofamillenniumduringwhichsocialstructuresandsocialtheorywere constantly changing. The main purpose of the following selections is to define more precisely such terms as condition, degree, estate, and order, a word that can signify both the (theoretically) harmonious arrangement of the cosmos and societyandindividualunitsofthegeneralorder,suchasareligiousorderoranorderofchivalry. Oneofthemaindifferencesbetweentheorderofmedievalandtheorderofmodernsocietyisthe preeminent role played in the former by the Church and its many institutions. Onethird of the CanterburypilgrimseitherbelongtotheChurchthePrioress,theSecondNun(herchaplain),the Nun'sPriest(oneofthreepriestswhoaresaidtoaccompanyher),theMonk,theFriar,theClerk, and the Parson or are laymen who make a corrupt living out of it the Summoner and the Pardoner.TheChurchwasinitselfacomplexsocialstructureandinevitablyconstitutedoneofthe divisions made in medieval social theory, which was written in Latin by churchmen. An obvious divisionisthebipartiteonebetweentheclergyandthelaitythosebelongingtotheChurchand those outside it. Another one of several tripartite divisions which stems from the Roman Church'sdoctrineofcelibacyoftheclergy,isbasedonsexualactivity:virgins,widowersandwidows,andmarriedpeople. ThisisaclassificationthattheWifeofBathinherPrologueprofessestoacceptwhiledefendingherrighttoremarryas oftenasshepleases(NAEL8,1.25660). Religious orders were so called because they were "ordered" or "regulated" by a regula, i.e., a "rule" (the latter noun comesintoEnglishfromOldFrenchreuleviaLatinregula),andadivisionwasrecognizedbetweenregularclergy,those subjecttotheruleofamonasticorder,wholivedinareligiouscommunity,andsecularclergy,thosesubjecttothebishop ofadiocese,wholivedintheworld.Bothregularsandsecularswereultimatelysubjecttothepope.Theoldestreligious ruleinthissenseistheRuleofSaintBenedictdevisedinthesixthcenturybythefounderoftheBenedictineorder,who hasbeencalledthe"FatherofWesternMonasticism." Over the course of the Middle Ages, a schema of three mutually dependent estates developed, one of the earliest articulations of which is that of the English Benedictine monkAelfric.Accordingtothistheory,Christiansocietywascomprisedofthosewhopray (the clergy), those who fight (the nobility), and those who work (the labourers). The clergyseetoitthatthesoulsofallmaybesaved;thelabourersseetoitthatthebodies ofallmaybefedandclothed;thenobilityseetoitthattheothertwoestatesmaycarry outtheirfunctionsinpeaceandwithjustice. In practice, such a schema does not begin to account for the varieties of religious, social, or professional experience during the Middle Ages. The Rule of Saint Benedict sets forth the basic principlesandpracticesofmonksandnunsandhelpsonetograsptheviolationsoftherulebythe likes of Chaucer's fourteenthcentury Monk. But the religious and social world kept changing. The Benedictineorderitselfchangedasitgrewmorepowerfulandpoliticallyinfluential.Inthetwelfth centurynewordersappearedtheCisterciansandtheordersoffriarsfoundedbySt.Dominicand St.Francis.Also,inemulationoftheearlyChristiandesertfathers,bothmenandwomenoftenchose toliveashermitsorreclusesinsteadofjoiningreligiouscommunities.TheAncreneRiwle(Rulefor Anchoresses)(NAEL8,1.15759),writtenforthreeEnglishsisters,containselementsofpassionate devotionalexperienceabsentfromtheBenedictinerule.

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In the twelfthandthirteenth centuries, the nobility developed a taste for romances of chivalry many of them about King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. The Round Table itself came to be thought of as an "order," in some respectslikeareligiousorder.RamnLull'sTheBookoftheOrderofChivalry,oneofthemostpopularworksoftheMiddle Ages,laysoutthatconceptintheformofabookofinstructionpresentedlikearulebyanolderknighttoayoungsquire whoisabouttobedubbedintotheorderofknighthood. Nuns belonged to religious orders following a rule. But St. Benedict's Rule, Aelfric, Ramn Lull, and most discussions of estates and orders, except those, like Ancrene Riwle, addressed to women, are silent about woman's estate. Women worked beside their husbands in the fields, in the textile industry, and in shops; but there was a body of antifeminist literaturethatdealtwithwomenasthoughtheybelongedtoaseparateorderwhosesoleenterprisewassex,love,and marriage.IntheRomanceoftheRose,JeandeMeun,thesecondofitstwoauthors,createdasatiriccharacternamedLa vieille,theOldWoman,whoholdsalongdiscourseonhowtotakeadvantageofmenandsucceedinthatenterprise(in which,sheconfesses,shehasfailed).HerdiscourseisanimportantsourceforChaucer'sWifeofBath'sPrologue. Although the three estates were supposed to work together for the common good, their actual historyisoneofconstantfrictionandconflict.ThemurderofThomasBecketbyfourofHenryII's knights,forwhichthekingwasforcedtodopenance,isanexampleofanongoingdisputebetween churchandstateaboutjurisdictionovertheclergy.Mutualhatredofthelowerandhigherestatesis seen in the bloody English Uprising of 1381, which is represented here by a series of rebel manifestos preserved in chronicles and an allegorical diatribe against the rebels in the Vox ClamantisofthepoetJohnGower.Thatwork,aswellasGower'sMirourdel'Omme,illustratesthe latemedievalgenre of estatessatire to which the General Prologue to the CanterburyTales is, in some respects, related. In estates satires the idealism projected by St. Benedict, the author of AncreneRiwle,andRamnLullhasgivenwaytoaprofoundpessimismandevendespairaboutthe social order. The different estates now include in addition to bishops, monks, barons, knights, and peasants merchants, doctors, lawyers, and other more specialized professions whose activitiesprovideanunrelieved,ifoccasionallycolorful,catalogueofgreed,fraud,andhypocrisy.

GeoffreyChaucer

Chaucer(thenameisFrenchandseemstohavemeantoriginally'shoemaker')cameintotheworldprobablyin1338,the firstimportantauthorwhowasbornandlivedinLondon,whichwithhimbecomesthecenterofEnglishliterature.About hislife,asaboutthoseofmanyofourearlierwriters,thereremainsonlyveryfragmentaryinformation,whichinhiscaseis largely pieced together from scattering entries of various kinds in such documents as court account books and public records of state matters and of lawsuits. His father, a wine merchant, may have helped supply the cellars of the king (EdwardIII)andsohavebeenabletobringhissontoroyalnotice;atanyrate,whilestillinhisteensGeoffreybecamea page in the service of one of the king's daughtersinlaw. In this position his duty would be partly to perform various humbleworkinthehousehold,partlyalsotohelpamusetheleisureoftheinmates,anditiseasytosupposethathesoon wonfavorasafluentstoryteller.Heearlybecameacquaintedwiththeseamyaswellasthebrilliantsideofcourtlylife;

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forin1359hewasinthecampaigninFranceandwastakenprisoner.Thathewasalreadyvaluedappearsfromtheking's subscriptionoftheequivalentofathousanddollarsofpresentdaymoneytowardhisransom;andafterhisreleasehewas transferredtotheking'sownservice,whereabout1368hewaspromotedtotherankofesquire.Hewasprobablyalready married to one of the queen's ladiesinwaiting. Chaucer was now thirty years of age, and his practical sagacity and knowledgeofmenhadbeenrecognized;forfromthistimeonheheldimportantpublicpositions.Hewasoftensenttothe Continentto France, Flanders, and Italyon diplomatic missions; and for eleven years he was in charge of the London customs,wheretheuncongenialdrudgeryoccupiedalmostallhistimeuntilthroughtheintercessionofthequeenhewas allowedtoperformitbydeputy.In1386hewasamemberofParliament,knightoftheshireforKent;butinthatyearhis fortuneturnedhelostallhisofficesattheoverthrowofthefactionofhispatron,DukeJohnofGaunt(uncleoftheyoung king, Richard II, who had succeeded his grandfather, Edward III, some years before). Chaucer's party and himself were soon restored to power, but although during the remaining dozen years of his life he received from the Court various temporary appointments and rewards, he appears often to have been poor and in need. When Duke Henry of Bolingbroke,sonofJohnofGaunt,deposedthekingandhimselfassumedthethroneasHenryIV,Chaucer'sprosperity seemedassured,buthelivedafterthisforlessthanayear,dyingsuddenlyin1400.HewasburiedinWestminsterAbbey, thefirstofthemenofletterstobelaidinthenookwhichhassincebecomethePoets'Corner. Chaucer'spoetryfallsintothreeratherclearlymarkedperiods.FirstisthatofFrenchinfluence,when,thoughwritingin English, he drew inspiration from the rich French poetry of the period, which was produced partly in France, partly in England.ChaucerexperimentedwiththenumerouslyricformswhichtheFrenchpoetshadbroughttoperfection;healso translated,inwholeorinpart,themostimportantofmedievalFrenchnarrativepoems,thethirteenthcentury'Romance oftheRose'ofGuillaumedeLorrisandJeandeMeung,averycleversatiricalallegory,inmanythousandlines,ofmedieval loveandmedievalreligion.Thispoem,withitsGallicbrilliancyandaudacity,longexercisedoverChaucer'smindthesame dominant influence which it possessed over most secular poets of the age. Chaucer's second period, that of Italian influence, dates from his first visit to Italy in 13723, where at Padua he may perhaps have met the fluent Italian poet Petrarch, and where at any rate the revelation of Italian life and literature must have aroused his intense enthusiasm. From this time, and especially after his other visit to Italy, five years later, he made much direct use of the works of Petrarch and Boccaccio and to a less degree of those of their greater predecessor, Dante, whose severe spirit was too unlike Chaucer's for his thorough appreciation. The longest and finest of Chaucer's poems of this period, 'Troilus and Criseyde'isbasedonaworkofBoccaccio;hereChaucerdetailswithcompellingpowerthesentimentandtragedyoflove, andthepsychologyoftheheroinewhohadbecomefortheMiddleAgesacentralfigureinthetaleofTroy.Chaucer'sthird period, covering his last fifteen years, is called his English period, because now at last his genius, mature and self sufficient,workedinessentialindependence.Firstintimeamonghispoemsoftheseyearsstands'TheLegendofGood Women,' a series of romantic biographies of famous ladies of classical legend and history, whom it pleases Chaucer to designateasmartyrsoflove;butmoreimportantthanthestoriesthemselvesistheProlog,wherehechatswithdelightful franknessabouthisownideasandtastes. Thegreatworkoftheperiod,however,andthecrowningachievementofChaucer'slife,is'TheCanterburyTales.'Every oneisfamiliarwiththeplanofthestory(whichmaywellhavehadsomebasisinfact):howChaucerfindshimselfoneApril evening with thirty other men and women, all gathered at the Tabard Inn in Southwark (a suburb of London and just acrosstheThamesfromthecityproper),readytostartnextmorning,asthousandsofEnglishmendideveryyear,ona pilgrimagetotheshrineofSt.ThomasaBecketatCanterbury.ThetravelersreadilyaccepttheproposalofHarryBailey, theirjovialanddomineeringhost,thathegowiththemasleaderandthattheyenliventhejourneywithastorytelling contest(twostoriesfromeachpilgrimduringeachhalfofthejourney)fortheprizeofadinnerathisinnontheirreturn. Next morning, therefore, the Knight begins the series of tales and the others follow in order. This literary forma collection of disconnected stories bound together in a fictitious frameworkgoes back almost to the beginning of literature itself; but Chaucer may well have been directly influenced by Boccaccio's famous book of prose tales, 'The Decameron' (Ten Days of StoryTelling). Between the two works, however, there is a striking contrast, which has often beenpointedout.WhiletheItalianauthorrepresentshisgentlemenandladiesasselfishlyfleeingfromthemiseryofa frightfulplagueinFlorencetoacharmingvillaandaholidayofunreflectingpleasure,thegaietyofChaucer'spilgrimsrests onabasisofseriouspurpose,howeverconventionalitmaybe. PerhapstheeasiestwaytomakeclearthesourcesofChaucer'spowerwillbebymeansofaratherformalsummary.
1.

HisPersonality.Chaucer'spersonalitystandsoutinhiswritingsplainlyandmostdelightfully.Itmustbebornein mindthat,likesomeothersofthegreatestpoets,hewasnotapoetmerely,butalsoamanofpracticalaffairs,in theeyesofhisassociatesfirstandmainlyacourtier,diplomat,andgovernmentofficial.Hiswideexperienceof men and things is manifest in the lifelikeness and mature power of his poetry, and it accounts in part for the broadtruthofallbuthisearliestwork,whichmakesitessentiallypoetrynotofanagebutforalltime.Something ofconventionalmedievalismstillclingstoChaucerinexternals,asweshallsee,butinalertness,independenceof thought,andacertaindirectnessofutterance,hespeaksforuniversalhumanity.Hispracticalexperiencehelpsto

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explainaswellwhy,unlikemostgreatpoets,hedoesnotbelongprimarilywiththeidealists.Finefeelinghedid not lack; he loved external beautysome of his most pleasing passages voice his enthusiasm for Nature; and downtotheendofhislifeheneverlostthezestforfancifulromance.Hismindandeyewerekeen,besides,for moral qualities; he penetrated directly through all the pretenses of falsehood and hypocrisy; while how thoroughlyheunderstoodandrespectedhonestworthappearsinthepictureofthePoorParsoninthePrologto 'TheCanterburyTales.'Himselfquietandselfcontained,moreover,Chaucerwasgenialandsympathetictoward allmankind.Butallthisdoesnotdeclarehimapositiveidealist,andinfact,rather,hewaswillingtoacceptthe worldashefoundithehadnoreformer'sdreamof'shatteringittobitsandremouldingitnearertotheheart's desire.'Hismoralnature,indeed,waseasygoing;hewastheappropriatepoetoftheCourtcircle,withverymuch ofthebettercourtier'spointofview.Attheday'stasksheworkedlongandfaithfully,buthealsolovedcomfort, andhehadnothingofthemartyr'sinstinct.Tohimhumanlifewasavastprocession,ofboundlessinterest,tobe observed keenly and reproduced for the reader's enjoyment in works of objective literary art. The countless tragediesoflifehenotedwithkindlypity,buthefeltnoimpulsetodashhimselfagainsttheexistingbarriersof the world in the effort to assure a better future for the coming generations. In a word, Chaucer is an artist of broadartisticvisiontowhomartisitsownexcuseforbeing.Andwheneverythingissaidfewreaderswouldhave itotherwisewithhim;forinhisarthehasaccomplishedwhatnooneelseinhisplacecouldhavedone,andhe hasleftbesidesthepictureofhimself,veryrealandhumanacrossthegulfofhalfathousandyears.Religion,we shouldadd,wasforhim,asforsomanymenoftheworld,asomewhatsecondaryandformalthing.Inhisearly works there is much conventional piety, no doubt sincere so far as it goes; and he always took a strong intellectualinterestintheproblemsofmedievaltheology;buthebecamesteadilyandquietlyindependentinhis philosophicoutlookandindeedratherskepticalofalldefinitedogmas.EveninhisartChaucer'slackofthehighest willpower produced one rather conspicuous formal weakness; of his numerous long poems he really finished scarcely one. For this, however, it is perhaps sufficient excuse that he could write only in intervals hardly snatchedfrombusinessandsleep.In'TheCanterburyTales'indeed,theplanisalmostimpossiblyambitious;the more than twenty stories actually finished, with their eighteen thousand lines, are only a fifth part of the intendednumber. Evenso,severalofthemdonotreallybelongtotheseries;composedinstanzaforms,theyareselectedfromhis earlier poems and here pressed into service, and on the average they are less excellent than those which he wrotefortheirpresentplaces(intherimedpentametercoupletthatheadoptedfromtheFrench).
2.

3.

4.

5.

His Humor. In nothing are Chaucer's personality and his poetry more pleasing than in the rich humor which pervadesthemthroughandthrough.Sometimes,asinhistreatmentofthepopularmedievalbeastepicmaterial intheNun'sPriest'sTaleoftheFoxandtheCock,thehumortakestheformofboisterousfarce;butmuchmore oftenitisofthefinerintellectualsort,thesortwhichacarelessreadermaynotcatch,butwhichtoucheswith perfectsurenessandcharminglightnessonalltheincongruitiesoflife,always,too,inkindlyspirit.Nofoibleistoo triflingforChaucer'squietobservation;whileifhedoesnotchoosetodenouncethehypocrisyofthePardoner and the worldliness of the Monk, he has made their weaknesses sources of amusement (and indeed object lessonsaswell)forallthecominggenerations. Heisoneofthegreatestofallnarrativepoets.Chaucerisanexquisitelyricpoet,butonlyafewofhislyricshave come down to us, and his fame must always rest largely on his narratives. Here, first, he possesses unfailing fluency.Itwaswithrapidity,evidentlywithease,andwithmasterfulcertainty,thathepouredouthislongseries ofvividanddelightfultales.Itistruethatinhisearly,imitative,workhesharesthemedievalfaultsofwordiness, digression, and abstract symbolism; and, like most medieval writers, he chose rather to reshapematerial from thegreatcontemporarystorethantoinventstoriesofhisown.Butthesearereallyveryminormatters.Hehas greatvariety,also,ofnarrativeforms:elaborateallegories;lovestoriesofmanykinds;romances,bothreligious and secular; tales of chivalrous exploit, like that related by the Knight; humorous extravaganzas; and jocose renderingsofcoarsepopularmaterialsomething,atleast,invirtuallyeverymedievaltype. The thorough knowledge and sure portrayal of men and women which, belong to his mature work extend through,manyvarioustypesofcharacter.ItisacommonplacetosaythatthePrologto'TheCanterburyTales' presents in its twenty portraits virtually every contemporary Englishclass except thevery lowest,made to live foreverinthefinestseriesofcharactersketchespreservedanywhereinliterature;andinhisotherworkthesame powerappearsinonlylessconspicuousdegree. Hispoetryisalsoessentiallyandthoroughlydramatic,dealingveryvividlywithlifeingenuineandvariedaction. To be sure, Chaucer possesses all the medieval love for logical reasoning, and he takes a keen delight in psychological analysis; but when he introduces these things (except for the tendency to medieval diffuseness) theyaretruetothesituationandreallyservetoenhancethesuspense.Thereismuchinterestinthequestion oftenraisedwhether,ifhehadlivedinanageliketheElizabethan,whenthedramawasthedominantliterary form,hetoowouldhavebeenadramatist.

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6.

7.

Asadescriptivepoet(ofthingsaswellaspersons)hedisplaysequalskill.Whateverhisscenesorobjects,hesees themwithperfectclearnessandbringstheminfulllifelikenessbeforethereader'seyes,sometimesevenwith theminutenessofanineteenthcenturynovelist.Andnooneunderstandsmorethoroughlytheartofconveying thegeneralimpressionwithperfectsureness,withaforegroundwhereafewcharacteristicdetailsstandoutin picturesqueandtellingclearness. Chaucerisanunerringmasterofpoeticform.Hisstanzacombinationsreproduceallthewellproportionedgrace of his French models, and to the pentameter riming couplet of his later work he gives the perfect ease and metricalvarietywhichmatchthefluentthought.Inallhispoetrythereisprobablynotasinglefaultyline.Andyet withinahundredyearsafterhisdeath,suchwastheironyofcircumstances,Englishpronunciationhadsogreatly alteredthathismeterwasheldtoberudeandbarbarous,andnotuntilthenineteenthcenturywereitsprinciples againfullyunderstood.Hislanguage,weshouldadd,ismodern,accordingtothetechnicalclassification,andis really as much like the form of our own day as like that of a century before his time; but it is still only early modernEnglish,andalittledefinitelydirectedstudyisnecessaryforanypresentdayreaderbeforeitsbeautycan beadequatelyrecognized.

ThemainprinciplesforthepronunciationofChaucer'slanguage,sofarasitdiffersfromours,arethese:Everyletter shouldbesounded,especiallythefinale(exceptwhenitistobesuppressedbeforeanothervowel).Alargeproportionof therimesarethereforefeminine.Thefollowingvowelsoundsshouldbeobserved:

Stressedalikemodernainfather. Stressedeandeelikeeinfeteoreainbreath. Stressediasinmachine. oolikeoinopen. ucommonlyasinpushorlikeooinspoon. ylikeiinmachineorpinaccordingasitisstressedornot. ai,ay,ei,andeylikeayinday. aucommonlylikeouinpound. oulikeooinspoon. ye(final)isadiphthong. g(notinngandnotinitial)beforeeoriislikej.

LowellhasnamedinasuggestivesummarythechiefqualityofeachofthegreatEnglishpoets,withChaucerstandingfirst in order: 'Actual life is represented by Chaucer; imaginative life by Spenser; ideal life by Shakespeare; interior life by Milton; conventional life by Pope.' We might add: the life of spiritual mysticism and simplicity by Wordsworth; the completelybalancedlifebyTennyson;andthelifeofmoralissuesanddramaticmomentsbyRobertBrowning.

JohnGower
The three other chief writers contemporary with Chaucer contrast strikingly both with him and with each other. Least importantisJohnGower(pronouncedeitherGoerorGower),awealthylandownerwhosetomb,withhiseffigy,maystill beseeninSt.Savior's,Southwark,thechurchofapriorytowhoserebuildinghecontributedandwherehespenthislatter days.Gowerwasaconfirmedconservative,andtimehaslefthimstrandedfarintherearoftheforcesthatmoveandlive. UnlikeChaucer's,thebulkofhisvoluminouspoemsreflectthepastandscarcelyhintofthefuture.Theearlierandlarger part of them are written in French and Latin, and in 'Vox Clamantis' (The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness) he exhauststhevocabularyofexaggeratedbitternessindenouncingthecommonpeoplefortheinsurrectioninwhichthey threatened the privileges and authority of his own class. Later on, perhaps through Chaucer's example, he turned to English,andin'ConfessioAmantis'(ALover'sConfession)producedaseriesofrenderingsoftraditionalstoriesparallelin generalnatureto'TheCanterburyTales.'Heisgenerallyasmoothandfluentversifier,buthisfluencyishisundoing;he wrapsuphismaterialintoogreatamassofverbiage.

Thevisionconcerningpierstheplowman.
TheactivemoralimpulsewhichChaucerandGowerlacked,andaconsequentdirectconfrontingoftheevilsoftheage, appear vigorously in the group of poems written during the last forty years of the century and known from the title in someofthemanuscriptsas'TheVisionofWilliamConcerningPiersthePlowman.'Fromthesixteenthcentury,atleast, untilverylatelythiswork,thevariousversionsofwhichdiffergreatly,hasbeensupposedtobethesinglepoemofasingle author,repeatedlyenlargedandrevisedbyhim;andingeniousinferencehasconstructedforthissupposedauthorabrief butpicturesquebiographyunderthenameofWilliamLangland.Recentinvestigation,however,hasmadeitseematleast

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probable that the work grew, to its final form through additions by several successive writers who have not left their namesandwhosepointsofviewwerenotaltogetheridentical. Liketheslightlyearlierpoetof'SirGawainandtheGreenKnight,'theauthorsbelongedtotheregionoftheNorthwest Midland,neartheMalvernHills,andlikehim,theywroteintheAngloSaxonverseform,alliterative,unrimed,andinthis casewithoutstanzadivisions.Theirlanguage,too,theregulardialectofthisregion,differsverygreatly,aswehavealready implied, fromthat of Chaucer, with much less infusion from theFrench; to the modern reader, except in translation, it seems uncouth and unintelligible. But thepoem, though in its final state prolix and structurally formless, exhibits great powernotonlyofmoralconvictionandemotion,butalsoofexpressionvivid,oftenhomely,butnotseldomeloquent. The'firstpassus'beginswiththesleepingauthor'svisionof'afieldfulloffolk'(theworld),boundedononesidebyacliff withthetowerofTruth,andontheotherbyadeepvalewhereinfrownsthedungeonofWrong.Societyinallitsvarious classesandoccupationsisverydramaticallypresentedinthebriefdescriptionofthe'fieldoffolk,'withincisivepassing satire of the sins and vices of each class. 'Gluttonous wasters' are there, lazy beggars, lying pilgrims, corrupt friars and pardoners,venallawyers,and,withalivelytouchofrealistichumour,cooksandtheir'knaves'crying,'Hotpies!'Butasane balanceispreservedtherearealsoworthypeople,faithfullaborers,honestmerchants,andsincerepriestsandmonks. Soon the allegory deepens. Holy Church, appearing, instructs the author about Truth and the religion which consists in loving God and giving help to the poor. A long portrayal of the evil done by Lady Meed (love of money and worldly rewards)preparesfortheappearanceofthehero,thesturdyplowmanPiers,wholateronisevenidentifiedinahazyway withChristhimself.ThroughPiersandhissearchforTruthisdevelopedthegreatcentralteachingofthepoem,theGospel ofWorkthedoctrine,namely,thatsocietyistobesavedbyhonestlabor,oringeneralbythefaithfulserviceofevery classinitsownsphere.TheSevenDeadlySinsandtheirfatalfruitsareemphasized,andinthelaterformsofthepoemthe corruptionsofwealthandtheChurchareindignantlydenounced,withearnestpleadingforthereligionofpracticalsocial lovetoallmankind. In its own age the influence of 'Piers the Plowman' was very great. Despite its intended impartiality, it was inevitably adopted as a partisan document by the poor and oppressed, and together with the revolutionary songs of John Ball it became a powerful incentive to the Peasant's Insurrection. Piers himself became and continued an ideal for men who longedforalessselfishandbrutalworld,andacenturyandahalflaterthepoemwasstillcherishedbytheProtestantsfor itsexposureofthevicesoftheChurch.Itsmedievalformandsettingremoveithopelesslybeyondthehorizonofgeneral readers of the present time, yet it furnishes the most detailed remaining picture of the actual social and economic conditionsofitsage,andasagreatlandmarkintheprogressofmoralandsocialthoughtitcanneverloseitssignificance.

TheWiclifiteBible
A product of the same general forces which inspired 'Piers the Plowman' is the earliest in the great succession of the modernEnglishversionsoftheBible,theoneconnectedwiththenameofJohnWiclif,himselfthefirstimportantEnglish precursoroftheReformation.Wiclifwasbornabout1320,aYorkshiremanofveryvigorousintellectaswellaswill,butin all his nature and instincts a direct representative of the common people. During the greater part of his life he was connectedwithOxfordUniversity,asstudent,teacher(andthereforepriest),andcollegehead.Earlyknownasoneofthe ablestEnglishthinkersandphilosophers,hewasalreadyopposingcertaindoctrinesandpracticesoftheChurchwhenhe wasledtobecomeachiefspokesmanforKingEdwardandthenationintheirrefusaltopaythetributewhichKingJohn,a century and a half before, had promised to the Papacy and which was now actually demanded. As the controversies proceeded,Wiclifwasbroughtatlasttoformulatetheprinciple,latertobebasalinthewholeProtestantmovement,that the final source of religious authority is not the Church, but the Bible. One by one he was led to attack also other fundamentaldoctrinesandinstitutionsoftheChurchtransubstantiation,thetemporalpossessionsoftheChurch,the Papacy,andatlast,fortheircorruption,thefourordersoffriars.IntheoutcometheChurchprovedtoostrongforeven Wiclif,andOxford,againstitswill,wascompelledtoabandonhim;yethecouldbedrivennofartherthantohisparishof Lutterworth,wherehediedundisturbedin1384. Hisconnectionwithliteraturewasanunforeseenbutnaturaloutgrowthofhisactivities.Someyearsbeforehisdeath,with characteristic energy and zeal, he had begun to spread his doctrines by sending out 'poor priests' and laymen who, practicingtheselfdenyinglifeofthefriarsofearlierdays,foundedtheLollardsect.[Footnote:Thename,givenbytheir enemies,perhapsmeans'tares.']Itwasinevitablenotonlythatheandhisassociatesshouldcomposemanytractsand sermonsforthefurtheranceoftheirviews,but,consideringtheirattitudetowardtheBible,thattheyshouldwishtoputit intothehandsofallthepeopleinaformwhichtheywouldbeabletounderstand,thatisintheirownvernacularEnglish. HencesprangtheWiclifitetranslation.Theusualsuppositionthatfromtheoutset,beforethetimeofWiclif,theChurch had prohibited translations of the Bible from the Latin into the common tongues is a mistake; that policy was a direct resultofWiclif'swork.InEnglandfromAngloSaxontimes,asmustbeclearfromwhathasherealreadybeensaid,partial

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Englishtranslations,literalorfree,inproseorverse,hadbeenincirculationamongthefewpersonswhocouldreadand wishedtohavethem.ButWiclifproposedtopopularizetheentirebook,inordertomaketheconscienceofeverymanthe final authority in every question of belief and religious practice, and this the Church would not allow. It is altogether probablethatWiclifpersonallydirectedthetranslationwhichhaseversincebornehisname;butnorecordofthefacts hascomedowntous,andthereisnoproofthathehimselfwastheactualauthorofanypartofitthatworkmayallhave been done by others. The basis of the translation was necessarily the Latin 'Vulgate' (Common) version, made nine hundredyearsbeforefromtheoriginalHebrewandGreekbySt.Jerome,whichstillremainstoday,asinWiclif'stime,the officialversionoftheRomanchurch.ThefirstWiclifitetranslationwashastyandratherrough,anditwassoonrevisedand betteredbyacertainJohnPurvey,oneofthe'Lollard'priests. Wiclifandthemenassociatedwithhim,however,werealwaysreformersfirstandwritersonlytothatend.Theirreligious tracts are formless and crude in style, and even their final version of the Bible aims chiefly at fidelity of rendering. In generalitisnotelegant,themoresobecausetheauthorsusuallyfollowtheLatinidiomsandsentencedivisionsinsteadof reshaping them into the native English style. Their text, again, is often interrupted by the insertion of brief phrases explanatoryofunusualwords.Thevocabulary,adaptedtotheunlearnedreaders,ismorelargelySaxonthaninourlater versions,andtheolderinflectedformsappearoftenerthaninChaucer;sothatitisonlythroughourknowledgeofthe laterversionsthatwetodaycanreadtheworkwithoutfrequentstumbling.Neverthelessthisversionhasservedasthe startingpointforalmostallthosethathavecomeafteritinEnglish,asevenahastyreaderofthisonemustbeconscious; andnoreadercanfailtoadmireinitthesturdySaxonvigorwhichhashelpedtomakeourownversiononeofthegreat masterpiecesofEnglishliterature. ThemostdirectexampleofChaucer'sFrenchstudiesishistranslationofLeRomandelarose, a poem written in some 4000 lines by Guillaume Lorris about 1237 and extended to over 22,000 by Jean Clopinel, better known as Jean de Meun, forty years later. We know from Chaucerhimselfthathetranslatedthispoem,andtheextantEnglishfragmentof7698lines was generally assigned to him from 1532, when it was first printed, till its authorship was challenged in the early years of the Chaucer Society. The ground of this challenge was its wide divergence from Chaucer's practice in his undoubtedly genuine works as to certain nicetiesofrhyme,notableastonotrhymingwordsendinginywithothersendingye.Itwas subsequentlydiscovered,however, that the whole fragment was divisible linguistically into three portions, of which the first and second end respectively at lines 1705 and 5810, and thatinthefirstofthesethreesectionsthevariationsfromChaucer'sacceptedpracticeare insignificant.Lines11705havethereforebeenprovisionallyacceptedasChaucer's,andthe other two fragments as the work of unknown translators (James I of Scotland has been suggested as one of them), which somehow came to be pieced together. If, however, the difficultiesinthewayofthistheoryarelessthanthosewhichconfrontanyother,theyare stillconsiderable,andthequestioncanhardlybetreatedasclosed. WhileourknowledgeofChaucer'sRomauntoftheRoseisinthisunsatisfactorystate,anothertranslationofhisfromthe French, the Book of the Lyon (alluded to in the "Retraction" found, in some manuscripts, at the end of the Canterbury Tales), which must certainly have been taken from Guillaume Machault's Le Dit du lion, has perished altogether. The strengthofFrenchinfluenceonChaucer'searlyworkmay,however,beamplyillustratedfromthefirstofhispoemswith whichweareonsureground,theBookoftheDuchesse,or,asitisalternativelycalled,theDethofBlaunche.Herenotonly are individual passages closely imitated from Machault and Froissart, but the dream, the May morning, and the whole machineryofthepoemaretakenoverfromcontemporaryFrenchconventions.ButevenatthisstageChaucercouldprove hisrighttoborrowbytheskillwithwhichhemakeshismaterialsservehisownpurpose,andsomeofthelinesintheDeth ofBlauncheareamongthemosttenderandcharmingheeverwrote. Chaucer's A.B.C., a poem in honour of the Blessed Virgin, of which the stanzas begin with the successive letters of the alphabet, is another early example of French influence. It is taken from the Pelerinage de la vie humaine, written by Guillaume de Deguilleville about 1330. The occurrence of some magnificent lines in Chaucer's version, combined with evidencethathedidnotyetpossesstheskilltotranslateatallliterallyassoonasrhymeshadtobeconsidered,accounts for this poem having been dated sometimes earlier than the Book of the Duchesse, and sometimes several years later. Withitisusuallymovedupanddown,thoughitshouldsurelybeplacedinthe'seventies,theCompleynttoPity,afine poem which yet, from its slight obscurity and absence of Chaucer's usual ease, may very well some day prove to be a translationfromtheFrench. While Chaucer thus sought to reproduce both the matter and the style of French poetry in England, he found other materialsinpopularLatinbooks.Amonghislostworksarerenderingsof"OrigenesupontheMaudeleyne,"andofPope

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Innocent III on "The Wreced Engendring of Mankinde" (De miseria conditionis humanae). He must have begun his attemptsatstraightforwardnarrativewiththeLyfofSeyntCecyle(theweakestofallhisworks,thesecondNun'sTalein theCanterburyseries)fromtheLegendaAureaofJacobusdeVoragine,andthestoryofthepatienceofGrisilde,taken from Petrarch's Latin version of a tale by Boccaccio. In both of these he condenses a little, but ventures on very few changes,thoughheletshisreadersseehisimpatiencewithhisoriginals. In his story of Constance (afterwards ascribed to the Man of Law), taken from the AngloNorman chronicle of Nicholas Trivet, written about 1334, we find him struggling to put some substance into another weak tale, but still without the couragetoremedyitsradicalfaults,thoughhere,aswithGrisilde,hedoesasmuchforhisheroineastheconventional exaltationofonevirtueatatimepermitted.ItispossiblethatothertaleswhichnowstandintheCanterburyserieswere writtenoriginallyatthisperiod.Whatiscertainisthatatsometimeinthe'seventiesthreeorfourItalianpoemspassed intoChaucer'spossession,andthathesettoworkbusilytomakeuseofthem.Oneofthemostinterestingofthepoems reclaimedforhimbyProfessorSkeatisafragmentary"Compleynt,"partofwhichiswritteninterzarima.Whilehethus experimented with the metre of the Divina Commedia, he made his first attempt to use the material provided by Boccaccio'sTeseideinanotherfragmentofgreatinterest,thatofQueneAnelidaandFalsArcyte.Morethanathirdofthis istakenupwithanother,andquitesuccessful,metricalexperimentinAnelida's"compleynt,"butintheintroductionof AnelidaherselfChaucermadethefirstofhisthreeunsuccessfuleffortstoconstructaplotforanimportantpoemoutof hisownhead,andthefragmentwhichbeginssowellbreaksoffabruptlyatline357. ForatimetheTeseideseemstohavebeenlaidaside,anditwasperhapsatthismoment,indespondencyathisfailure, that Chaucer wrote his most important prose work, the translation of the De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius. Reminiscencesofthishelpedtoenrichmanyofhissubsequentpoems,andinspiredfiveofhisshorterpieces(TheFormer Age,Fortune,Truth,GentilesseandLakofStedfastnesse),butthetranslationitselfwasonlyapartialsuccess.Toborrow hisownphrase,his"Englyshwasinsufficient"toreproducesuchdifficultLatin.Thetranslationisoftenbarelyintelligible withouttheoriginal,anditisonlyhereandtherethatitflowswithanyeaseorrhythm. IfChaucerfeltthishimselfhemusthavebeenspeedilyconsoledbyachievinginTroilusandCriseydehisgreatestartistic triumph. Warned by his failure in Anelida and Arcyte, he was content this time to take his plot unaltered from the Filostrato,andtofollowBoccacciostepbystepthroughthepoem.Buthedidnotfollowhimasameretranslator.Hehad donehisdutymanfullyforthesaints"ofotherholinesse"inCecyle,GrisildeandConstance,whomhewasforbiddenby therulesofthegametoclothewithcompletefleshandblood.Inthisgreatlovestorytherewerenosuchrestrictions,and thecharacterswhichBoccaccio'streatmentleftthinandconventionalbecameinChaucer'shandsconvincinglyhuman.No otherEnglishpoemissoinstinctwiththegloryandtragedyofyouth,andinthedetailsofthestoryChaucer'sgiftsofvivid colouring,ofhumourandpity,areallattheirhighest. AnunfortunatetheorythatthereferenceintheLegendeofGoodWomento"altheloveofPalamonandArcyte"istoa hypotheticalpoeminsevenlinestanzasonthistheme,whichChaucerisimagined,whenhecametoplantheCanterbury Tales,tohavesuppressedinfavourofanewversioninheroiccouplets,hasobscuredthecloseconnexionintemperand powerbetweenwhatweknowasthe"Knight'sTale"andtheTroilus.Thepoemmayhavebeenmoreorlessextensively revisedbefore,withadmirablefitness,itwasassignedtotheKnight,butthatitsmaincompositioncanbeseparatedby severalyearsfromthatofTroilusisaestheticallyincredible.Chaucer'sarthereagainisatitshighest.Hetakestheplotof Boccaccio'sTeseide,butonlyasmuchofitashewants,andwhathetakesheheightensandhumanizeswiththesameskill whichhehadshownintransformingtheFilostrato.OftheindividualcharactersTheseushimself,thearbiteroftheplot,is mostnotablydeveloped;Emilieandhertwoloversreceivejustasmuchindividualityastheywillbearwithoutdisturbing the atmosphere of romance. The whole story is pulled together and made more rapid and effective. A comparison of almostanysceneastoldbythetwopoetssufficestoshowChaucer'simmensesuperiority.Atsomesubsequentperiodthe "Squire'sTale"ofCambuscan,thefairCanaceeandtheHorseofBrass,wasgallantlybeguninsomethingofthesamekey, butChaucertookforitmorematerialsthanhecoulduse,andforlackofthehelpofaleaderlikeBoccacciohewasobliged toleavethestory,inMilton'sphrase,"halftold,"thoughthefragmentwrittencertainlytakesusverymuchlessthanhalf way. Meanwhile,inconnexion(asisreasonablybelieved)withthebetrothalormarriageofAnneofBohemiatoRichardII(i.e. about 13811382), Chaucer had brought to a successful completion the Parlement of Foules, a charming sketch of 699 lines,inwhichtheotherbirds,onSaintValentine'sday,counselthe"FormelEgle"onherchoiceofamate.Hissuccess here,asinthecaseoftheDethofBlaunchetheDuchesse,wasduetotheabsenceofanyneedforaclimax;andthough the materialswhich he borrowed were mainly Latin(with some help from passagesof the Teseide not fullyneeded for Palamon and Arcyte) his method of handling them would have been quite approved by his friends among the French poets.Amoreambitiousventure,theHousofFame,inwhichChaucerimagineshimselfbornealoftbyaneagletoFame's temple,describeswhatheseesandhearsthere,andthenbreaksoffinapparentinabilitytogethome,showsacurious mixtureofthepoeticidealsoftheRomandelaroseandreminiscencesoftheDivinaCommedia.AstheHousofFameis

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mostoftenrememberedandquotedforthepersonaltouchesandhumourofChaucer'sconversationwiththeeagle,so the mostquoted passages in the Prologue to the Legende of Good Women are those in which Chaucer professes his affectionforthedaisy,andtheattackonhisloyaltybyCupidanditsdefencebyAlceste.Recentdiscoverieshaveshown, however,that(besidesobligationstoMachault)someofthetouchesaboutthedaisyandthecontroversybetweenthe partisansoftheFlowerandoftheLeafaresnatchesfrompoemsbyhisfriendsFroissartandDeschamps,whichChaucer takesupandreturnstothemwithprettycompliments,andthathewasindebtedtoFroissartforsomeoftheframework ofhispoem.2BothofthetwoversionsoftheProloguetotheLegendearecharming,andsomeofthetales,notablythatof Cleopatra, rank with Chaucer's best work. When, however, he had written eight and part of the ninth he tired of his scheme,whichwasplannedtocelebratenineteenofCupid'sfaithful"saints,"withAlcestisastheirqueen.Withhisusual hopefulnesshehadoverlookedtheriskofmonotony,whichobviouslyweighedheavilyonhimerehebrokeoff,andthe lossoftheothertenstoriesislesstoberegrettedthanthatofthecelebrationofAlceste,andapossibleepiloguewhich mighthaveexceededincharmthePrologueitself. Chaucer'sfailuretocompletetheschemeoftheLegendeofGoodWomenmayhavebeenpartlyduetotheattractionsof theCanterburyTales,whichwereprobablytakenupinimmediatesuccessiontoit.HisguardianshipoftwoKentishwards, hisjusticeshipofthepeace,hisrepresentingthecountyintheparliamentof1386,hiscommissionershipoftheriverbank betweenGreenwichandWoolwich,allmakeiteasytounderstandhisdramaticuseofthemerrycrowdshesawonthe Canterburyroad,withoutsupposinghimtohavehadrecoursetoBoccaccio'sDecamerone,abookwhichthereisnoproof ofhishavingseen.ThepilgrimswhomheimaginestohaveassembledattheTabardInninSouthwark,whereHarryBailey washost,aresaidtohavenumbered"welnyneandtwentyinacompany,"andtheProloguegivesfulllengthsketchesofa Knight,aSquire(hisson),andtheirYeoman;ofaPrioress,Monk,Friar,OxfordClerk,andParson,withtwodisreputable hangersonofthechurch,aSummonerandPardoner;ofaSerjeantatLawandaDoctorofPhysic,andofaFranklin,or countrygentleman,Merchant,Shipman,Miller,Cook,Manciple,Reeve,Ploughman(theParson'sbrother)andtheever famous Wife of Bath. Five London burgesses are described in a group, and a Nun and Priest3 are mentioned as in attendanceonthePrioress.Eachofthese,withChaucerhimselfmakingthetwentyninth,waspledgedtotelltwotales, butincludingonesecondattemptandataletoldbytheYeomanofaCanon,whoovertakesthepilgrimsontheroad,we have only twenty finished stories, two unfinished and two interrupted ones. As in the case of the Legende of Good Women,ourlossisnotsomuchthatoftheadditionalstoriesasofthecompletedframework.Thewonderfulcharacter sketchesoftheProloguearecarriedyetfartherbytheTalksontheRoadwhichlinkthedifferenttales,andtwoofthese Talks,inwhichtheWifeofBathandthePardonerrespectivelyedifythecompany,havetheimportanceofseparateTales, butbetweentheTalesthathavecomedowntoustherearesevenlinksmissing,4anditwaslefttoalaterandweaker handtonarrate,inthe"TaleofBeryn,"theadventuresofthepilgrimsatCanterbury. ThereferencetotheLyfofSeyntCecyleintheProloguetotheLegendeofGoodWomengivesexternalproofthatChaucer included earlier work in the scheme of the Canterbury Tales, and mention has been made of other stories which are indisputablyearly.IntheabsenceofanysuchmetricaltestsashaveprovedusefulinthecaseofShakespeare,thedatesat whichseveraloftheTaleswerecomposedremaindoubtful,whileinthecaseofatleasttwo,theClerk'staleofGrisilde andtheMonk'stragedies,thereisevidenceofearlyworkbeingrevisedandsupplemented.Itisfortunatelyimpossibleto separatetheprologuetothecharminglytoldstoryof"yongeHughofLincoln"fromthetaleitself,and,withthe"quod sche"inthesecondlineasproofthatChaucerwasherewritingspeciallyforhisPrioress,weareforbiddentolimitthenew storiestoanyonemetreortone.Therecanbenodoubt,however,thatwhatmaybecalledtheTalesoftheChurls(Miller, Reeve, Summoner, Friar, &c.), and the conversational outpourings of the Pardoner and Wife of Bath, form, with the immortalPrologue,themostimportantanddistinctiveadditionstotheolderwork.Inthese,andinthePardoner'sstoryof DeathandtheThreeRevellers,andtheNun'sPriest'smasterlyhandlingofthefableoftheCockandFox,bothofthemfree fromthegrossnesswhichmarkstheothers,Chaucertakesstorieswhichcouldhavebeentoldinashortpageofproseand elaboratesthemwithalltheskillinnarrationwhichhehadsedulouslycultivated.TheconjugalreminiscencesoftheWife ofBathandtheReeve'sTalewithitsabominableclimax(lightenedalittlebyAleyn'sfarewell,lines316319)areamong thegreatthingsinChaucer,assurelyasTroilus,andPalamonandArcyteandthePrologue.Theyhelpnotablytogivehim thewidthofrangewhichmaycertainlybeclaimedforhim. Inorsoonafter1391Chaucerwroteinproseforanelevenyearoldreader,whomheaddressesas"LitelLowismyson,"a treatiseontheuseoftheAstrolabe,itsshortprologuebeingtheprettiestspecimenofhisprose.Thewearisometaleof "MelibeeandhiswyfPrudence,"whichwasperhapsasmuchadmiredinEnglishasithadbeeninLatinandFrench,may havebeentranslatedatanytime.ThesermononPenitence,usedastheParson'sTale,wasprobablytheworkofhisold age."Envoys"tohisfriendsScoganandBukton,atranslationofsomebaladesbySirOtesdeGranson,andtheCompleynt tohisPurscompletetherecordofhisminorpoetry.Wehavehisownstatementthatinhisyouthhehadwrittenmany Balades,RoundelsandVirelayesinhonourofLove,andthetwosongsembeddedrespectivelyintheParlementofFoules andtheProloguetotheLegendeofGoodWomenarecharmingandmusical.Hisextantshorterpoems,however,whether earlyorlate,offernoexcuseforclaiminghighrankforhimasalyrist.Hehadverylittlesheersingingpower,andthough therearefinelinesinhisshortpoems,witnessthefamous"Fleefrothepreesanddwellwithsoothfastnesse,"theylack

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thesustainedconcentrationofgreatwork.Fromthedrama,again,Chaucerwascutoff,anditisidletoarguefromthe innumerabledramatictouchesinhispoemsandhisgiftofcharacterizationastowhathemighthavedonehadhelived twocenturieslater.Hisownagedelightedinstories,andhegaveitthestoriesitdemanded,investedwithahumanity,a graceandstrengthwhichplacehimamongtheworld'sgreatestnarrativepoets,andwhichbringtheEnglandofhisown day,withallthecolourandwarmthoflife,wonderfullyneartoallhisreaders. ThepartplayedbyChaucerinthedevelopmentoftheEnglishlanguagehasoftenbeenoverrated.Heneithercorruptedit, asusedtobesaid,byintroducingFrenchwordswhichitwouldotherwisehaveavoided,norboreanysuchpartinfixingit aswasafterwardsplayedbythetranslatorsoftheBible.Whenhewasgrowingup,educatedsocietyinEnglandwasstill bilingual,andthechangesinvocabularyandpronunciationwhichtookplaceduringhislifewerethenaturalresultsofa society, which had been bilingual with a bias towards French, giving an exclusive preference to English. The practical identityofChaucer'slanguagewiththatofGowershowsthatbothmerelyusedthebestEnglishoftheirdaywiththecare and slightly conservative tendency which befitted poets. Chaucer's service to the English language lies in his decisive successhavingmadeitimpossibleforanylaterEnglishpoettoattainfame,asGowerhaddone,bywritingalternativelyin LatinandFrench.Theclaimwhichshouldbemadeforhimisthat,atleastasregardspoetry,heprovedthatEnglishwas "sufficient." Chaucerborrowedbothhisstanzaformsandhis"decasyllabic"couplets(mostlywithanextrasyllableattheendofthe line)fromGuillaumeMachault,andhismusic,likethatofhisFrenchmasterandhissuccessors,dependsverylargelyon assigning to every syllable its full value, and more especially on the due pronunciation of the final e. The slower movement of change in Scotland allowed time for Chaucer to exercise a potent influence on Scottish poetry, but in Englandthisfinale,towhichmostoftheearliergrammaticalformsbyChaucer'stimehadbeenreduced,itselffellrapidly intodisuseduringthe15thcentury,andaseriousbarrierwasthusraisedtotheappreciationoftheartisticvalueofhis verse.Hisdisciples,HoccleveandLydgate,whoatfirsthadcaughtsomeechoesofhisrhythms,graduallyyieldedtothe changeinpronunciation,sothattherewasnolivingtraditiontohanddownhissecret,whilesuccessivecopyistsreduced his text to a state in which it was only by accident that lines could be scanned correctly. For fully three centuries his reputation was sustained solely by his narrative power, his warmest panegyrists betraying no consciousness that they werepraisingoneofthegreatesttechnicalmastersofpoetry.Evenwhenthusmaimed,however,hisworksfoundreaders andloversineverygeneration,andeveryimprovementinhistexthassethisfameonasurerbasis. Bythistimetheparaphraserswerealreadyatwork,DrydenrewritingthetalesoftheKnight,theNun'sPriestandtheWife ofBath,andPopetheMerchant's.In1737(reprintedin1740)thePrologueandKnight'sTalewereedited(anonymously) by Thomas Morell "from the most authentic manuscripts," and here, though by dint of much violence and with many mistakes,Chaucer'slineswereforthefirsttimeinprintgiveninaforminwhichtheycouldbescanned.Thispromiseof betterthings(MorellstillthoughtitnecessarytoaccompanyhistextwiththeparaphrasesbyBettertonandDryden)was fulfilled by a fine edition ofthe Canterbury Tales (17751778), in which Thomas Tyrwitts scholarly instinctsproduced a comparatively good text from secondrate manuscripts and accompanied it with valuable illustrative notes. The next editionofanyimportancewasthateditebyThomaswrightforthePercySocietyin18481851,basedontheerraticbut valuableBritishMuseummanuscriptHarley7334,containingreadingswhichmustbeeitherChaucer'ssecondthoughtsor theemendationsofabrilliantlycleverscribe.In1866RichardMorrisreeditedthistextinamorescholarlymannerforthe AldineeditionoftheBritishPoets,andinthefollowingyearproducedfortheClarendonPressSeriesaschooleditionof thePrologueandTalesoftheKnightandNun'sPriest,editedwiththefulnessandcarepreviouslybestowedonlyonGreek andLatinclassics. AsupplementaryvolumeoftheOxfordedition,entitledChaucerianandotherPieces,issuedbyProfessorSkeatin1897, containstheproseandversewhichhisearlypublishersandeditors,fromPynsonandThynneonwards,includedamong hisWorksbywayofillustration,butwhichhadgraduallycometoberegardedasformingpartofhistext.Thereasonsfor theirrejectionarefullystatedbyProfessorSkeatintheworknamedandalsoinTheChaucerCanon(1900).Manyofthese pieceshavenowbeentracedtootherauthors,andtheirexclusionhashelpedtoclearnotonlyChaucer'stextbutalsohis biography,whichused(asinthe"Life"publishedbyWilliamGodwinintwoquartovolumesin1803)tobeencumbered withinferencesfromworksnowknownnottobeChaucer's,notablytheTestamentofLovewrittenbyThomasUsk.All informationaboutChaucer'slifeavailablein1900willbefoundsummarizedbyMrR.E.G.KirkinLifeRecordsofChaucer, partiv.,publishedbytheChaucerSocietyinthatyear. 1ThepositionsoftheHouseofFameandPalamonandArcytearestillmattersofcontroversy. 2TheFrenchinfluencesonthisPrologue,itsconnexionwiththeFlowerandtheLeafcontroversy,andthepriorityofwhat hadpreviouslybeenreckonedasthesecondor"B"formofthePrologueoverthe"A,"weredemonstratedinpapersby Prof.Kittredgeon"ChaucerandsomeofhisFriends"inModernPhilology,vol.i.(Chicago,1903),andbyMrJ.L.Loweson

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"TheProloguetotheLegendofGoodWomen"inPublicationsoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,vol.xis., December,1904. 3TheTalksontheRoadshowclearlythatonlyonePriestinattendanceonthePrioress,andtwotalestoeachnarrator, were originally contemplated, but the "Prestes titre" in line 164 of the Prologue, and the bald couplet (line 793 sq.) explainingthateachpilgrimwastotelltwotaleseachway,wereprobablybothalterationsmadebyChaucerinmoments ofamazinghopefulness.Thejourneywasreckoneda31days'ride,andeightorninetalesadaywouldsurelyhavebeena sufficientallowance. 4TheabsenceoftheselinksnecessitatesthedivisionoftheCanterburyTalesintoninegroups,towhich,forpurposesof quotation,thelettersAtoIhavebeenassigned,thelinenumerationoftheTalesineachgroupbeingcontinuous.
Pollard,A.W."GeoffreyChaucer." EncyclopediaBritannica,11thEd.,vol.VI.

GeoffreyChaucer'sCanterburyTales

ChaucerispresumedtohavestudiedlawintheInnerTemple(anInnofCourt)ataboutthistime,althoughdefiniteproof islacking.ItisrecordedthathebecameamemberoftheBritishroyalfamilycourtofEdwardIIIasavalet,yeoman,or esquireon20June1367,apositionwhichcouldentailanynumberofjobs.Hetravelledabroadmanytimes,atleastsome oftheminhisroleasavalet.In1368,hemayhaveattendedtheweddingofLionelofAntwerptoViolante,daughterof GaleazzoIIVisconti,inMilan.TwootherliterarystarsoftheerawhowereinattendancewereJeanFroissartandPetrarch. AroundthistimeChaucerisbelievedtohavewritten''TheBookoftheDuchess''inhonorofBlancheofLancaster,thelate wifeofJohnofGauntwhodiedin1369. ChaucertravelledtoPicardythenextyearaspartofthemilitaryexpedition,andvisitedGenoaandFlorencein1373.Itis onthisItalytripthatitisspeculatedhecameintocontactwithMiddleAgesItalianpoetry,theformsandstoriesofwhich he would use later. One other trip he took in 1377 seems shrouded in mystery, with records of the time conflicting in details. Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage between the future RichardIIofEnglandandaFrenchprincess,therebyendingtheHundredYearsWar.Ifthiswasthepurposeoftheirtrip, theyseemtohavebeenunsuccessful,asnoweddingoccurred. In1378,RichardIIsentChaucerasanenvoy/secretdispatchtotheViscontiandtoSirJohnHawkwood,EnglishManat Arms/Soldier for Hire, in Milan. It is on the person of John Hawkwood that Chaucer based his Knight's Character. The Knight,basedonhisdescription/dressandappearance,looksexactlylikeasoldierforhire/mercenarywouldhavelooked inthefourteenthcentury. A possible indication that his career as a writer was appreciated came when Edward III of England granted Chaucer ''a gallonofwinedailyfortherestofhislife''forsomeunspecifiedtask.Thiswasanunusualgrant,butgivenonadayof celebration, St. George's Day, 1374, when artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to have been another early poetic work. It is not known which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the reward but the suggestion of poet to a king places him as a precursor to later poets laureate. Chaucer continued to collect the liquid stipenduntilRichardIIcametopower,afterwhichitwasconvertedtoamonetarygranton18April,1378. ChaucerobtainedtheverysubstantialjobofComptrolleroftheCustomsfortheportofLondon,whichChaucerbeganon 8June1374.Hemusthavebeensuitedfortheroleashecontinuedinitfortwelveyears,alongtimeinsuchapostatthat

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period.Hislifegoesundocumentedformuchofthenexttenyearsbutitisbelievedthathewrote(orbegan)mostofhis famousworksduringthistimeperiod.Hewasmentionedinlawpapersof4May1380,involvedinthe''raptus''ofCecilia Chaumpaigne. What ''raptus'' means, rape or possibly kidnapping, is unclear, but the incident seems to have been resolvedquicklyanddidnotleaveastainonChaucer'sreputation.ItisnotknownifChaucerwasinthecityofLondonat thetimeofthePeasants'Revolt(theTowerofLondonwasstormedin1381). Whilestillworkingascomptroller,ChaucerappearstohavemovedtoKent,beingappointedasoneofthecommissioners ofpeaceforKent,atatimewhenFrenchinvasionwasapossibility.Heisthoughttohavestartedworkon''TheCanterbury Tales''intheearly1380s(thePilgrims'WayusedbyhisfictionalcharactersontheirwaytoCanterburyCathedralpasses throughKent).HealsobecameaMemberofParliamentforKentin1386.Thereisnofurtherreferenceafterthisdateto Philippa,Chaucer'swife,andsheispresumedtohavediedin1387.HesurvivedthepoliticalupheavalscausedbytheLords AppellantsdespitethefactthatChaucerknewwellsomeofthemenexecutedovertheaffair. On12July1389,ChaucerwasappointedtheClerkoftheWorks,asortofConstructionforemanorganizingmostofthe king'sbuildingprojects.Nomajorworkswerebegunduringhistenure,buthedidconductrepairsonWestminsterPalace, St.George'sChapel,Windsor,continuebuildingthewharfattheTowerofLondon,andbuildthestandsforatournament held in 1390. It may have been a difficult job but it paid well: two shillings a day, over three times his salary as a comptroller.InSeptember1390,recordssaythathewasrobbed,andpossiblyinjured,whileconductingthebusinessand itwasshortlyafter,on17June1391,thathestoppedworkinginthiscapacity.Almostimmediately,on22June,hebegan asdeputyforesterintheroyalforestofNorthPetherton,Somerset.Thiswasnosinecure,withmaintenanceanimportant partofthejob,althoughthereweremanyopportunitiestoderiveprofit.ItisbelievedthatChaucerstoppedworkonthe CanterburyTalessometimetowardstheendofthisdecade. SoonaftertheoverthrowofhispatronRichardIIofEnglandin1399,Chaucervanishedfromthehistoricalrecord.Heis believedtohavediedofunknowncauseson25October,1400,butthereisnofirmevidenceforthisdate,asitcomesfrom theengravingonhistomb,whichwasbuiltmorethanonehundredyearsafterChaucer'sdeath.Thereissomefanciful speculationmostrecentlyinTerryJones'book''WhoMurderedChaucer?AMedievalMysterythathewasmurderedby enemiesofRichardIIorevenontheordersofhissuccessorHenryIVofEngland.Thereishowevernosolidevidenceto supportthisclaim. The new king(Henry IV) didrenew thegrants assignedto Chaucer byRichard, but in ''The Complaint of Chaucerto his Purse;Chaucerhintsthatthegrantsmightnothavebeenpaid.ThelastmentionofChaucerinthehistoricalrecordison 5June1400,whensomemoniesowingtohimwerepaid.ChaucerwasburiedinWestminsterAbbeyinLondon,aswashis rightowingtothejobshehadperformedandthenewhousehehadleasednearbyon24December1399.In1556his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making Chaucer the first writer interred in the area now known as Poets'Corner.

Chaucer'sCanterburyTales
TheCanterburyTalescontrastswithotherliteratureoftheperiodinthenaturalismofitsnarrative,thevarietyofstories thepilgrimstellandthevariedcharacterswhoareengagedinthepilgrimage.Manyofthestoriesnarratedbythepilgrims seemtofittheirindividualcharactersandsocialstanding,althoughsomeofthestoriesseemillfittingtotheirnarrators, perhapsasaresultoftheincompletestateofthework.Chaucerdrewonreallifeforhiscastofpilgrims:theinnkeeper shares the name of a contemporary keeper of an inn in Southwark, and reallife identities for the Wife of Bath, the Merchant,theManofLawandtheStudenthavebeensuggested.ThemanyjobsChaucerheldinmedievalsocietypage, soldier,messenger,valet,bureaucrat,foremanandadministratorprobablyexposedhimtomanyofthetypesofpeople hedepictedintheTales.Hewasabletoshapetheirspeechandsatirizetheirmannersinwhatwastobecomepopular literatureamongpeopleofthesametypes. Chaucer'sworksaresometimesgroupedinto,firstaFrenchperiod,thenanItalianperiodandfinallyanEnglishperiod, with Chaucer being influenced by those countries' literatures in turn. Certainly Troilus and Criseyde is a middle period work with its reliance on the forms of Italian poetry, little known in England at the time, but to which Chaucer was probablyexposedduringhisfrequenttripsabroadoncourtbusiness.Inaddition,itsuseofaclassicalantiquityclassical subjectanditselaborate,courtlylanguagesetsitapartasoneofhismostcompleteandwellformedworks.InTroilusand Criseyde Chaucer draws heavily on his source, Bocaccio, and on the late Latin philosopher Boethius. However, it is The CanterburyTales,whereinhefocusesonEnglishsubjects,withbawdyjokesandrespectedfiguresoftenbeingundercut withhumourthathascementedhisreputation.

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Chaucer'sLinguistic

Chaucerwroteincontinentalaccentualsyllabicmetre,astylewhichhaddevelopedsincearoundthetwelfthcenturyasan alternativetothealliterativeAngloSaxon.Chaucerisknownformetricalinnovation,inventingtherhyme,andhewasone ofthefirstEnglishpoetstousethefivestressline,theiambicpentameter,inhiswork,withonlyafewanonymousshort works using it before him. The arrangement of these fivestress lines into rhyming couplets, first seen in his Legend of GoodWomeninmuchofhislaterworkandbecameoneofthestandardpoeticformsinEnglish.Hisearlyinfluenceasa satiristisalsoimportant,withthecommonhumorousdevice,thefunnyaccentofaregional,apparentlymakingitsfirst appearanceinTheReevesTale. ThepoetryofChaucer,alongwithotherwritersoftheera,iscreditedwithhelpingtostandardizetheLondonDialectof theMiddleEnglishacombinationoftheKentishandMidlandsdialects.Thisisprobablyoverstated;theinfluenceofthe court,chanceryandbureaucracyofwhichChaucerwasapartremainsamoreprobableinfluenceonthedevelopment ofStandardEnglish,ModernEnglishissomewhatdistancedfromthelanguageofChaucer'spoemsowingtotheeffectof the GreatVowel Shift some time afterhisdeath. This change in the pronunciation ofEnglish, stillnot fullyunderstood, makesthereadingofChaucerdifficultforthemodernaudience,thoughitisthoughtbysomethatthemodernScottish accentiscloselyrelatedtothesoundofMiddleEnglish.ThestatusofthefinaleinChaucer'sverseisuncertain:itseems likelythatduringtheperiodofChaucer'swritingthefinalewasdroppingoutofcolloquialEnglishandthatitsusewas somewhatirregular.Chaucer'sversificationsuggeststhatthefinaleissometimestobevocalised,andsometimestobe silent;however,thisremainsapointonwhichthereisdisagreement.Whenitisvocalised,mostscholarspronounceitasa schwa. Apart from the irregular spelling, much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader. Chaucer is also recordedintheOxfordDictionaryasthefirstauthortousemanycommonEnglishwordsinhiswritings.Thesewordswere probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest manuscript source. Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army,arrogant,arsenic,arc,artilleryandaspectarejustsomeofthosefromthefirstletterofthealphabet.

Literary
Chaucer's early popularity is attested by the many poets who imitated his works. John Lydgate was one of earliest imitators who wrote a continuation to the Tales. Later a group of poets including Gavin Douglas, William Dunbar and RobertHenrysonwereknownastheScottishChauceriansfortheirindebtednesstohisstyle.Manyofthemanuscriptsof Chaucer's works contain material from these admiring poets and the later romantic era poets' appreciation of Chaucer wascolouredbytheirnotknowingwhichoftheworksweregenuine.17thand18thcenturywriters,suchasJohnDryden, admiredChaucerforhisstories,butnotforhisrhythmandrhyme,asfewcriticscouldthenreadMiddleEnglishandthe texthadbeenbutcheredbyprinters,leavingasomewhatunadvisablemess.Itwasnotuntilthelate19thcenturythatthe official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon; largely as a result of Walter William Skeat's work. One hundredandfiftyyearsafterhisdeath,TheCanterburyTaleswasselectedbyWilliamCaxtontobeoneofthefirstbooks tobeprintedinEngland.

Chaucer'sEnglish

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Although Chaucer's language is much closer to modern English than the text of Beowulf, it differs enough that most publications modernise (and sometimes bowdlerise) his idiom. Following is a sample from the prologue of the "SummonersTalethatcomparesChaucer'stexttoamoderntranslation:
Line Original Thisfrerebosteththatheknowethhelle, AndGoditwoot,thatitislitelwonder; Freresandfeendesbeenbutlyteasonder. For,pardee,yehanoftetymeherdtelle Howthatafrereravyshedwastohelle Inspiritonesbyavisioun; Andasanangelladdehymupanddoun, Toshewenhymthepeynesthatthewere, Inaltheplacesaughhenatafrere; Ofootherfolkhesaughynoweinwo. Untothisangelspakthefreretho: Now,sire,quodhe,hanfreresswichagrace Thatnoonofhemshalcometothisplace? Yis,quodthisaungel,manyamillioun! Anduntosathanasheladdehymdoun. Andnowhathsathanas,seithhe,atayl Brodderthanofacarrykisthesayl. Holdupthytayl,thousathanas!quodhe; sheweforththyners,andlatthefrerese Whereisthenestoffreresinthisplace! Anderthathalfafurlongweyofspace, Rightsoasbeesoutswarmenfromanhyve, Outofthedevelesersthergonnedryve Twentythousandfreresonaroute, Andthurghouthelleswarmedalaboute, Andcomenagaynasfasteastheymaygon, Andinhiserstheycrepteneverychon. Heclaptehistaylagaynandlayfulstille. Translation Thisfriarboaststhatheknowshell, AndGodknowsthatitislittlewonder; Friarsandfiendsareseldomfarapart. For,byGod,youhaveofttimesheardtell Howaravishedfriarwenttohell Inspirit,oncebyavision; Andasanangelledhimupanddown, Toshowhimthepainsthatwerethere, Inthewholeplacehesawnotonefriar; Hesawenoughofotherfolkinwoe. Totheangelspokethefriarthus: "Nowsir,"saidhe,"Arefriarsinsuchgoodgrace Thatnoneofthemcometothisplace?" "Yes,"answeredtheangel,"manyamillion!" AndtheangelledhimdowntoSatan. Hesaid,"AndSatanhasatail, Broaderthanalargeship'ssail. Holdupyourtail,Satan!"heordered. "Showyourarse,andletthefriarsee Wherethenestoffriarsisinthisplace!" Andbeforehalfafurlongofspace, Justasbeesswarmfromahive, Outofthedevil'sarsetheredrove Twentythousandfriarsonaroute, Andtheyswarmedalloverhell, Andcameagainasfastastheyhadgone, Andeveryonecreptbackintohisarse. Heclappedhistailagainandlayverystill.

Thegeneralprologue

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 HerebygynneththeBookoftheTalesofCaunterbury(withthetranslation)

1WhanthatAprillwithhisshouressoote WhenAprilwithitssweetsmellingshowers 2ThedroghteofMarchhathpercedtotheroote, HaspiercedthedroughtofMarchtotheroot, 3Andbathedeveryveyneinswichlicour Andbathedeveryvein(oftheplants)insuchliquid 4Ofwhichvertuengendredistheflour; Bywhichpowerthefloweriscreated; 5WhanZephiruseekwithhissweetebreeth WhentheWestWindalsowithitssweetbreath, 6Inspiredhathineveryholtandheeth Ineverywoodandfieldhasbreathedlifeinto 7Thetendrecroppes,andtheyongesonne Thetendernewleaves,andtheyoungsun 8HathintheRamhishalfcoursyronne, HasrunhalfitscourseinAries, 9Andsmalefowelesmakenmelodye, Andsmallfowlsmakemelody, 10Thatslepenalthenyghtwithopenye Thosethatsleepallthenightwithopeneyes 11(SoprikethhemNatureinhircorages), (SoNatureincitesthemintheirhearts), 12Thannelongenfolktogoononpilgrimages, Thenfolklongtogoonpilgrimages, 13Andpalmeresfortosekenstraungestrondes, Andprofessionalpilgrimstoseekforeignshores, 14Tofernehalwes,kowtheinsondrylondes; Todistantshrines,knowninvariouslands; 15Andspeciallyfromeveryshiresende Andspeciallyfromeveryshire'send 16OfEngelondtoCaunterburytheywende, OfEnglandtoCanterburytheytravel, 17Thehoolyblisfulmartirfortoseke, Toseektheholyblessedmartyr, 18Thathemhathholpenwhanthattheywereseeke. Whohelpedthemwhentheyweresick. 19Bifilthatinthatsesononaday, Ithappenedthatinthatseasonononeday, 20InSouthwerkattheTabardasIlay InSouthwarkattheTabardInnasIlay 21Redytowendenonmypilgrymage Readytogoonmypilgrimage 22ToCaunterburywithfuldevoutcorage, ToCanterburywithaverydevoutspirit, 23Atnyghtwascomeintothathostelrye Atnighthadcomeintothathostelry 24Welnyneandtwentyinacompaignye Wellnineandtwentyinacompany 25Ofsondryfolk,byaventureyfalle Ofvarioussortsofpeople,bychancefallen 26Infelaweshipe,andpilgrimesweretheyalle, Infellowship,andtheywereallpilgrims, 27ThattowardCaunterburywoldenryde. WhointendedtoridetowardCanterbury. 28Thechambresandthestableswerenwyde,

Thebedroomsandthestableswerespacious, 29Andwelwewerenesedattebeste. Andwewerewellaccommodatedinthebestway. 30Andshortly,whanthesonnewastoreste, Andinbrief,whenthesunwas(gone)torest, 31SohaddeIspokenwithhemeverichon Ihadsospokenwitheveryoneofthem 32ThatIwasofhirfelaweshipeanon, ThatIwasoftheirfellowshipstraightway, 33Andmadeforwarderlyfortoryse, Andmadeagreementtoriseearly, 34TotakeoureweytherasIyowdevyse. TotakeourwaywhereI(will)tellyou. 35Butnathelees,whilIhavetymeandspace, Butnonetheless,whileIhavetimeandopportunity, 36ErthatIfertherinthistalepace, BeforeIproceedfurtherinthistale, 37Methynkethitacordaunttoresoun Itseemstomeinaccordwithreason 38Totelleyowalthecondicioun Totellyouallthecircumstances 39Ofechofhem,soasitsemedme, Ofeachofthem,asitseemedtome, 40Andwhichetheyweren,andofwhatdegree, Andwhotheywere,andofwhatsocialrank, 41Andeekinwhatarraythattheywereinne; Andalsowhatclothingthattheywerein; 42AndataknyghtthanwolIfirstbigynne. AndataknightthenwillIfirstbegin. 43AKNYGHTtherwas,andthataworthyman, AKNIGHTtherewas,andthat(onewas)aworthy man, 44Thatfrothetymethathefirstbigan Whofromthetimethathefirstbegan 45Toridenout,helovedchivalrie, Torideout,helovedchivalry, 46Troutheandhonour,fredomandcurteisie. Fidelityandgoodreputation,generosityand courtesy. 47Fulworthywasheinhislordeswerre, Hewasveryworthyinhislord'swar, 48Andthertohaddeheriden,nomanferre, Andforthathehadridden,nomanfarther, 49Aswelincristendomasinhethenesse, AswellinChristendomasinheathenlands, 50Andeverehonouredforhisworthynesse; And(was)everhonoredforhisworthiness; 51AtAlisaundrehewaswhanitwaswonne. HewasatAlexandriawhenitwaswon. 52Fuloftetymehehaddethebordbigonne Hehadsatverymanytimesintheplaceofhonor, 53AbovenallenacionsinPruce; Above(knightsof)allnationsinPrussia;

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54InLettowhaddehereysedandinRuce, HehadcampaignedinLithuaniaandinRussia, 55NoCristenmansoofteofhisdegree. NoChristianmanofhisranksooften. 56InGernadeattheseegeeekhaddehebe AlsohehadbeeninGrenadaatthesiege 57OfAlgezir,andrideninBelmarye. OfAlgeciras,andhadriddeninMorocco. 58AtLyeyswasheandatSatalye, HewasatAyashandatAtalia, 59Whantheywerewonne,andintheGreteSee Whentheywerewon,andintheMediterranean 60Atmanyanoblearmeehaddehebe. Hehadbeenatmanyanobleexpedition. 61Atmortalbatailleshaddehebeenfiftene, Hehadbeenatfifteenmortalbattles, 62AndfoughtenforourefeithatTramyssene AndfoughtforourfaithatTlemcen 63Inlystesthries,andayslaynhisfoo. Threetimesinformalduels,andeachtimeslainhis foe. 64Thisilkeworthyknyghthaddebeenalso Thissameworthyknighthadalsobeen 65SomtymewiththelordofPalatye AtonetimewiththelordofBalat 66AgaynanotherhetheninTurkye; AgainstanotherheatheninTurkey; 67Andeveremoorehehaddeasovereynprys. Andevermorehehadanoutstandingreputation 68Andthoughthathewereworthy,hewaswys, Andalthoughhewasbrave,hewasprudent, 69Andofhisportasmeekeasisamayde. Andofhisdeportmentasmeekasisamaid. 70Henevereyetnovileynyenesayde Heneveryetsaidanyrudeword 71Inalhislyfuntonomanerwight. Inallhislifeuntoanysortofperson. 72Hewasaverray,parfitgentilknyght. Hewasatrulyperfect,nobleknight. 73Butfortotellenyowofhisarray, Buttotellyouofhisclothing, 74Hishorsweregoode,buthewasnatgay. Hishorsesweregood,buthewasnotgailydressed. 75Offustianheweredagypon Heworeatunicofcoarsecloth 76Albismoteredwithhishabergeon, Allstained(withrust)byhiscoatofmail, 77Forhewaslateycomefromhisviage, Forhewasrecentlycome(back)fromhisexpedition, 78Andwentefortodoonhispilgrymage. Andwenttodohispilgrimage. 79Withhymtherwashissone,ayongSQUIER, Withhimtherewashisson,ayoungSQUIRE, 80Alovyereandalustybacheler, Aloverandalivelybachelor, 81Withlokkescrulleastheywereleydinpresse. Withlockscurledasiftheyhadbeenlaidinacurler. 82Oftwentyyeerofagehewas,Igesse. Hewastwentyyearsofage,Iguess. 83Ofhisstaturehewasofevenelengthe, Ofhisstaturehewasofmoderateheight, 84Andwonderlydelyvere,andofgreetstrengthe. Andwonderfullyagile,andofgreatstrength. 85Andhehaddebeensomtymeinchyvachie Andhehadbeenforatimeonacavalryexpedition 86InFlaundres,inArtoys,andPycardie,

InFlanders,inArtois,andPicardy, 87Andbornhymweel,asofsolitelspace, Andconductedhimselfwell,forsolittleaspaceof time, 88Inhopetostondeninhisladygrace. Inhopetostandinhislady'sgoodgraces. 89Embroudedwashe,asitwereameede Hewasembroidered,asifitwereamead 90Alfuloffresshefloures,whyteandreede. Allfulloffreshflowers,whiteandred. 91Syngyngehewas,orfloytynge,altheday; Singinghewas,orfluting,alltheday; 92HewasasfresshasisthemonthofMay. HewasasfreshasisthemonthofMay. 93Shortwashisgowne,withsleveslongeandwyde. Hisgownwasshort,withlongandwidesleeves. 94Welkoudehesitteonhorsandfaireryde. Hewellknewhowtositonhorseandhandsomely ride. 95Hekoudesongesmakeandwelendite, Heknewhowtomakesongsandwellcompose(the words), 96Justeandeekdaunce,andweelpurtreyeandwrite. Joustandalsodance,andwelldrawandwrite. 97Sohootehelovedethatbynyghtertale Helovedsopassionatelythatatnighttime 98Hesleepnamoorethandoothanyghtyngale. Hesleptnomorethandoesanightingale. 99Curteishewas,lowely,andservysable, Courteoushewas,humble,andwillingtoserve, 100Andcarfbifornhisfaderatthetable. Andcarvedbeforehisfatheratthetable. 101AYEMANhaddeheandservantznamo He(theKnight)hadAYEOMANandnomoreservants 102Atthattyme,forhymlisterideso, Atthattime,foritpleasedhimsototravel, 103Andhewascladincoteandhoodofgrene. Andhe(theyeoman)wascladincoatandhoodof green. 104Asheefofpecokarwes,brightandkene, Asheafofpeacockarrows,brightandkeen, 105Underhisbelthebarfulthriftily Hecarriedunderhisbeltveryproperly 106(Welkoudehedressehistakelyemanly; (Hewellknewhowtocareforhisequipmentasa yeomanshould; 107Hisarwesdroupednoghtwithfethereslowe), Hisarrowsdidnotfallshortbecauseofdrooping feathers), 108Andinhishandhebaaramyghtybowe. Andinhishandhecarriedamightybow. 109Anotheedhaddehe,withabrounvisage. Hehadaclosecroppedhead,withabrownface. 110Ofwodecraftwelkoudehealtheusage. Hewellknewallthepracticeofwoodcraft. 111Uponhisarmhebaaragaybracer, Heworeanelegantarcher'swristguarduponhis arm, 112Andbyhissydeaswerdandabokeler, Andbyhissideaswordandasmallshield, 113Andonthatoothersydeagaydaggere Andonthatothersideanelegantdagger 114Harneisedwelandsharpaspointofspere; Wellornamentedandsharpasthepointofaspear; 115ACristopheronhisbrestofsilversheene. AChristophermedalofbrightsilveronhisbreast.

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116Anhornhebar,thebawdrykwasofgrene; Hecarriedahorn,theshoulderstrapwasgreen; 117Aforsterwashe,soothly,asIgesse. Hewasaforester,truly,asIguess. 118TherwasalsoaNonne,aPRIORESSE, TherewasalsoaNun,aPRIORESS, 119Thatofhirsmylyngwasfulsympleandcoy; Whowasverysimpleandmodestinhersmiling; 120HiregrettesteoothwasbutbySeinteLoy; HergreatestoathwasbutbySaintLoy; 121AndshewasclepedmadameEglentyne. AndshewascalledMadamEglantine. 122Fulweelshesoongtheservicedyvyne, Shesangthedivineserviceverywell, 123Entunedinhirnosefulsemely; Intonedinhernoseinaverypolitemanner; 124AndFrensshshespakfulfaireandfetisly, AndshespokeFrenchverywellandelegantly, 125AfterthescoleofStratfordatteBowe, InthemannerofStratfordattheBow, 126ForFrensshofParyswastohireunknowe. ForFrenchofPariswastoherunknown. 127Atmetewelytaughtwasshewithalle; Atmealsshewaswelltaughtindeed; 128Sheleetnomorselfromhirlippesfalle, Sheletnomorselfallfromherlips, 129Newettehirfyngresinhirsaucedepe; Norwetherfingersdeepinhersauce; 130Welkoudeshecarieamorselandwelkepe Shewellknewhowtocarryamorsel(tohermouth) andtakegoodcare 131Thatnodropenefilleuponhirebrest. Thatnodropfelluponherbreast. 132Incurteisiewassetfulmuchelhirlest. Hergreatestpleasurewasingoodmanners. 133Hiroverlippewypedshesoclene Shewipedherupperlipsoclean 134Thatinhircoppetherwasnoferthyngsene Thatinhercuptherewasseennotinybit 135Ofgrece,whanshedronkenhaddehirdraughte. Ofgrease,whenshehaddrunkherdrink. 136Fulsemelyafterhirmetesheraughte. Shereachedforherfoodinaveryseemlymanner. 137Andsikerlyshewasofgreetdesport, Andsurelyshewasofexcellentdeportment, 138Andfulplesaunt,andamyableofport, Andverypleasant,andamiableindemeanor, 139Andpeynedhiretocountrefetecheere Andshetookpainstoimitatethemanners 140Ofcourt,andtobeenestatlichofmanere, Ofcourt,andtobedignifiedinbehavior, 141Andtobenholdendigneofreverence. Andtobeconsideredworthyofreverence. 142Butfortospekenofhireconscience, Buttospeakofhermoralsense, 143Shewassocharitableandsopitous Shewassocharitableandsocompassionate 144Shewoldewepe,ifthatshesaughamous Shewouldweep,ifshesawamouse 145Kaughtinatrappe,ifitweredeedorbledde. Caughtinatrap,ifitweredeadorbled. 146Ofsmalehoundeshaddeshethatshefedde Shehadsomesmallhoundsthatshefed 147Withrostedflessh,ormilkandwastelbreed. Withroastedmeat,ormilkandfinewhitebread. 148Butsooreweptesheifoonofhemweredeed,

Butsorelysheweptifoneofthemweredead, 149Orifmensmootitwithayerdesmerte; Orifsomeonesmoteitsmartlywithastick; 150Andalwasconscienceandtendreherte. Andallwasfeelingandtenderheart. 151Fulsemylyhirwympulpynchedwas, Herwimplewaspleatedinaveryseemlymanner, 152Hirnosetretys,hireyengreyeasglas, Hernosewellformed,hereyesgrayasglass, 153Hirmouthfulsmal,andthertosofteandreed. Hermouthverysmall,andmoreoversoftandred. 154Butsikerlyshehaddeafairforheed; Butsurelyshehadafairforehead; 155Itwasalmoostaspannebrood,Itrowe; Itwasalmostnineinchesbroad,Ibelieve; 156For,hardily,shewasnatundergrowe. For,certainly,shewasnotundergrown. 157Fulfetyswashircloke,asIwaswar. Hercloakwasverywellmade,asIwasaware. 158Ofsmalcoralaboutehirearmshebar Aboutherarmsheboreofsmallcoral 159Apeireofbedes,gaudedalwithgrene, Asetofbeads,adornedwithlargegreenbeads, 160Andtheronhengabroochofgoldfulsheene, Andthereonhungabroochofverybrightgold, 161OnwhichtherwasfirstwriteacrownedA, OnwhichtherewasfirstwrittenanAwithacrown, 162AndafterAmorvincitomnia. Andafter"Loveconquersall." 163AnotherNONNEwithhirehaddeshe, ShehadanotherNUNwithher, 164Thatwashirchapeleyne,andpreestesthre. Whowashersecretary,andthreepriests. 165AMONKtherwas,afairforthemaistrie, TherewasaMONK,anextremelyfineone, 166Anoutridere,thatlovedevenerie, Anoutrider(amonkwithbusinessoutsidethe monastery),wholovedhunting, 167Amanlyman,tobeenanabbotable. Avirileman,qualifiedtobeanabbot. 168Fulmanyadeynteehorshaddeheinstable, Hehadverymanyfinehorsesinhisstable, 169Andwhanherood,menmyghtehisbrydelheere Andwhenherode,onecouldhearhisbridle 170Gyngleninawhistlyngewyndalscleere Jingleinawhistlingwindasclear 171Andeekasloudeasdooththechapelbelle Andalsoasloudasdoesthechapelbelle 172Therasthislordwaskepereofthecelle. Wherethislordwaspriorofthesubordinate monastery. 173ThereuleofSeintMaureorofSeintBeneit TheruleofSaintMaurusorofSaintBenedict 174Bycausethatitwasoldandsomdelstreit Becauseitwasoldandsomewhatstrict 175ThisilkeMonkleetoldethyngespace, ThissameMonkletoldthingspassaway, 176Andheeldaftertheneweworldthespace. Andfollowedthebroadercustomsofmoderntimes. 177Heyafnatofthattextapulledhen, Hegavenotapluckedhenforthattext 178Thatseiththathuntersbennathoolymen, Thatsaysthathuntersarenotholymen, 179Nethatamonk,whanheisrecchelees, Northatamonk,whenheisheedlessofrules,

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180Isliknedtilafisshthatiswaterlees Islikeafishthatisoutofwater 181Thisistoseyn,amonkoutofhiscloystre. Thisistosay,amonkoutofhiscloister. 182Butthilketextheeldhenatworthanoystre; Butheconsideredthatsametextnotworthan oyster; 183AndIseydehisopinionwasgood. AndIsaidhisopinionwasgood. 184Whatsholdehestudieandmakehymselvenwood, Whyshouldhestudyandmakehimselfcrazy, 185Uponabookincloystrealweytopoure, Alwaystoporeuponabookinthecloister, 186Orswynkenwithhishandes,andlaboure, Orworkwithhishands,andlabor, 187AsAustynbit?Howshaltheworldbeserved? AsAugustinecommands?Howshalltheworldbe served? 188LatAustynhavehisswynktohymreserved! LetAugustinehavehisworkreservedtohim! 189Therforehewasaprikasouraright: Thereforehewasindeedavigoroushorseman: 190Grehoundeshehaddeasswiftasfowelinflight; Hehadgreyhoundsasswiftasfowlinflight; 191Ofprikyngandofhuntyngforthehare Oftrackingandofhuntingforthehare 192Wasalhislust,fornocostwoldehespare. Wasallhispleasure,bynomeanswouldherefrain fromit. 193Iseighhisslevespurfiledatthehond Isawhissleeveslinedatthehand 194Withgrys,andthatthefynesteofalond; Withsquirrelfur,andthatthefinestintheland; 195Andfortofestnehishoodunderhischyn, Andtofastenhishoodunderhischin, 196Hehaddeofgoldywroghtafulcuriouspyn; Hehadaveryskillfullymadepinofgold; 197Aloveknotteinthegretterendetherwas. Therewasanelaborateknotinthelargerend. 198Hisheedwasballed,thatshoonasanyglas, Hisheadwasbald,whichshonelikeanyglass, 199Andeekhisface,ashehaddebeenenoynt. Andhisfacedidtoo,asifhehadbeenrubbedwith oil. 200Hewasalordfulfatandingoodpoynt; Hewasaveryplumplordandingoodcondition; 201Hiseyenstepe,androllyngeinhisheed, Hiseyeswereprominent,androllinginhishead, 202Thatstemedasaforneysofaleed; Whichgleamedlikeafurnaceunderacauldron; 203Hisbootessouple,hishorsingreetestaat. Hisbootssupple,hishorseinexcellentcondition. 204Nowcerteinlyhewasafairprelaat; Nowcertainlyhewasahandsomeecclesiastical dignitary; 205Hewasnatpaleasaforpynedgoost. Hewasnotpaleasatormentedspirit. 206Afatswanlovedhebestofanyroost. Afatswanlovedhebestofanyroast. 207Hispalfreywasasbrounasisaberye. Hissaddlehorsewasasbrownasisaberry. 208AFREREtherwas,awantowneandamerye, TherewasaFRIAR,apleasurelovingandmerryone, 209Alymytour,afulsolempneman. Alimiter(withanassignedterritory),averysolemn man.

210Inalletheordresfoureisnoonthatkan Inallthefourordersoffriarsisnoonethatknows 211Somuchelofdaliaunceandfairlangage. Somuchofsociabilityandelegantspeech. 212Hehaddemaadfulmanyamariage Hehadmadeverymanyamarriage 213Ofyongewommenathisowenecost. Ofyoungwomenathisowncost. 214Untohisordrehewasanoblepost. Hewasanoblesupporterofhisorder. 215Fulwelbilovedandfamulierwashe Verywellbelovedandfamiliarwashe 216Withfrankeleynsoveralinhiscontree, Withlandownerseverywhereinhiscountry, 217Andeekwithworthywommenofthetoun; Andalsowithworthywomenofthetown; 218Forhehaddepowerofconfessioun, Forhehadpowerofconfession, 219Asseydehymself,moorethanacurat, Ashesaidhimself,morethanaparishpriest, 220Forofhisordrehewaslicenciat. Forhewaslicensedbyhisorder. 221Fulswetelyherdeheconfessioun, Heheardconfessionverysweetly, 222Andplesauntwashisabsolucioun: Andhisabsolutionwaspleasant: 223Hewasanesymantoyevepenaunce, Hewasalenientmaningivingpenance, 224Therashewistetohaveagoodpitaunce. Whereheknewhewouldhaveagoodgift. 225Foruntoapovreordrefortoyive Fortogivetoapoororder(offriars) 226Issignethatamaniswelyshryve; Isasignthatamaniswellconfessed; 227Forifheyaf,hedorstemakeavaunt, Forifhegave,he(thefriar)daredtoassert, 228Hewistethatamanwasrepentaunt; Heknewthatamanwasrepentant; 229Formanyamansohardisofhisherte, Formanyamanissohardinhisheart, 230Hemaynatwepe,althoghhymsooresmerte. Hecannotweep,althoughhepainfullysuffers. 231Therforeinstedeofwepyngeandpreyeres Thereforeinsteadofweepingandprayers 232Menmooteyevesilvertothepovrefreres. Onemaygivesilvertothepoorfriars. 233Histypetwasayfarsedfulofknyves Hishoodwasalwaysstuffedfullofknives 234Andpynnes,fortoyevenfairewyves. Andpins,togivetofairwives. 235Andcerteinlyhehaddeamuryenote: Andcertainlyhehadamerryvoice: 236Welkoudehesyngeandpleyenonarote; Hewellknewhowtosingandplayonarote(string instrument); 237Ofyeddyngeshebaaroutrelythepris. Heabsolutelytooktheprizeforrecitingballads. 238Hisnekkewhitwasastheflourdelys; Hisneckwaswhiteasalilyflower; 239Thertohestrongwasasachampioun. Furthermorehewasstrongasachampionfighter. 240Heknewthetaverneswelineverytoun Heknewthetavernswellineverytown 241Andeverichhostilerandtappestere Andeveryinnkeeperandbarmaid 242Betthanalazarorabeggestere, Betterthanaleperorabeggarwoman,

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243Foruntoswichaworthymanashe Foruntosuchaworthymanashe 244Acordednat,asbyhisfacultee, Itwasnotsuitable,inviewofhisofficialposition, 245Tohavewithsikelazarsaqueyntaunce. Tohaveacquaintancewithsicklepers. 246Itisnathonest;itmaynatavaunce, Itisnotrespectable;itcannotbeprofitable, 247Fortodeelenwithnoswichporaille, Todealwithanysuchpoorpeople, 248Butalwithricheandselleresofvitaille. Butallwithrichpeopleandsellersofvictuals. 249Andoveral,therasprofitsholdearise, Andeverywhere,whereprofitshouldarise, 250Curteishewasandlowelyofservyse; Hewascourteousandgraciouslyhumble; 251Thernasnomannowhersovertuous. Therewasnomananywheresocapable(ofsuch work). 252Hewasthebestebeggereinhishous; Hewasthebestbeggarinhishouse; 252a[Andyafacerteynfermeforthegraunt; [Andhegaveacertainfeeforhisgrant(ofbegging rights); 252aNoonofhisbretherencamtherinhishaunt;] Noneofhisbrethrencamethereinhisterritory;] 253Forthoghawydwehaddenoghtasho, Forthoughawidowhadnotashoe, 254Soplesauntwashis"Inprincipio," Sopleasantwashis"Inthebeginning," 255Yetwoldehehaveaferthyng,erhewente. Yethewouldhaveafarthing,beforehewentaway. 256Hispurchaswaswelbettrethanhisrente. Histotalprofitwasmuchmorethanhisproper income. 257Andragehekoude,asitwererightawhelp. Andheknewhowtofrolic,asifhewereindeeda pup. 258Inlovedayestherkoudehemuchelhelp, Heknewhowtobemuchhelpondaysforresolving disputes, 259Fortherhewasnatlykacloysterer Fortherehewasnotlikeacloisteredmonk 260Withathredbarecope,asisapovrescoler, Withathreadbarecope,likeapoorscholar, 261Buthewaslykamaisterorapope. Buthewaslikeamasterofartsorapope. 262Ofdoubleworstedewashissemycope, Ofwide(expensive)clothwashisshortcloak, 263Thatroundedasabelleoutofthepresse. Whichwasroundasabellfreshfromthe clothespress. 264Somwhathelipsed,forhiswantownesse, Somewhathelisped,forhisaffectation, 265TomakehisEnglisshsweeteuponhistonge; TomakehisEnglishsweetuponhistongue; 266Andinhisharpyng,whanthathehaddesonge, Andinhisharping,whenhehadsung, 267Hiseyentwynkledinhisheedaryght Hiseyestwinkledinhisheadexactly 268Asdoonthesterresinthefrostynyght. Asdothestarsinthefrostynight. 269ThisworthylymytourwasclepedHuberd. ThisworthyfriarwascalledHuberd. 270AMARCHANTwastherwithaforkedberd, TherewasaMERCHANTwithaforkedbeard,

271Inmottelee,andhyeonhorsehesat; Wearingparticoloredcloth,andproudlyhesaton hishorse; 272UponhisheedaFlaundrysshbeverhat, Uponhishead(heworea)Flemishbeaverhat, 273Hisbootesclaspedfaireandfetisly. Hisbootswerebuckledhandsomelyandelegantly. 274Hisresonshespakfulsolempnely, Hisopinionshespokeverysolemnly, 275Sownyngealweyth'encreesofhiswynnyng. Concerningalwaystheincreaseofhisprofits. 276Hewoldetheseewerekeptforanythyng Hewantedtheseatobeguardedatallcosts 277BitwixeMiddelburghandOrewelle. BetweenMiddelburgh(Holland)andOrwell (England). 278Welkoudeheineschaungesheeldesselle. Hewellknewhowtodealinforeigncurrencies. 279Thisworthymanfulwelhiswitbisette: Thisworthymanemployedhiswitverywell: 280Therwistenowightthathewasindette, Therewasnoonewhoknewthathewasindebt, 281Soestatlywasheofhisgovernaunce Hewassodignifiedinmanaginghisaffairs 282Withhisbargaynesandwithhischevyssaunce. Withhisbuyingandsellingandwithhisfinancial deals. 283Forsothehewasaworthymanwithalle, Truly,hewasaworthymanindeed, 284But,soothtoseyn,Inoothowmenhymcalle. But,tosaythetruth,Idonotknowwhatmencall him. 285ACLERKtherwasofOxenfordalso, TherewasalsoaCLERK(scholar)fromOxford, 286Thatuntologykhaddelongeygo. Wholongbeforehadbegunthestudyoflogic. 287Asleenewashishorsasisarake, Hishorsewasasleanasisarake, 288Andhenasnatrightfat,Iundertake, Andhewasnotveryfat,Iaffirm, 289Butlookedholwe,andthertosobrely. Butlookedemaciated,andmoreoverabstemious. 290Fulthredbarewashisoverestecourtepy, Hisshortovercoatwasverythreadbare, 291Forhehaddegetenhymyetnobenefice, Forhehadnotyetobtainedanecclesiasticalliving, 292Newassoworldlyfortohaveoffice. Norwasheworldlyenoughtotakesecular employment. 293Forhymwasleverehaveathisbeddesheed Forhewouldratherhaveattheheadofhisbed 294Twentybookes,cladinblakorreed, Twentybooks,boundinblackorred, 295OfAristotleandhisphilosophie OfAristotleandhisphilosophy 296Thanrobesriche,orfithele,orgaysautrie. Thanrichrobes,orafiddle,oranelegantpsaltery. 297Butalbethathewasaphilosophre, Buteventhoughhewasaphilosopher, 298Yethaddehebutlitelgoldincofre; Neverthelesshehadbutlittlegoldinhisstrongbox; 299Butalthathemyghteofhisfreendeshente, Butallthathecouldgetfromhisfriends, 300Onbookesandonlernyngeheitspente, Hespentonbooksandonlearning, 301Andbisilyganforthesoulespreye

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Anddiligentlydidprayforthesouls 302Ofhemthatyafhymwherwithtoscoleye. Ofthosewhogavehimthewherewithaltoattendthe schools. 303Ofstudietookhemoostcureandmoostheede. Hetookmostcareandpaidmostheedtostudy. 304Noghtowordspakhemoorethanwasneede, Hespokenotonewordmorethanwasneeded, 305Andthatwasseydinformeandreverence, Andthatwassaidwithdueformalityandrespect, 306Andshortandquykandfulofhysentence; Andshortandlivelyandfullofelevatedcontent; 307Sownyngeinmoralvertuwashisspeche, Hisspeechwasconsonantwithmoralvirtue, 308Andgladlywoldehelerneandgladlyteche. Andgladlywouldhelearnandgladlyteach. 309ASERGEANTOFTHELAWE,warandwys, ASERGEANTOFTHELAW(highrankingattorney), prudentandwise, 310ThatoftenhaddebeenattheParvys, WhooftenhadbeenatthePorchofSt.Paul's(where lawyersgather) 311Therwasalso,fulricheofexcellence. Wasalsothere,veryrichinsuperiorqualities. 312Discreethewasandofgreetreverence Hewasjudiciousandofgreatdignity 313Hesemedswich,hiswordeswerensowise. Heseemedsuch,hiswordsweresowise. 314Justicehewasfulofteninassise, Hewasveryoftenajudgeinthecourtofassizes, 315Bypatenteandbypleyncommissioun. Byroyalappointmentandwithfulljurisdiction. 316Forhisscienceandforhisheighrenoun, Forhisknowledgeandforhisexcellentreputation, 317Offeesandrobeshaddehemanyoon. Hehadmanygrantsofyearlyincome. 318Sogreetapurchasourwasnowhernoon: Therewasnowheresogreatalandbuyer: 319Alwasfeesympletohymineffect; Infact,allwasunrestrictedpossessiontohim; 320Hispurchasyngmyghtenatbeeninfect. Hispurchasingcouldnotbeinvalidated. 321Nowhersobisyamanashethernas, Therewasnowheresobusyamanashe, 322Andyethesemedbisierthanhewas. Andyetheseemedbusierthanhewas. 323Intermeshaddehecaasanddoomesalle HehadinYearBooksallthecasesanddecisions 324ThatfromthetymeofkyngWilliamwerefalle. ThatfromthetimeofkingWilliamhaveoccurred. 325Thertohekoudeenditeandmakeathyng, Furthermore,heknewhowtocomposeanddrawup alegaldocument, 326Therkoudenowightpyncheathiswrityng; Sothatnoonecouldfindaflawinhiswriting; 327Andeverystatutkoudehepleynbyrote. Andhekneweverystatutecompletelybyheart. 328Heroodbuthoomlyinamedleecote, Herodebutsimplyinaparticoloredcoat, 329Girtwithaceintofsilk,withbarressmale; Girdedwithabeltofsilk,withsmallstripes; 330OfhisarraytelleInolengertale. Itellnolongertaleofhisclothing. 331AFRANKELEYNwasinhiscompaignye. AFRANKLINwasinhiscompany.

332Whitwashisberdasisthedayesye; Hisbeardwaswhiteasadaisy; 333Ofhiscomplexiounhewassangwyn. Astohistemperament,hewasdominatedbythe humorblood. 334Wellovedhebythemorweasopinwyn; Hewelllovedabitofbreaddippedinwineinthe morning; 335Tolyvenindelitwaseverehiswone, Hiscustomwasalwaystoliveindelight, 336ForhewasEpicurusowenesone, ForhewasEpicurus'ownson, 337Thatheeldopiniounthatpleyndelit Whoheldtheopinionthatpurepleasure 338Wasverrayfeliciteeparfit. Wastrulyperfecthappiness. 339Anhousholdere,andthatagreet,washe; Hewasahouseholder,andagreatoneatthat; 340SeintJulianhewasinhiscontree. HewasSaintJulian(patronofhospitality)inhis country. 341Hisbreed,hisale,wasalweysafteroon; Hisbread,hisale,wasalwaysofthesame(good) quality; 342Abettreenvynedmanwasnowhernoon. Nowherewasthereanymanbetterstockedwith wine. 343Withoutebakemetewasneverehishous, Hishousewasneverwithoutbakedpies 344Offisshandflessh,andthatsoplentevous Offishandmeat,andthatsoplentiful 345Itsnewedinhishousofmeteanddrynke; Thatinhishouseitsnowedwithfoodanddrink; 346Ofalledeynteesthatmenkoudethynke, Ofallthedaintiesthatmencouldimagine, 347Afterthesondrysesonsoftheyeer, Inaccordwiththevariousseasonsoftheyear, 348Sochaungedhehismeteandhissoper. Sohevariedhismiddaymealandhissupper. 349Fulmanyafatpartrichhaddeheinmuwe, Hehadverymanyfatpartridgesinpens, 350Andmanyabreemandmanyaluceinstuwe. Andmanyabreamandmanyapikeinhisfishpond. 351Wowashiscookbutifhissaucewere Woewashiscookunlesshissaucewas 352Poynauntandsharp,andredyalhisgeere. Hotlyspicedandsharp,andreadyallhiscooking equipment. 353Histabledormantinhishallealway Inhishallhisdiningtablealways 354Stoodredycoveredalthelongeday. Stoodcovered(withtablecloth)andreadyallthe longday. 355Atsessiounstherwashelordandsire; Hepresidedaslordandsireatcourtsessions; 356Fuloftetymehewasknyghtoftheshire. Hewasamemberofparliamentmanytimes. 357Ananlaasandagipseralofsilk Adaggerandapurseallofsilk 358Heengathisgirdel,whitasmornemilk. Hungathisbelt,whiteasmorningmilk. 359Ashirrevehaddehebeen,andacontour. Hehadbeenasheriff,andanauditoroftaxes. 360Wasnowherswichaworthyvavasour. Therewasnowheresuchaworthylandowner.

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361ANHABERDASSHEREandaCARPENTER, AHABERDASHERandaCARPENTER, 362AWEBBE,aDYERE,andaTAPYCER AWEAVER,aDYER,andaTAPESTRYMAKER 363Andtheywereclothedalleinolyveree Andtheywereallclothedinonelivery 364Ofasolempneandagreetfraternitee. Ofasolemnandagreatparishguild. 365Fulfresshandnewehirgeereapikedwas; Theirequipmentwasadornedallfreshlyandnew; 366Hirknyveswerechapednoghtwithbras Theirkniveswerenotmountedwithbrass 367Butalwithsilver,wroghtfulcleneandweel, Butentirelywithsilver,wroughtveryneatlyandwell, 368Hiregirdlesandhirpoucheseverydeel. Theirbeltsandtheirpurseseverybit. 369Welsemedechofhemafairburgeys Eachofthemwellseemedasolidcitizen 370Tositteninayeldehalleonadeys. Tositonadaisinacityhall. 371Everich,forthewisdomthathekan, Everyoneofthem,forthewisdomthatheknows, 372Wasshaplyfortobeenanalderman. Wassuitabletobeanalderman. 373Forcatelhaddetheyynoghandrente, Fortheyhadenoughpossessionsandincome, 374Andeekhirwyveswoldeitwelassente; Andalsotheirwiveswouldwellassenttoit; 375Andellescerteynweretheytoblame. Andotherwisecertainlytheywouldbetoblame. 376Itisfulfairtobeenycleped"madame," Itisveryfinetobecalled"mylady," 377Andgoontovigiliesalbifore, Andgotofeastsonholidayevesheadingthe procession, 378Andhaveamantelroiallicheybore. Andhaveagownwithatrainroyallycarried. 379ACOOKtheyhaddewithhemforthenones ACOOKtheyhadwiththemfortheoccasion 380Toboillethechikneswiththemarybones, Toboilthechickenswiththemarrowbones, 381Andpoudremarchanttartandgalyngale. Andtartpoudremarchantandgalingale(spices). 382WelkoudeheknoweadraughteofLondounale. HewellknewhowtojudgeadraftofLondonale. 383Hekouderooste,andsethe,andbroille,andfrye, Heknewhowtoroast,andboil,andbroil,andfry, 384Makenmortreux,andwelbakeapye. Makestews,andwellbakeapie. 385Butgreetharmwasit,asitthoughteme, Butitwasagreatharm,asitseemedtome, 386Thatonhisshyneamormalhaddehe. Thathehadanopensoreonhisshin. 387Forblankmanger,thatmadehewiththebeste. Asforwhitepudding,hemadethatofthebest quality. 388ASHIPMANwasther,wonyngeferbyweste; ASHIPMANwasthere,dwellingfarinthewest; 389ForaughtIwoot,hewasofDertemouthe. ForallIknow,hewasfromDartmouth. 390Herooduponarouncy,ashekouthe, Herodeuponacarthorse,insofarasheknewhow, 391Inagowneoffaldyngtotheknee. Inagownofwoolencloth(thatreached)totheknee. 392Adaggerehangyngeonalaashaddehe

Hehadadaggerhangingonacord 393Aboutehisnekke,underhisarmadoun. Abouthisneck,downunderhisarm. 394Thehootesomerhaddemaadhishewealbroun; Thehotsummerhadmadehishueallbrown; 395Andcerteinlyhewasagoodfelawe. Andcertainlyhewasabooncompanion. 396Fulmanyadraughteofwynhadheydrawe Hehaddrawnverymanyadraftofwine 397FroBurdeuxward,whilthatthechapmansleep. WhilecomingfromBordeaux,whilethemerchant slept. 398Ofnyceconsciencetookhenokeep. Hehadnoconcernforascrupulousconscience. 399Ifthathefaughtandhaddethehyerhond, Ifhefoughtandhadtheupperhand, 400Bywaterhesentehemhoomtoeverylond. Hesentthemhomebywatertoeveryland(they walkedtheplank). 401Butofhiscrafttorekenewelhistydes, Butofhisskilltoreckonwellhistides, 402Hisstremes,andhisdaungershymbisides, Hiscurrents,andhisperilsnearathand, 403Hisherberwe,andhismoone,hislodemenage, Hisharbors,andpositionsofhismoon,his navigation, 404ThernasnoonswichfromHulletoCartage. TherewasnoneothersuchfromHulltoCartagena (Spain). 405Hardyhewasandwystoundertake; Hewasboldandprudentinhisundertakings; 406Withmanyatempesthaddehisberdbeenshake. Hisbeardhadbeenshakenbymanyatempest. 407Heknewallethehavenes,astheywere, Heknewalltheharbors,howtheywere, 408FroGootlondtothecapeofFynystere, FromGotlandtotheCapeofFinisterre, 409AndeverycrykeinBritaigneandinSpayne. AndeveryinletinBrittanyandinSpain. 410HisbargeyclepedwastheMaudelayne. HisshipwascalledtheMaudelayne. 411WithustherwasaDOCTOUROFPHISIK; WithustherewasaDOCTOROFMEDICINE 412Inalthisworldnewasthernoonhymlik, Inallthisworldtherewasnoonelikehim, 413Tospekeofphisikandofsurgerye, Tospeakofmedicineandofsurgery, 414Forhewasgroundedinastronomye. Forhewasinstructedinastronomy. 415Hekeptehispacientafulgreetdeel Hetookcareofhispatientverymanytimes 416Inhouresbyhismagyknatureel. In(astronomicallysuitable)hoursby(useof)his naturalscience. 417Welkoudehefortunentheascendent Hewellknewhowtocalculatetheplanetaryposition 418Ofhisymagesforhispacient. Ofhisastronomicaltalismansforhispatient. 419Heknewthecauseofeverichmaladye, Heknewthecauseofeverymalady, 420Wereitofhoot,orcoold,ormoyste,ordrye, Wereitofhot,orcold,ormoist,ordryelements, 421Andwheretheyengendred,andofwhathumour. Andwheretheywereengendered,andbywhat bodilyfluid. 422Hewasaverray,parfitpraktisour:

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Hewasatruly,perfectpractitioner: 423Thecauseyknowe,andofhisharmtheroote, Thecauseknown,andthesourceofhis(patient's) harm, 424Anonheyafthesikemanhisboote. Straightwayhegavethesickmanhisremedy. 425Fulredyhaddehehisapothecaries Hehadhisapothecariesallready 426Tosendehymdroggesandhisletuaries, Tosendhimdrugsandhiselectuaries, 427Forechofhemmadeootherfortowynne Foreachofthemmadetheothertoprofit 428Hirfrendshipenasnatnewetobigynne. Theirfriendshipwasnotrecentlybegun. 429WelknewhetheoldeEsculapius, HewellknewtheoldAesculapius, 430AndDeyscorides,andeekRufus, AndDioscorides,andalsoRufus, 431OldeYpocras,Haly,andGalyen, OldHippocrates,Haly,andGalen, 432Serapion,Razis,andAvycen, Serapion,Rhazes,andAvicenna, 433Averrois,Damascien,andConstantyn, Averroes,JohntheDamascan,andConstantine, 434Bernard,andGatesden,andGilbertyn. Bernard,andGaddesden,andGilbertus. 435Ofhisdietemesurablewashe, Hewasmoderateinhisdiet, 436Foritwasofnosuperfluitee, Foritwasofnoexcess, 437Butofgreetnorissynganddigestible. Butgreatlynourishinganddigestible. 438HisstudiewasbutlitelontheBible. HisstudywasbutlittleontheBible. 439Insangwynandinpershecladwasal, Hewascladallinredandinblue, 440Lynedwithtaffataandwithsendal. Linedwithtaffetaandwithsilk. 441Andyethewasbutesyofdispence; Andyethewasmoderateinspending; 442Hekeptethathewaninpestilence. Hekeptwhatheearnedin(timesof)plague. 443Forgoldinphisikisacordial, Sinceinmedicinegoldisarestorativefortheheart, 444Thereforehelovedegoldinspecial. Thereforehelovedgoldinparticular. 445AgoodWIFwastherOFbisideBATHE, TherewasagoodWIFEOFbesideBATH, 446Butshewassomdeldeef,andthatwasscathe. Butshewassomewhatdeaf,andthatwasapity. 447Ofcloothmakyngshehaddeswichanhaunt Shehadsuchaskillinclothmaking 448ShepassedhemofYpresandofGaunt. ShesurpassedthemofYpresandofGhent. 449Inaltheparisshewifnewasthernoon Inalltheparishtherewasnowife 450Thattotheoffryngebiforehiresholdegoon; WhoshouldgototheOfferingbeforeher; 451Andiftherdide,certeynsowroothwasshe Andiftheredid,certainlyshewassoangry 452Thatshewasoutofallecharitee. Thatshewasoutofallcharity(loveforherneighbor). 453Hircoverchiefsfulfynewerenofground; Herkerchiefswereveryfineintexture; 454Idorstesweretheyweyedentenpound Idaresweartheyweighedtenpound

455ThatonaSondaywerenuponhirheed. ThatonaSundaywereuponherhead. 456Hirhosenwerenoffynscarletreed, Herstockingswereoffinescarletred, 457Fulstreiteyteyd,andshoesfulmoysteandnewe. Verycloselylaced,andshoesverysuppleandnew. 458Booldwashirface,andfair,andreedofhewe. Boldwasherface,andfair,andredofhue. 459Shewasaworthywommanalhirlyve: Shewasaworthywomanallherlife: 460Housbondesatchirchedoreshehaddefyve, Shehad(married)fivehusbandsatthechurchdoor, 461Withoutenoothercompaignyeinyouthe Notcountingothercompanyinyouth 462Butthereofnedethnattospekeasnowthe. Butthereisnoneedtospeakofthatrightnow. 463AndthrieshaddeshebeenatJerusalem; AndshehadbeenthreetimesatJerusalem; 464Shehaddepassedmanyastraungestrem; Shehadpassedmanyaforeignsea; 465AtRomeshehaddebeen,andatBoloigne, ShehadbeenatRome,andatBoulogne, 466InGaliceatSeintJame,andatColoigne. InGaliciaatSaintJames(ofCompostella),andat Cologne. 467Shekoudemuchelofwandryngebytheweye. Sheknewmuchaboutwanderingbytheway. 468Gattothedwasshe,soothlyfortoseye. Shehadteethwidelysetapart,trulytosay. 469Uponanamblereesilyshesat, Shesateasilyuponapacinghorse, 470Ywympledwel,andonhirheedanhat Wearingalargewimple,andonherheadahat 471Asbroodasisabokeleroratarge; Asbroadasabucklerorashield; 472Afootmantelaboutehirhipeslarge, Anoverskirtaboutherlargehips, 473Andonhirfeetapaireofsporessharpe. Andonherfeetapairofsharpspurs. 474Infelaweshipewelkoudeshelaugheandcarpe. Infellowshipshewellknewhowtolaughandchatter. 475Ofremediesoflovesheknewperchaunce, Sheknew,asithappened,aboutremediesforlove 476Forshekoudeofthatarttheoldedaunce. Forsheknewtheolddance(tricksofthetrade)of thatart. 477Agoodmanwastherofreligioun, Agoodmanwasthereofreligion, 478AndwasapovrePERSOUNOFATOUN, And(he)wasapoorPARSONOFATOWN, 479Butrichehewasofhoolythoghtandwerk. Buthewasrichinholythoughtandwork. 480Hewasalsoalernedman,aclerk, Hewasalsoalearnedman,ascholar, 481ThatCristesgospeltrewelywoldepreche; WhowouldpreachChrist'sgospeltruly; 482Hisparisshensdevoutlywoldeheteche. Hewoulddevoutlyteachhisparishioners. 483Benygnehewas,andwonderdiligent, Hewasgracious,andwonderfullydiligent, 484Andinadversiteefulpacient, Andverypatientinadversity, 485Andswichhewasyprevedoftesithes. Andsuchhewasprovenmanytimes. 486Fulloothwerehymtocursenforhistithes, Hewasveryreluctanttoexcommunicatefor

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(nonpaymentof)histithes, 487Butratherwoldeheyeven,outofdoute, Butratherwouldhegive,thereisnodoubt, 488Untohispovreparisshensaboute Untohispoorparishionersabout 489Ofhisoffryngandeekofhissubstaunce. Someofhisoffering(receivedatmass)andalsosome ofhisincome. 490Hekoudeinlitelthynghavesuffisaunce. Heknewhowtohavesufficiencyinfewpossessions. 491Wydwashisparisshe,andhousesferasonder, Hisparishwaswide,andhousesfarapart, 492Butheneleftenat,forreynnethonder, Buthedidnotomit,forrainnorthunder, 493Insiknessenorinmeschieftovisite Insicknessorintroubletovisit 494Theferresteinhisparisshe,mucheandlite, Thoselivingfarthestawayinhisparish,highranking andlow, 495Uponhisfeet,andinhishandastaf. Goingbyfoot,andinhishandastaff. 496Thisnobleensampletohissheepheyaf, Hegavethisnobleexampletohissheep, 497Thatfirsthewroghte,andafterwardhetaughte. Thatfirsthewrought,andafterwardhetaught. 498Outofthegospelhethowordescaughte, Hetookthosewordsoutofthegospel, 499Andthisfigureheaddedeektherto, Andthismetaphorheaddedalsotothat, 500Thatifgoldruste,whatshalirendo? Thatifgoldrust,whatmustirondo? 501Forifapreestbefoul,onwhomwetruste, Forifapriest,onwhomwetrust,shouldbefoul 502Nowonderisalewedmantoruste; Itisnowonderforalaymantogobad; 503Andshameitis,ifapresttakekeep, Anditisashame,ifapriestisconcerned: 504Ashitenshepherdeandaclenesheep. Ashitstainedshepherdandacleansheep. 505Weloghteapreestensamplefortoyive, Welloughtapriesttogiveanexample, 506Byhisclennesse,howthathissheepsholdelyve. Byhispurity,howhissheepshouldlive. 507Hesettenathisbeneficetohyre Hedidnotrentouthisbenefice(ecclesiasticalliving) 508Andleethissheepencombredinthemyre Andleavehissheepencumberedinthemire 509AndrantoLondoununtoSeintePoules AndruntoLondonuntoSaintPaul's 510Tosekenhymachaunterieforsoules, Toseekanappointmentasachantrypriest(praying forapatron) 511Orwithabretherhedtobeenwithholde; Ortobehired(asachaplain)byaguild; 512Butdwelteathoom,andkeptewelhisfolde, Butdweltathome,andkeptwellhissheepfold (parish), 513Sothatthewolfnemadeitnatmyscarie; Sothatthewolfdidnotmakeitgowrong; 514Hewasashepherdeandnoghtamercenarie. Hewasashepherdandnotahireling. 515Andthoughhehoolywereandvertuous, Andthoughhewasholyandvirtuous, 516Hewastosynfulmennatdespitous, Hewasnotscornfultosinfulmen, 517Neofhisspechedaungerousnedigne, Nordomineeringnorhaughtyinhisspeech,

518Butinhistechyngdiscreetandbenygne. Butinhisteachingcourteousandkind. 519Todrawenfolktohevenebyfairnesse, Todrawfolktoheavenbygentleness, 520Bygoodensample,thiswashisbisynesse. Bygoodexample,thiswashisbusiness. 521Butitwereanypersoneobstinat, Unlessitwereanobstinateperson, 522Whatsohewere,ofheighorloughestat, Whoeverhewas,ofhighorlowrank, 523Hymwoldehesnybbensharplyforthenonys. Hewouldrebukehimsharplyatthattime. 524AbettrepreestItrowethatnowhernoonys. Ibelievethatnowhereisthereabetterpriest. 525Hewaitedafternopompeandreverence, Heexpectednopompandceremony, 526Nemakedhimaspicedconscience, Normadehimselfanoverlyfastidiousconscience, 527ButCristeslooreandhisapostlestwelve ButChrist'steachingandHistwelveapostles 528Hetaughte;butfirsthefolwedithymselve. Hetaught;butfirsthefollowedithimself. 529WithhymtherwasaPLOWMAN,washisbrother, WithhimtherewasaPLOWMAN,whowashis brother, 530Thathaddeyladofdongfulmanyafother; Whohadhauledverymanyacartloadofdung; 531Atreweswynkereandagoodwashe, Hewasatrueandgoodworker, 532Lyvyngeinpeesandparfitcharitee. Livinginpeaceandperfectlove. 533Godlovedhebestwithalhishooleherte HelovedGodbestwithallhiswholeheart 534Atalletymes,thoghhimgamedorsmerte, Atalltimes,whetheritpleasedorpainedhim, 535Andthannehisneigheborrightashymselve. Andthen(heloved)hisneighborexactlyashimself. 536Hewoldethresshe,andthertodykeanddelve, Hewouldthresh,andmoreovermakeditchesand dig, 537ForCristessake,foreverypovrewight, ForChrist'ssake,foreverypoorperson, 538Withoutenhire,ifitlayinhismyght. Withoutpayment,ifitlayinhispower. 539Histithespaydehefulfaireandwel, Hepaidhistithescompletelyandwell, 540Botheofhispropreswynkandhiscatel. Bothofhisownlaborandofhispossessions. 541Inatabardherooduponamere. Herodeinatabard(sleevelessjacket)uponamare. 542TherwasalsoaREVE,andaMILLERE, TherewasalsoaREEVE,andaMILLER, 543ASOMNOUR,andaPARDONERalso, ASUMMONER,andaPARDONERalso, 544AMAUNCIPLE,andmyselftherwerenamo. AMANCIPLE,andmyselftherewerenomore. 545TheMILLEREwasastoutcarlforthenones; TheMILLERwasastoutfellowindeed; 546Fulbyghewasofbrawn,andeekofbones. Hewasverystrongofmuscle,andalsoofbones. 547Thatprovedwel,foroveraltherhecam, Thatwaswellproven,forwhereverhecame, 548Atwrastlyngehewoldehavealweytheram.

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Atwrestlinghewouldalwaystakethetheprize. 549Hewasshortsholdred,brood,athikkeknarre; Hewasstoutlybuilt,broad,alargeframedfellow; 550Therwasnodorethathenoldeheveofharre, Therewasnodoorthathewouldnotheaveoffits hinges, 551Orbrekeitatarennyngwithhisheed. Orbreakitbyrunningatitwithhishead. 552Hisberdasanysoweorfoxwasreed, Hisbeardwasredasanysoworfox, 553Andthertobrood,asthoughitwereaspade. Andmoreoverbroad,asthoughitwereaspade. 554Uponthecoprightofhisnosehehade Upontheexacttopofhisnosehehad 555Awerte,andtheronstoodatoftofherys, Awart,andthereonstoodatuftofhairs, 556Reedasthebrustlesofasoweserys; Redasthebristlesofasow'sears; 557Hisnosethirlesblakewereandwyde. Hisnostrilswereblackandwide. 558Aswerdandabokelerbarhebyhissyde. Heworeaswordandabucklerbyhisside. 559Hismouthasgreetwasasagreetforneys. Hismouthwasaslargeasalargefurnace. 560Hewasajanglereandagoliardeys, Hewasaloudmouthandabuffoon, 561Andthatwasmoostofsynneandharlotries. Andthatwasmostlyofsinanddeedsofharlotry. 562Welkoudehestelencornandtollenthries; Hewellknewhowtostealcornandtakepayment threetimes; 563Andyethehaddeathombeofgold,pardee. Andyethehadathumbofgold,indeed. 564Awhitcoteandablewhoodweredhe. Heworeawhitecoatandabluehood. 565Abaggepipewelkoudehebloweandsowne, Hewellknewhowtoblowandplayabagpipe, 566Andtherwithalhebroghteusoutoftowne. Andwiththathebroughtusoutoftown. 567AgentilMAUNCIPLEwastherofatemple, TherewasafineMANCIPLEofatemple(lawschool), 568Ofwhichachatoursmyghtetakeexemple Ofwhombuyersofprovisionsmighttakeexample 569Fortobewiseinbyyngeofvitaille; Forhowtobewiseinbuyingofvictuals; 570Forwheitherthathepaydeortookbytaille, Forwhetherhepaid(cash)ortook(goods)oncredit, 571Algatehewaytedsoinhisachaat Alwayshewatchedso(carefullyforhisopportunity) inhispurchases 572Thathewasaybifornandingoodstaat. Thathewasalwaysaheadandingoodstate. 573NowisnatthatofGodafulfairgrace NowisnotthataveryfairgraceofGod 574Thatswichalewedmanneswitshalpace Thatsuchanunlearnedman'switshallsurpass 575Thewisdomofanheepoflernedmen? Thewisdomofaheapoflearnedmen? 576Ofmaistreshaddehemothanthriesten, Hehadmorethanthreetimestenmasters, 577Thatwerenoflaweexpertandcurious, Whowereexpertandskillfulinlaw, 578Ofwhichtherwereaduszeyneinthathous Ofwhomtherewereadozeninthathouse 579Worthytobeenstywardesofrenteandlond Worthytobestewardsofrentandland

580OfanylordthatisinEngelond, OfanylordthatisinEngland, 581Tomakehymlyvebyhispropregood Tomakehimlivebyhisownwealth 582Inhonourdettelees(butifhewerewood), Inhonoranddebtless(unlesshewerecrazy), 583Orlyveasscarslyashymlistdesire; Orliveaseconomicallyasitpleasedhimtodesire; 584Andablefortohelpenalashire And(theywouldbe)abletohelpallashire 585Inanycaasthatmyghtefalleorhappe. Inanyemergencythatmightoccurorhappen. 586AndyetthisManciplesettehirallercappe. AndyetthisManciplefooledthemall. 587TheREVEwasasclendrecolerikman. TheREEVEwasaslendercholericman. 588Hisberdwasshaveasnyaseverhekan; Hisbeardwasshavedascloseaseverhecan; 589Hisheerwasbyhiserysfulroundyshorn; Hishairwascloselycroppedbyhisears; 590Histopwasdokkedlykapreestbiforn. Thetopofhisheadinfrontwascutshortlikea priest's. 591Fullongewerehisleggesandfullene, Hislegswereverylongandverylean, 592Ylykastaf;therwasnocalfysene. Likeastick;therewasnocalftobeseen. 593Welkoudehekepeagernerandabynne; Hewellknewhowtokeepagranaryandastorage bin; 594Therwasnoonauditourkoudeonhimwynne. Therewasnoauditorwhocouldearnanything(by catchinghim). 595Welwistehebythedroghteandbythereyn Hewellknewbythedroughtandbytherain 596Theyeldyngeofhisseedandofhisgreyn. (Whatwouldbe)theyieldofhisseedandofhisgrain. 597Hislordessheep,hisneet,hisdayerye, Hislord'ssheep,hiscattle,hisherdofdairycows, 598Hisswyn,hishors,hisstoor,andhispultrye Hisswine,hishorses,hislivestock,andhispoultry 599WashoollyinthisRevesgovernynge, WaswhollyinthisReeve'scontrol, 600Andbyhiscovenantyaftherekenynge, Andinaccordwithhiscontracthegavethe reckoning, 601Synthathislordwastwentyyeerofage. Sincehislordwastwentyyearsofage. 602Therkoudenomanbryngehyminarrerage. Therewasnomanwhocouldfindhiminarrears. 603Thernasbaillif,nehierde,norootherhyne, Therewasnofarmmanager,norherdsman,nor otherservant, 604Thatheneknewhissleighteandhiscovyne; Whosetrickeryandtreacheryhedidnotknow; 605Theywereadradofhymasofthedeeth. Theywereafraidofhimasoftheplague. 606Hiswonyngwasfulfaireuponanheeth; Hisdwellingwasverynicelysituateduponanheath; 607Withgrenetreesyshadwedwashisplace. Hisplacewasshadedbygreentrees. 608Hekoudebettrethanhislordpurchace. Hecouldbuypropertybetterthanhislordcould. 609Fulrichehewasastoredpryvely. Hewassecretlyveryrichlyprovided. 610Hislordwelkoudeheplesensubtilly,

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Hewellknewhowtopleasehislordsubtly, 611Toyeveandlenehymofhisowenegood, Bygivingandlendinghimsomeofhislord'sown possessions, 612Andhaveathank,andyetacoteandhood. Andhavethanks,andalsoacoatandhood(asa reward). 613Inyouthehehaddelernedagoodmyster: Inyouthhehadlearnedagoodcraft: 614Hewasawelgoodwrighte,acarpenter. Hewasaverygoodcraftsman,acarpenter. 615ThisRevesatuponafulgoodstot ThisReevesatuponaverygoodhorse 616ThatwasalpomelygreyandhighteScot. ThatwasalldapplegrayandwascalledScot. 617Alongsurcoteofpersuponhehade, Hehadonalongoutercoatofdarkblue, 618Andbyhissydehebaararustyblade. Andbyhissideheworearustysword. 619OfNorthfolkwasthisReveofwhichItelle, OfNorthfolkwasthisReeveofwhomItell, 620BisideatounmenclepenBaldeswelle. NeartoatownmencallBawdeswelle. 621Tukkedhewasasisafrereaboute, Hehadhiscoathitchedupandbelted,likeafriar, 622Andevereheroodthehyndresteofoureroute. Andeverherodeasthelastofourcompany. 623ASOMONOURwastherwithusinthatplace, TherewasaSUMMONERwithusinthatplace, 624Thathaddeafyrreedcherubynnesface, Whohadafireredcherubim'sface, 625Forsaucefleemhewas,witheyennarwe. Foritwaspimpledanddiscolored,withswollen eyelids. 626Ashoothewasandlecherousasasparwe, Hewasashotandlecherousasasparrow, 627Withscalledbrowesblakeandpiledberd. Withblack,scabbybrowsandabeardwithhairfallen out. 628Ofhisvisagechildrenwereaferd. Childrenwereafraidofhisface. 629Thernasquyksilver,lytarge,nebrymstoon, Therewasnomercury,leadmonoxide,norsulphur, 630Boras,ceruce,neoilleoftartrenoon, Borax,whitelead,noranyoiloftarter, 631Neoynementthatwoldeclenseandbyte, Norointmentthatwouldcleanseandburn, 632Thathymmyghtehelpenofhiswhelkeswhite, Thatcouldcurehimofhiswhitepustules, 633Noroftheknobbessittyngeonhischekes. Noroftheknobssittingonhischeeks. 634Wellovedhegarleek,oynons,andeeklekes, Hewelllovedgarlic,onions,andalsoleeks, 635Andfortodrynkenstrongwyn,reedasblood; Andtodrinkstrongwine,redasblood; 636Thannewoldehespekeandcrieashewerewood. Thenhewouldspeakandcryoutasifhewerecrazy. 637Andwhanthatheweldronkenhaddethewyn, Andwhenhehaddrunkdeeplyofthewine, 638ThannewoldehespekenowordbutLatyn. ThenhewouldspeaknowordbutLatin. 639Afewetermeshaddehe,twoorthre, Hehadafewlegalterms,twoorthree, 640Thathehadlernedoutofsomdecree Thathehadlearnedoutofsometextofecclesiastical law

641Nowonderis,heherdeitaltheday; Thatisnowonder,hehearditalltheday; 642Andeekyeknowenwelhowthatajay Andalsoyouknowwellhowajay 643Kanclepen"Watte"aswelaskanthepope. Cancallout"Walter"aswellasthepopecan. 644Butwhosokoudeinootherthynghymgrope, Butwhoeverknewhowtoexaminehiminother matters, 645Thannehaddehespentalhisphilosophie; (Wouldfindthat)hehadusedupallhislearning; 646Ay"Questioquidiuris"woldehecrie. Always"Thequestionis,whatpointofthelaw applies?"hewouldcry. 647Hewasagentilharlotandakynde; Hewasafinerascalandakindone; 648Abettrefelawesholdemennoghtfynde. Onecouldnotfindabetterfellow. 649Hewoldesuffreforaquartofwyn Foraquartofwinehewouldallow 650Agoodfelawetohavehisconcubyn Agoodfellowtohavehisconcubine 651Atwelfmonth,andexcusehymattefulle; Fortwelvemonths,andexcusehimcompletely; 652Fulprivelyafyncheekkoudehepulle. Secretlyhealsoknewhowtopulloffaclevertrick. 653Andifhefoondowheragoodfelawe, Andifhefoundanywhereagoodfellow, 654Hewoldetechenhimtohavenoonawe Hewouldteachhimtohavenoawe 655Inswichcaasoftheercedekenescurs, Ofthearchdeacon'scurse(ofexcommunication)in suchacase, 656Butifamannessoulewereinhispurs; Unlessaman'ssoulwereinhispurse; 657Forinhispurshesholdeypunysshedbe. Forinhispursehewouldbepunished. 658"Pursistheercedekeneshelle,"seydehe. "Purseisthearchdeacon'shell,"hesaid. 659ButwelIwoothelyedrightindede; ButwellIknowheliedrightcertainly; 660Ofcursyngoghteechgiltymanhimdrede, Eachguiltymanoughttobeafraidof excommunication, 661Forcurswolsleerightasassoillyngsavith, Forexcommunicationwillslayjustasforgiveness saves, 662AndalsowarhymofaSignificavit. AndlethimalsobewareofaSignificavit(orderfor imprisonment). 663Indaungerhaddeheathisowenegise Inhiscontrolhehadashepleased 664Theyongegirlesofthediocise, Theyoungpeopleofthediocese, 665Andknewhirconseil,andwasalhirreed. Andknewtheirsecrets,andwastheadviserofthem all. 666Agerlandhaddehesetuponhisheed, Hehadsetagarlanduponhisheed, 667Asgreetasitwereforanalestake. Aslargeasifitwereforthesignofatavern 668Abokeleerhaddehemaadhymofacake. Hehadmadehimselfashieldofacake. 669WithhymtherroodagentilPARDONER WithhimthererodeafinePARDONER 670OfRouncivale,hisfreendandhiscompeer,

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OfRouncivale,hisfriendandhiscompanion, 671ThatstreightwascomenfrothecourtofRome. WhohadcomestraightfromthecourtofRome. 672Fulloudehesoong"Comhider,love,tome!" Veryloudhesang"Comehither,love,tome!" 673ThisSomonourbartohymastifburdoun; ThisSummonerharmonizedwithhiminastrong bass; 674Wasneveretrompeofhalfsogreetasoun. Therewasneveratrumpetofhalfsogreatasound. 675ThisPardonerhaddeheerasyelowaswex, ThisPardonerhadhairasyellowaswax, 676Butsmotheitheengasdoothastrikeofflex; Butsmoothithungasdoesaclumpofflax; 677Byounceshengehislokkesthathehadde, Bysmallstrandshungsuchlocksashehad, 678Andtherwithhehisshuldresoverspradde; Andhespreadthemoverhisshoulders; 679Butthynneitlay,bycolponsoonandoon. Butthinitlay,bystrandsonebyone. 680Buthood,forjolitee,weredhenoon, Buttomakeanattractiveappearance,heworeno hood, 681Foritwastrussedupinhiswalet. Foritwastrussedupinhisknapsack. 682Hymthoughteheroodalofthenewejet; Itseemedtohimthatherodeintheverylateststyle; 683Dischevelee,savehiscappe,heroodalbare. Withhairunbound,saveforhiscap,herodeallbare headed. 684Swicheglaryngeeyenhaddeheasanhare. Hehadglaringeyessuchashasahare. 685Avernyclehaddehesoweduponhiscappe. HehadsewnaVeronicauponhiscap. 686Hiswalet,bifornhyminhislappe, Beforehiminhislap,(hehad)hisknapsack, 687BretfulofpardouncomenfromRomealhoot. BrimfulofpardonscomeallfreshfromRome. 688Avoyshehaddeassmalashathagoot. Hehadavoiceassmallasagoathas. 689Noberdhaddehe,neneveresholdehave; Hehadnobeard,norneverwouldhave; 690Assmotheitwasasitwerelateshave. It(hisface)wasassmoothasifitwererecently shaven. 691Itrowehewereageldyngoramare. Ibelievehewasaeunuchorahomosexual. 692Butofhiscraft,froBerwykintoWare Butastohiscraft,fromBerwicktoWare 693Newastherswichanotherpardoner. Therewasnootherpardonerlikehim. 694Forinhismalehehaddeapilwebeer, Forinhispouchhehadapillowcase, 695WhichthatheseydewasOureLadyveyl; WhichhesaidwasOurLady'sveil; 696Heseydehehaddeagobetoftheseyl Hesaidhehadapieceofthesail 697ThatSeintPeterhadde,whanthathewente ThatSaintPeterhad,whenhewent 698Uponthesee,tilJhesuCristhymhente. Uponthesea,untilJesusChristtookhim. 699Hehaddeacroysoflatounfulofstones, Hehadacrossoflatten(brasslikealloy)covered withstones, 700Andinaglashehaddepiggesbones. Andinaglasscontainerhehadpigs'bones. 701Butwiththiserelikes,whanthathefond

Butwiththeserelics,whenhefound 702Apovrepersondwellyngeuponlond, Apoorparsondwellinginthecountryside, 703Uponadayhegathymmooremoneye Inonedayhegothimselfmoremoney 704Thanthatthepersongatinmonthestweye; Thantheparsongotintwomonths; 705Andthus,withfeynedflateryeandjapes, Andthus,withfeignedflatteryandtricks, 706Hemadethepersonandthepeplehisapes. Hemadefoolsoftheparsonandthepeople. 707Buttrewelytotellenattelaste, Buttrulytotellatthelast, 708Hewasinchircheanobleecclesiaste. Hewasinchurchanobleecclesiast. 709Welkoudeheredealessounorastorie, Hewellknewhowtoreadalessonorastory, 710Butalderbesthesonganoffertorie; ButbestofallhesanganOffertory; 711Forwelhewiste,whanthatsongwassonge, Forheknewwell,whenthatsongwassung, 712Hemosteprecheandwelaffilehistonge Hemustpreachandwellsmoothhisspeech 713Towynnesilver,ashefulwelkoude; Towinsilver,asheverywellknewhow; 714Thereforehesongthemurierlyandloude. Thereforehesangthemoremerrilyandloud. 715NowhaveItooldyousoothly,inaclause, NowhaveItoldyoutruly,briefly, 716Th'estaat,th'array,thenombre,andeekthecause Therank,thedress,thenumber,andalsothecause 717Whythatassembledwasthiscompaignye Whythiscompanywasassembled 718InSouthwerkatthisgentilhostelrye InSouthwarkatthisfinehostelry 719ThathightetheTabard,fastebytheBelle. ThatiscalledtheTabard,closebytheBell. 720Butnowistymetoyowfortotelle Butnowitistimetotelltoyou 721Howthatwebarenusthatilkenyght, Howweconductedourselvesthatsamenight, 722Whanwewereinthathostelriealyght; Whenwehadarrivedinthathostelry; 723AndafterwolItelleofourviage AndafterthatIwilltellofourjourney 724Andaltheremenauntofourepilgrimage. Andalltherestofourpilgrimage. 725ButfirstIprayyow,ofyourecurteisye, ButfirstIprayyow,ofyourcourtesy, 726Thatyen'aretteitnatmyvileynye, Thatyoudonotattributeittomyrudeness, 727ThoghthatIpleynlyspekeinthismateere, ThoughIspeakplainlyinthismatter, 728Totelleyowhirwordesandhircheere, Totellyoutheirwordsandtheirbehavior, 729NethoghIspekehirwordesproprely. NorthoughIspeaktheirwordsaccurately. 730ForthisyeknowenalsowelasI: ForthisyouknowaswellasI: 731Whososhaltelleataleafteraman, Whoevermustrepeatastoryaftersomeone, 732Hemootreherceasnyaseverehekan Hemustrepeatascloselyaseverheknowshow 733Everichaword,ifitbeinhischarge, Everysingleword,ifitbeinhispower, 734Alspekeheneversorudelicheandlarge,

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Althoughhemayspeakeversorudelyandfreely, 735Orellishemoottellehistaleuntrewe, Orelsehemusttellhistaleinaccurately, 736Orfeynethyng,orfyndewordesnewe. Ormakeupthings,orfindnewwords. 737Hemaynatspare,althoghhewerehisbrother; Hemaynotrefrainfrom(tellingthetruth),although hewerehisbrother; 738Hemootaswelseyeowordasanother. Hemustaswellsayonewordasanother. 739Cristspakhymselffulbrodeinhoolywrit, Christhimselfspokeveryplainlyinholywrit, 740Andwelyewootnovileynyeisit. Andyouknowwellitisnorudeness. 741EekPlatoseith,whosokanhymrede, AlsoPlatosays,whosoeverknowshowtoreadhim, 742Thewordesmootebecosyntothedede. Thewordsmustbecloselyrelatedtothedeed. 743AlsoIpreyyowtoforyeveitme, AlsoIprayyoutoforgiveittome, 744AlhaveInatsetfolkinhirdegree AlthoughIhavenotsetfolkinorderoftheirrank 745Heereinthistale,asthattheysholdestonde. Hereinthistale,astheyshouldstand. 746Mywitisshort,yemaywelunderstonde. Mywitisshort,youcanwellunderstand. 747GreetchieremadeoureHoostuseverichon, OurHostmadegreathospitalitytoeveryoneofus, 748Andtothesopersetteheusanon. Andtothesupperhesetusstraightway. 749Heserveduswithvitailleatthebeste; Heserveduswithvictualsofthebestsort; 750Strongwasthewyn,andweltodrynkeusleste. Thewinewasstrong,anditwellpleasedustodrink. 751AsemelymanOUREHOOSTEwaswithalle OURHOSTwasanimpressivemanindeed 752Fortobeenamarchalinanhalle. (Qualified)tobeamasterofceremoniesinahall. 753Alargemanhewaswitheyenstepe Hewasalargemanwithprominenteyes 754AfairerburgeyswasthernooninChepe TherewasnobetterbusinessmaninCheapside 755Booldofhisspeche,andwys,andwelytaught, Boldofhisspeech,andwise,andwellmannered, 756Andofmanhodhymlakkederightnaught. Andhelackednothingatallofthequalitiesproperto aman. 757Eekthertohewasrightamyrieman; Alsomoreoverhewasarightmerryman; 758Andaftersoperpleyenhebigan, Andaftersupperhebegantobemerry, 759Andspakofmyrtheamongesotherethynges, Andspokeofmirthamongotherthings, 760Whanthatwehaddemaadourerekenynges, Whenwehadpaidourbills, 761Andseydethus:"Now,lordynges,trewely, Andsaidthus:"Now,gentlemen,truly, 762Yebeentomerightwelcome,hertely; Youarerightheartilywelcometome; 763Forbymytrouthe,ifthatIshalnatlye, Forbymyword,ifIshallnotlie(Imustsay), 764Isaughnatthisyeersomyrieacompaignye Isawnotthisyearsomerryacompany 765Atonesinthisherberweasisnow. Atonetimeinthislodgingasis(here)now. 766FaynwoldeIdoonyowmyrthe,wisteIhow.

Iwouldgladlymakeyouhappy,ifIknewhow. 767AndofamyrtheIamrightnowbythoght, AndIhavejustnowthoughtofanamusement, 768Todoonyowese,anditshalcostenoght. Togiveyoupleasure,anditshallcostnothing. 769"YegoontoCaunterburyGodyowspeede, "YougotoCanterburyGodgiveyousuccess, 770Theblisfulmartirquiteyowyouremeede! Maytheblessedmartyrgiveyouyourreward! 771AndwelIwoot,asyegoonbytheweye, AndwellIknow,asyougobytheway, 772Yeshapenyowtotalenandtopleye; Youintendtotelltalesandtoamuseyourselves; 773Fortrewely,confortnemyrtheisnoon Fortruly,itisnocomfortnormirth 774Toridebytheweyedoumbasastoon; Toridebythewaydumbasastone; 775AndtherforewolImakenyowdisport, AndthereforeIwillmakeagameforyou, 776AsIseydeerst,anddoonyowsomconfort. AsIsaidbefore,andprovideyousomepleasure. 777Andifyowlikethallebyoonassent Andifpleasesyouallunanimously 778Fortostondenatmyjuggement, Tobesubjecttomyjudgment, 779AndfortowerkenasIshalyowseye, AndtodoasIshalltellyou, 780Tomorwe,whanyeridenbytheweye, Tomorrow,whenyouridebytheway, 781Now,bymyfadersoulethatisdeed, Now,bythesoulofmyfatherwhoisdead, 782Butyebemyrie,Iwolyeveyowmynheed! Unlessyoubemerry,Iwillgiveyoumyhead! 783Hooldupyourehondes,withoutenmoorespeche." Holdupyourhands,withoutmorespeech." 784Oureconseilwasnatlongefortoseche. Ourdecisionwasnotlongtoseekout. 785Usthoughteitwasnoghtworthtomakeitwys, Itseemedtousitwasnotworthwhiletodeliberate onit, 786Andgrauntedhymwithoutenmooreavys, And(we)grantedhisrequestwithoutmore discussion, 787Andbadhimseyehisvoirditashymleste. Andaskedhimtosayhisdecisionasitpleasedhim. 788"Lordynges,"quodhe,"nowherknethforthebeste; "Gentlemen,"saidhe,"nowlistenforthebestcourse ofaction; 789Buttaakitnought,Ipreyyow,indesdeyn. But,Iprayyow,donottakeitindisdain(scornit). 790Thisisthepoynt,tospekenshortandpleyn, Thisisthepoint,tospeakbrieflyandclearly, 791Thatechofyow,toshortewithoureweye, Thateachofyow,tomakeourwayseemshortby thismeans, 792Inthisviageshaltelletalestweye Musttelltwotalesinthisjourney 793ToCaunterburyward,Imeneitso, OnthewaytoCanterbury,thatiswhatImean, 794Andhomwardheshaltellenotheretwo, Andonthehomewardtripheshalltelltwoothers, 795Ofaventuresthatwhilomhanbifalle. Aboutadventuresthatinoldtimeshavehappened. 796Andwhichofyowthatberethhymbestofalle Andwhoeverofyouwhodoesbestofall

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797Thatistoseyn,thattellethinthiscaas Thatistosay,whotellsinthiscase 798Talesofbestsentenceandmoostsolaas Talesofbestmoralmeaningandmostpleasure 799Shalhaveasoperatoureallercost Shallhaveasupperatthecostofusall 800Heereinthisplace,sittyngebythispost, Hereinthisplace,sittingbythispost, 801WhanthatwecomeagaynfroCaunterbury. WhenwecomebackfromCanterbury. 802Andfortomakeyowthemooremury, Andtomakeyouthemoremerry, 803Iwolmyselvengoodlywithyowryde, Iwillmyselfgladlyridewithyou, 804Rightatmynowenecost,andbeyouregyde; Entirelyatmyowncost,andbeyourguide; 805Andwhosowolemyjuggementwithseye Andwhosoeverwillnotacceptmyjudgment 806Shalpayealthatwespendenbytheweye. Shallpayallthatwespendbytheway. 807Andifyevouchesaufthatitbeso, Andifyougrantthatitbeso, 808Telmeanon,withoutenwordesmo, Tellmestraightway,withoutmorewords, 809AndIwolerlyshapemetherfore." AndIwillgetreadyearlyforthis." 810Thisthyngwasgraunted,andoureothesswore Thisthingwasgranted,andouroathssworn 811Withfulgladherte,andpreydenhymalso Withverygladhearts,and(we)prayedhimalso 812Thathewoldevouchesauffortodoso, Thathewouldconsenttodoso, 813Andthathewoldebeenouregovernour, Andthathewouldbeourgovernor, 814Andofouretalesjugeandreportour, Andjudgeandscorekeeperofourtales, 815Andsetteasoperatacerteynpris, Andsetasupperatacertainprice, 816Andwewolreuledbeenathisdevys Andwewillberuledashewishes 817Inheighandlough;andthusbyoonassent Ineveryrespect;andthusunanimously 818Webeenacordedtohisjuggement. Weareaccordedtohisjudgment. 819Andtheruponthewynwasfetanon; Andthereuponthewinewasfetchedimmediately; 820Wedronken,andtorestewenteechon, Wedrank,andeachonewenttorest, 821Withoutenanylengertaryynge. Withoutanylongertarrying. 822Amorwe,whanthatdaybigantosprynge, Inthemorning,whendaybegantospring, 823UproosoureHoost,andwasoureallercok, OurHostarose,andwastheroosterofusall (awakenedus). 824Andgadredeustogidrealleinaflok, Andgatheredustogetherallinaflock, 825Andforthweridenalitelmoorethanpaas Andforthwerodeatlittlemorethanawalk 826UntotheWateryngofSeintThomas; UntotheWateringofSaintThomas; 827AndthereoureHoostbiganhishorsareste AndthereourHoststoppedhishorse

828Andseyde,"Lordynges,herkneth,ifyowleste. Andsaid,"Gentlemen,listen,ifyouplease. 829Yewootyoureforeward,andIityowrecorde. Youknowyouragreement,andIremindyouofit. 830Ifevensongandmorwesongaccorde, Ifwhatyousaidlastnightagreeswithwhatyousay thismorning, 831Latsenowwhoshaltellethefirstetale. Let'sseenowwhoshalltellthefirsttale. 832AseveremoteIdrynkewynorale, AseverImaydrinkwineorale, 833Whosoberebeltomyjuggement Whosoevermayberebeltomyjudgment 834Shalpayeforalthatbytheweyisspent. Shallpayforallthatisspentbytheway. 835Nowdrawethcut,erthatweferrertwynne; Nowdrawstraws,beforewedepartfurther(from London); 836Hewhichthathaththeshortesteshalbigynne. Hewhohastheshortestshallbegin. 837SireKnyght,"quodhe,"mymaysterandmylord, SirKnight,"saidhe,"mymasterandmylord, 838Nowdrawethcut,forthatismynaccord. Nowdrawastraw,forthatismydecision. 839Comethneer,"quodhe,"myladyPrioresse. Comenearer,"hesaid,"myladyPrioress. 840Andye,sireClerk,latbeyoureshamefastnesse, Andyou,sirClerk,letbeyourmodesty, 841Nestudiethnoght;leyhondto,everyman!" Andstudynot;layhandto(drawastraw),every man!" 842Anontodraweneverywightbigan, Everypersonbeganstraightwaytodraw, 843Andshortlyfortotellenasitwas, Andshortlytotellasitwas, 844Wereitbyaventure,orsort,orcas, Wereitbychance,ordestiny,orluck, 845Thesotheisthis:thecutfiltotheKnyght, Thetruthisthis:thedrawfelltotheKnight, 846Ofwhichfulblitheandgladwaseverywyght, Forwhicheveryonewasveryhappyandglad, 847Andtellehemostehistale,aswasresoun, Andhemusttellhistale,aswasreasonable, 848Byforewardandbycomposicioun, Byourpreviouspromiseandbyformalagreement, 849Asyehanherd;whatnedethwordesmo? Asyouhaveheard;whatmorewordsareneeded? 850Andwhanthisgoodemansaughthatitwasso, Andwhenthisgoodmansawthatitwasso, 851Ashethatwyswasandobedient Likeonewhowaswiseandobedient 852Tokepehisforewardbyhisfreeassent, Tokeephisagreementbyhisfreeassent, 853Heseyde,"SynIshalbigynnethegame, Hesaid,"SinceImustbeginthegame, 854What,welcomebethecut,aGoddesname! What!Welcomebethedraw,inGod'sname! 855Nowlatusryde,andherknethwhatIseye." Nowletusride,andlistentowhatIsay." 856Andwiththatwordwerydenforthoureweye, Andwiththatwordwerodeforthonourway, 857Andhebiganwithrightamyriecheere Andhebeganwithatrulymerrydemeanor 858Histaleanon,andseydeasyemayheere. Totellhistalestraightway,andsaidasyoumayhear.

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TheWifeofBath'sTale

[Alisoun,theWifeofBath,hasbeenmarriedfivetimesandisreadyforanotherhusband:Christneverspecifiedhowmany timesawomanshouldmarry.Virginityisfinebutwivesarenotcondemned;theApostlesaidthatmyhusbandwouldbe mydebtor,andIhavepoweroverhisbody.Threeofmyhusbandsweregoodandtwobad.Thefirstthreewereoldandrich andIpickedthemclean.Oneofmyoldhusbands,emboldenedwithdrink,wouldcomehomeandpreachagainstwomen; butIgotthebetterofhim.Myfourthhusbandwasyoungandhehadamistress.Ipretendedtobeunfaithfulandmade himburninhisowngrease.IalreadyhadmyeyeonyoungJankin,pallbearerformyfourth,andhebecamemyfifthand favoritehusband.Hebeatme.OncewhenhewasreadingaloudfromhisBookofWickedWives,Itoreapagefromhis book,andheknockedmedown(sohardIamstilldeaffromit).Ipretendedtobedying,andwhenheleanedovertoask forgiveness,Iknockedhimintothefireplace.Wemadeup,andhegavemefullsovereigntyinmarriage;thereafterIwas kindandfaithful,andwelivedinbliss.]

ThePrologeoftheWyvesTaleofBathe(withthetranslation)
1"Experience,thoughnoonauctoritee "Experience,thoughnowrittenauthority 2Wereinthisworld,isrightynoghforme Wereinthisworld,isgoodenoughforme 3Tospekeofwothatisinmariage; Tospeakofthewoethatisinmarriage; 4For,lordynges,sithItwelveyeerwasofage, For,gentlemen,sinceIwastwelveyearsofage, 5ThonkedbeGodthatiseterneonlyve, ThankedbeGodwhoiseternallyalive, 6HousbondesatchirchedoreIhavehadfyve Ihavehadfivehusbandsatthechurchdoor 7IfIsooftemyghtehaveyweddedbee IfIsooftenmighthavebeenwedded 8Andallewereworthymeninhirdegree. Andallwereworthymenintheirway. 9Butmewastoold,certeyn,natlongeagoonis, Buttomeitwastold,certainly,itisnotlongago, 10ThatsiththatCristnewenteneverebutonis ThatsinceChristwentneverbutonce 11Toweddyng,intheCaneofGalilee, Toawedding,intheCanaofGalilee, 12Thatbythesameensampletaughteheme Thatbythatsameexamplehetaughtme 13ThatInesholdeweddedbebutones. ThatIshouldbeweddedbutonce. 14Herkneeek,lo,whichasharpwordforthenones, Listenalso,lo,whatasharpwordforthispurpose, 15Bisideawelle,Jhesus,Godandman, Besideawell,Jesus,Godandman, 16SpakinrepreeveoftheSamaritan: SpokeinreproofoftheSamaritan: 17`Thouhastyhadfyvehousbondes,'quodhe, `Thouhasthadfivehusbands,'hesaid, 18`Andthatilkemanthatnowhaththee `Andthatsamemanthatnowhasthee 19Isnoghtthynhousbonde,'thusseydehecerteyn. Isnotthyhusband,'thushesaidcertainly. 20Whatthathementetherby,Ikannatseyn; Whathemeantbythis,Icannotsay; 21ButthatIaxe,whythatthefiftheman ButIask,whythefifthman 22WasnoonhousbondetotheSamaritan? WasnohusbandtotheSamaritan? 23Howmanyemyghteshehaveinmariage? Howmanymightshehaveinmarriage? 24YetherdeIneveretelleninmynage Ineveryetheardtellinmylifetime 25Uponthisnombrediffinicioun. Adefinitionofthisnumber. 26Menmaydevyneandglosen,upanddoun, Menmayconjectureandinterpretineveryway, 27ButwelIwoot,expres,withoutelye, ButwellIknow,expressly,withoutlie, 28Godbadusfortowexeandmultiplye; Godcommandedustogrowfruitfulandmultiply; 29ThatgentiltextkanIwelunderstonde. ThatgentletextIcanwellunderstand. 30EekwelIwoot,heseydemynhousbonde AlsoIknowwell,hesaidmyhusband

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31Sholdeletefaderandmooderandtaketome. Shouldleavefatherandmotherandtaketome. 32Butofnonombremencionmadehe, Buthemadenomentionofnumber, 33Ofbigamye,orofoctogamye; Ofmarryingtwo,orofmarryingeight; 34Whysholdementhannespekeofitvileynye? Whyshouldmenthenspeakevilofit? 35Lo,heerethewisekyng,daunSalomon; Lo,(consider)herethewiseking,danSalomon; 36Itrowehehaddewyvesmothanoon. Ibelievehehadwivesmorethanone. 37AswoldeGoditlevefulwereuntome AswouldGoditwerelawfuluntome 38Toberefresshedhalfsoofteashe! Toberefreshedhalfsooftenashe! 39WhichyifteofGodhaddeheforallehiswyvys! WhatagiftofGodhehadbecauseofallhiswives! 40Nomanhathswichthatinthisworldalyveis. Nomanthatinthisworldisalivehassuch(agift). 41Godwoot,thisnoblekyng,astomywit, Godknows,thisnobleking,accordingtomy judgment, 42Thefirstenyghthadmanyamyriefit Thefirstnighthadmanyamerryfit 43Withechofhem,sowelwashymonlyve. Witheachofthem,sowellthingswentforhiminhis lifetime. 44YblessedbeGodthatIhaveweddedfyve! BlessedbeGodthatIhaveweddedfive! 44a[OfwhicheIhavepykedoutthebeste, [OfwhichIhavepickedoutthebest, 44bBotheofherenetherpursandofherecheste. Bothoftheirlowerpurse(scrotum)andoftheir strongbox. 44cDiversescolesmakenparfytclerkes, Differingschoolsmakeperfectclerks, 44dAnddiversepractykinmanysondrywerkes Anddifferingpracticeinmanyvariousworks 44eMakeththewerkmanparfytsekirly; Makestheworkmantrulyperfect; 44fOffyvehusbondesscoleiyngamI.] Offivehusbands'schoolingamI.] 45Welcomethesixte,whanthatevereheshal. Welcomethesixth,wheneverheshallappear. 46Forsothe,Iwolnatkepemechaastinal. Fortruly,Iwillnotkeepmyselfchasteineverything. 47Whanmynhousbondeisfrotheworldygon, Whenmyhusbandisgonefromtheworld, 48SomCristenmanshalweddemeanon, SomeChristianmanshallwedmestraightway, 49Forthanneth'apostleseiththatIamfree ForthentheapostlesaysthatIamfree 50Towedde,aGoddeshalf,whereitlikethme. Towed,byGod'sside(Iswear),whereveritpleases me. 51Heseiththattobeweddedisnosynne; Hesaysthattobeweddedisnosin; 52Betistobeweddedthantobrynne. Itisbettertobeweddedthantoburn. 53Whatrekkethme,thoghfolkseyevileynye WhatdoIcare,thoughfolkspeakevil 54OfshrewedLamethandhisbigamye? OfcursedLamechandhisbigamy? 55IwootwelAbrahamwasanhoolyman, IknowwellAbrahamwasaholyman,

56AndJacobeek,asferforthasIkan; AndJacobalso,insofarasIknow; 57Andechofhemhaddewyvesmothantwo, Andeachofthemhadmorethantwowives, 58Andmanyanotherholymanalso. Andmanyanotherholymanalso. 59Whercanyeseye,inanymanereage, Wherecanyoufind,inanyhistoricalperiod, 60ThathyeGoddefendedmariage ThathighGodforbadmarriage 61Byexpresword?Iprayyow,tellethme. Byexpressword?Iprayyou,tellme. 62Orwherecomandedhevirginitee? Orwherecommandedhevirginity? 63Iwootaswelasye,itisnodrede, Iknowaswellasyou,itisnodoubt, 64Th'apostel,whanhespekethofmaydenhede, Theapostle,whenhespeaksofmaidenhood, 65Heseydethatprecepttherofhaddehenoon. Hesaidthathehadnopreceptconcerningit. 66Menmayconseilleawommantobeenoon, Menmayadviseawomantobeone, 67Butconseillyngisnocomandement. Butadviceisnocommandment. 68Heputteitinoureowenejuggement; Heleftittoourownjudgment; 69ForhaddeGodcomandedmaydenhede, ForhadGodcommandedmaidenhood, 70Thannehaddehedampnedweddyngwiththedede. Thenhadhedamnedmarriagealongwiththeact(of procreation). 71Andcertes,iftherwerenoseedysowe, Andcertainly,iftherewerenoseedsown, 72Virginitee,thannewherofsholdeitgrowe? Thenfromwhatshouldvirginitygrow? 73Pouldorstenatcomanden,atteleeste, Inanycase,Pauldarednotcommand 74Athyngofwhichhismaisteryafnoonheeste. Athingofwhichhismastergavenocommand. 75Thedartissetupforvirginitee; Theprizeissetupforvirginity; 76Cacchewhosomay,whorennethbestlatsee. Catchitwhoevercan,let'sseewhorunsbest. 77Butthiswordisnattakenofeverywight, Butthisworddoesnotapplytoeveryperson, 78ButtherasGodlustgyveitofhismyght. ButwhereGoddesirestogiveitbyhispower. 79Iwootwelthatth'apostelwasamayde; Iknowwellthattheapostlewasavirgin; 80Butnathelees,thoghthathewrootandsayde Butnonetheless,thoughhewroteandsaid 81Hewoldethateverywightwereswichashe, Hewouldthateverypersonweresuchashe, 82Alnysbutconseiltovirginitee. Allisnothingbutadviceto(adopt)virginity. 83Andfortobeenawyfheyafmeleve Andhegavemeleavetobeawife 84Ofindulgence;sonysitnorepreve Byexplicitpermission;soitisnotblameful 85Toweddeme,ifthatmymakedye, Towedme,ifmymateshoulddie, 86Withoutenexcepcionofbigamye. Withoutobjectiononthegroundsofbigamy. 87Alwereitgoodnowommanfortotouche Althoughitwouldbegoodtotouchnowoman 88Hementeasinhisbedorinhiscouche,

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Hemeantinhisbedorinhiscouch, 89Forperilisbothefyrandtowt'assemble; Foritisperiloustoassemblebothfireandflax; 90Yeknowewhatthisensamplemayresemble. Youknowwhatthisexamplemayapplyto. 91Thisisalandsom:heheeldvirginitee Thisisthesumofit:heheldvirginity 92Mooreparfitthanweddynginfreletee. Moreperfectthanweddinginweakness. 93FreleteeclepeI,butifthatheandshe WeaknessIcallit,unlessheandshe 94Woldeledenalhirlyfinchastitee. Wouldleadalltheirlifeinchastity. 95Igraunteitwel;Ihavenoonenvie, Igrantitwell;Ihavenoenvy, 96Thoghmaydenhedepreferrebigamye. Thoughmaidenhoodmayhaveprecedenceovera secondmarriage. 97Itlikethhemtobeclene,bodyandgoost; Itpleasesthemtobeclean,bodyandspirit; 98OfmynestaatInylnatmakenoboost, OfmystateIwillmakenoboast, 99Forwelyeknowe,alordinhishoushold, Forwellyouknow,alordinhishousehold, 100Henathnateveryvesselalofgold; Hehasnoteveryutensilallofgold; 101Sommebeenoftree,anddoonhirlordservyse. Someareofwood,anddotheirlordservice. 102Godclepethfolktohyminsondrywyse, Godcallsfolktohiminvariousways, 103AndeverichhathofGodapropreyifte AndeachonehasofGodanindividualgift 104Somthis,somthat,ashymlikethshifte. Somethis,somethat,asitpleasesHimtoprovide. 105Virginiteeisgreetperfeccion, Virginityisgreatperfection, 106Andcontinenceeekwithdevocion, Andcontinencealsowithdevotion, 107ButCrist,thatofperfeccioniswelle, ButChrist,whoisthesourceofperfection, 108Badnateverywighthesholdegoselle Didnotcommandthateveryoneshouldgosell 109Althathehadde,andgyveittothepoore, Allthathehad,andgiveittothepoor, 110Andinswichwisefolwehymandhisfoore. Andinsuchwisefollowhimandhisfootsteps. 111Hespaktohemthatwoldelyveparfitly; Hespoketothosewhowouldliveperfectly; 112Andlordynges,byyoureleve,thatamnatI. Andgentlemen,byyourleave,Iamnotthat. 113Iwolbistowetheflourofalmynage Iwillbestowtheflowerofallmyage 114Intheactesandinfruytofmariage. Intheactsandinfruitofmarriage. 115Tellemealso,towhatconclusion Tellmealso,towhatpurpose 116Weremembresmaadofgeneracion, Weremembersofgenerationmade, 117Andofsoparfitwysa[wright]ywroght? AndbysoperfectlywiseaWorkmanwrought? 118Trustethrightwel,theywerenatmaadfornoght. Trustrightwell,theywerenotmadefornothing. 119Glosewhosowole,andseyebotheupanddoun

Interpretwhoeverwill,andsaybothupanddown 120Thattheyweremakedforpurgacioun Thattheyweremadeforpurgation 121Ofuryne,andourebothethyngessmale Ofurine,andbothoursmallthings 122Wereeektoknoweafemelefromamale, Werealsotoknowafemalefromamale, 123Andfornoonoothercausesayyeno? Andfornoothercausedoyousayno? 124Theexperiencewootwelitisnoghtso. Theexperienceknowswellitisnotso. 125Sothattheclerkesbenatwithmewrothe, Providedthattheclerksbenotangrywithme, 126Iseythis:thattheymakedbenforbothe; Isaythis:thattheyaremadeforboth; 127Thatistoseye,forofficeandforese Thatistosay,forurinationandforease 128Ofengendrure,therwenatGoddisplese. Ofprocreation,inwhichwedonotdispleaseGod. 129Whysholdemenellesinhirbookessette Whyelseshouldmensetintheirbooks 130Thatmanshalyeldetohiswyfhiredette? Thatmanshallpaytohiswifeherdebt? 131Nowwherwithsholdehemakehispaiement, Nowwithwhatshouldhemakehispayment, 132Ifheneusedhisselyinstrument? Ifhedidnotusehisblessedinstrument? 133Thanneweretheymaaduponacreature Thenweretheymadeuponacreature 134Topurgeuryne,andeekforengendrure. Topurgeurine,andalsoforprocreation. 135ButIseyenoghtthateverywightisholde, ButIsaynotthateverypersonisrequired, 136ThathathswichharneysasItoyowtolde, ThathassuchequipmentasItoyoutold, 137Togoonandusenheminengendrure. Togoandusetheminprocreation. 138Thannesholdementakeofchastiteenocure. Thenshouldmenhavenoregardforchastity. 139Cristwasamaydeandshapenasaman, Christwasavirginandshapedlikeaman, 140Andmanyaseint,siththattheworldbigan; Andmanyasaint,sincetheworldbegan; 141Yetlyvedtheyevereinparfitchastitee. Yetlivedtheyeverinperfectchastity. 142Inylenvyenovirginitee. Iwillenvynovirginity. 143Lathembebreedofpuredwheteseed, Letthembebreadofpurewheatseed, 144Andlatuswyveshotenbarlybreed; Andletuswivesbecalledbarleybread; 145Andyetwithbarlybreed,Marktellekan, Andyetwithbarleybread,Markcantellit, 146OureLordJhesurefresshedmanyaman. OurLordJesusrefreshedmanyaman. 147InswichestaatasGodhathclepedus InsuchestateasGodhascalledus 148Iwolpersevere;Inamnatprecius. Iwillpersevere;Iamnotfussy. 149InwyfhodIwolusemyninstrument InwifehoodIwillusemyinstrument 150AsfrelyasmyMakerehathitsent. AsfreelyasmyMakerhasitsent. 151IfIbedaungerous,Godyevemesorwe! IfIbeniggardly,Godgivemesorrow! 152Mynhousbondeshalithavebotheeveandmorwe,

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Myhusbandshallhaveitbotheveningsandmornings, 153Whanthathymlistcomeforthandpayehisdette. Whenitpleaseshimtocomeforthandpayhisdebt. 154AnhousbondeIwolhaveIwolnatlette AhusbandIwillhaveIwillnotdesist 155Whichshalbebothemydettourandmythral, Whoshallbebothmydebtorandmyslave, 156Andhavehistribulacionwithal Andhavehissufferingalso 157Uponhisflessh,whilthatIamhiswyf. Uponhisflesh,whileIamhiswife. 158Ihavethepowerduryngealmylyf Ihavethepowerduringallmylife 159Uponhisproprebody,andnoghthe. Overhisownbody,andnothe. 160RightthustheAposteltoldeituntome, RightthustheApostletoldituntome, 161Andbadourehousbondesfortoloveusweel. Andcommandedourhusbandstoloveuswell. 162Althissentencemeliketheverydeel" Allthissentencepleasesmeeverybit" 163UpstirtethePardoner,andthatanon; UpsprangthePardoner,andthatatonce; 164"Now,dame,"quodhe,"byGodandbySeintJohn! "Now,madam,"hesaid,"byGodandbySaintJohn! 165Yebeenanobleprechourinthiscas. Youareanoblepreacherinthiscase. 166Iwasaboutetoweddeawyf;allas! Iwasabouttowedawife;alas! 167WhatsholdeIbyeitonmyflesshsodeere? WhyshouldIpayforitsodearlyonmyflesh? 168YethaddeIlevereweddenowyftoyeere!" YetwouldIratherwednowifethisyear!" 169"Abyde!"quodshe,"mytaleisnatbigonne. "Wait!"shesaid,"mytaleisnotbegun. 170Nay,thoushaltdrynkenofanothertonne, Nay,thoushaltdrinkfromanotherbarrel, 171ErthatIgo,shalsavoureworsthanale. BeforeIgo,whichshalltasteworsethanale. 172AndwhanthatIhavetooldtheeforthmytale AndwhenIhavetoldtheeforthmytale 173Oftribulacioninmariage, Ofsufferinginmarriage, 174OfwhichIamexpertinalmynage OfwhichIamexpertinallmylife 175Thisistoseyn,myselfhavebeenthewhippe Thisistosay,myselfhavebeenthewhip 176Thanmaystowchesewheitherthouwoltsippe Thanmaythouchoosewhetherthouwillsip 177OfthilketonnethatIshalabroche. OfthatsamebarrelthatIshallopen. 178Bewarofit,erthoutonyapproche; Bewareofit,beforethoutoonearapproach; 179ForIshaltelleensamplesmothanten. ForIshalltellexamplesmorethanten. 180`Whosothatnylbewarbyotheremen, `Whoeverwillnotbewarnedby(theexamplesof) othermen, 181Byhymshulotheremencorrectedbe.' Shallbeanexamplebywhichothermenshallbe corrected.' 182ThesamewordeswritethPtholomee; ThesamewordswritesPtholomy; 183RedeinhisAlmageste,andtakeitthere." ReadinhisAlmagest,andtakeitthere."

184"Dame,Iwoldeprayeyow,ifyourewylitwere," "Madam,Iwouldprayyou,ifitwereyourwill," 185SeydethisPardoner,"asyebigan, SaidthisPardoner,"asyoubegan, 186Telleforthyouretale,sparethfornoman, Tellforthyourtale,refrainfornoman, 187Andtecheusyongemenofyourepraktike." Andteachusyoungmenofyourpractice." 188"Gladly,"quodshe,"sithitmayyowlike; "Gladly,"shesaid,"sinceitmaypleaseyou; 189ButyetIprayetoalthiscompaignye, ButyetIpraytoallthiscompany, 190IfthatIspekeaftermyfantasye, IfIspeakaccordingtomyfancy, 191AstakethnotagriefofthatIseye, DonotbeannoyedbywhatIsay, 192Formynententenysbutfortopleye. Formyintentionisonlytoamuse. 193Now,sire,nowwolItelleforthmytale. Now,sir,nowwillItellforthmytale. 194AseveremooteIdrynkenwynorale, AsevermayIdrinkwineorale, 195Ishalseyesooth;thohousbondesthatIhadde, Ishallspeakthetruth;thosehusbandsthatIhad, 196Asthreofhemweregoode,andtwowerebadde. Threeofthemweregood,andtwowerebad. 197Thethreweregoodemen,andriche,andolde; Thethreeweregoodmen,andrich,andold; 198Unnethemyghtetheythestatutholde Hardlymighttheythestatutehold(paythedebt) 199Inwhichthattheywereboundenuntome. Inwhichtheywerebounduntome. 200YewootwelwhatImeeneofthis,pardee! YouknowwellwhatImeanofthis,byGod! 201AshelpmeGod,IlaughewhanIthynke SohelpmeGod,IlaughwhenIthink 202HowpitouslyanyghtImadehemswynke! HowpitifullyatnightImadethemwork! 203And,bymyfey,Itoldeofitnostoor. And,bymyfaith,Isetnostorebyit. 204Theyhadmeyevenhirlondandhirtresoor; Theyhadgivenmetheirlandandtheirtreasure; 205Menedednatdolengerdiligence Ineedednotworkhardanylonger 206Towynnehirlove,ordoonhemreverence. Towintheirlove,ordothemreverence. 207Theylovedmesowel,byGodabove, Theylovedmesowell,byGodabove, 208ThatInetoldenodeynteeofhirlove! ThatIreckonedlittleoftheirlove! 209Awyswommanwolbisyehireevereinoon Awisewomanwillbeconstantlybusy 210Togetehirelove,ye,therasshehathnoon. Togettheirlove,yes,whenshehasnone. 211ButsithIhaddehemhoollyinmynhond, ButsinceIhadthemwhollyinmyhand, 212Andsiththeyhaddemeyevenalhirlond, Andsincetheyhadmegivenalltheirland, 213WhatsholdeItakenkeephemfortoplese, WhyshouldItakecaretopleasethem, 214Butitwereformyprofitandmynese? Unlessitwereformyprofitandmypleasure? 215Isettehemsoawerke,bymyfey, Isetthemsotowork,bymyfaith, 216Thatmanyanyghttheysongen`Weilawey!'

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Thatmanyanighttheysang`Woeisme!' 217Thebaconwasnatfetforhem,Itrowe, Thebaconwasnotfetchedforthem,Ibelieve, 218ThatsommenhaninEssexatDunmowe. ThatsomemenhaveinEssexatDunmowe. 219Igovernedhemsowel,aftermylawe, Igovernedthemsowell,accordingtomylaw, 220Thatechofhemfulblisfulwasandfawe Thateachofthemwasveryblissfulandeager 221Tobryngemegayethyngesfrothefayre. Tobringmegaythingsfromthefair. 222TheywerefulgladwhanIspaktohemfaire, TheywereverygladwhenIspoketothempleasantly, 223For,Goditwoot,Ichiddehemspitously. For,Godknowsit,Icruellyscoldedthem. 224NowherknethhouIbaarmeproprely, NowlistenhowwellIconductedmyself, 225Yewisewyves,thatkanunderstonde. Youwisewives,thatcanunderstand. 226Thusshuldeyespekeandberehemwrongonhonde, Thusshouldyouspeakandaccusethemwrongfully, 227Forhalfsoboldelykanthernoman Forhalfsoboldlycantherenoman 228Swereandlyen,asawommankan. Swearandlie,asawomancan. 229Iseynatthisbywyvesthatbeenwyse, Idonotsaythisconcerningwivesthatarewise, 230Butifitbewhantheyhemmysavyse. Unlessitbewhentheyareilladvised. 231Awyswyf,ifthatshekanhirgood, Awisewife,ifsheknowswhatisgoodforher, 232Shalberenhymonhondethecowiswood, Shalldeceivehimbyswearingthebirdiscrazy, 233Andtakewitnesseofhirowenemayde, Andproveitbytakingwitnessofherownmaid 234Ofhirassent.ButherknethhowIsayde: Whoisinleaguewithher.ButlistenhowIspoke: 235`Sireoldekaynard,isthisthynarray? `Sirolddodderingfool,isthisthydoing? 236Whyismyneigheboreswyfsogay? Whyismyneighbor'swifesogay? 237Sheishonouredoveralthershegooth; Sheishonoredeverywhereshegoes; 238Isitteathoom;Ihavenothriftyclooth. Isitathome;Ihavenodecentclothing. 239Whatdostowatmyneigheboreshous? Whatdostthouatmyneighbor'shouse? 240Isshesofair?Artowsoamorous? Isshesofair?Artthousoamorous? 241Whatrowneyewithouremayde?Benedicite! Whatdoyouwhisperwithourmaid?Blessme! 242Sireoldelecchour,latthyjapesbe! Siroldlecher,letthytricksbe! 243AndifIhaveagossiborafreend, AndifIhaveaclosefriendoranacquaintance, 244Withoutengilt,thouchidestasafeend, Innocently,thouscoldlikeafiend, 245IfthatIwalkeorpleyeuntohishous! IfIwalkorgountohishousetoamusemyself! 246Thoucomesthoomasdronkenasamous, Thoucomesthomeasdrunkasamouse, 247Andprechestonthybench,withyvelpreef! Andpreachonthybench,badlucktoyou! 248Thouseisttomeitisagreetmeschief Thousayesttomeitisagreatmisfortune

249Toweddeapovrewomman,forcostage; Towedapoorwoman,becauseofexpense; 250Andifthatsheberiche,ofheighparage, Andifsheberich,ofhighbirth, 251Thanneseistowthatitisatormentrie Thenthousayestthatitisatorment 252Tosoffrehireprideandhiremalencolie. Toputupwithherprideandherangrymoods. 253Andifthatshebefair,thouverrayknave, Andifshebefair,thouutterknave, 254Thouseystthateveryholourwolhirehave; Thousayestthateverylecherwantstohaveher; 255Shemaynowhileinchastiteeabyde, Shecannotremainchasteforanylengthoftime, 256Thatisassailleduponechasyde. Whoisassailedoneveryside. 257Thouseystsomfolkdesirenusforrichesse, Thousayestsomefolkdesireusforriches, 258Sommeforoureshap,andsommeforourefairnesse, Someforourshape,andsomeforourfairness, 259Andsomforshekanouthersyngeordaunce, Andonebecauseshecaneithersingordance, 260Andsomforgentillesseanddaliaunce; Andsomebecauseofnobledescentandflirtatious talk; 261Somforhirhandesandhirarmessmale; Somebecauseoftheirhandsandtheirslenderarms; 262Thusgothaltothedevel,bythytale. Thusgoesalltothedevil,accordingtoyou. 263Thouseystmenmaynatkepeacastelwal, Thousayestmenmaynotdefendacastlewall, 264Itmaysolongeassailledbeenoveral. Itmaysolongbeassailedonallsides. 265Andifthatshebefoul,thouseistthatshe Andifshebeugly,thousayestthatshe 266Coveitetheverymanthatshemayse, Covetseverymanthatshemaysee, 267Forasaspanyelshewolonhymlepe, Forlikeaspanielshewillonhimleap, 268Tilthatshefyndesommanhiretochepe. Untilshefindsomemantobuy(take)her. 269Nenoonsogreygoosgooththerinthelake Nordoesanygoosegothereinthelake,nomatter howdrab, 270As,seistow,wolbeenwithoutemake. That,thousayest,willbewithoutamate. 271Andseystitisanhardthyngfortowelde Andthousayestitisahardthingtocontrol 272Athyngthatnomanwole,histhankes,helde. Athingthatnomanwill,willingly,hold. 273Thusseistow,lorel,whanthowgoosttobedde, Thussayestthou,scoundrel,whenthougoesttobed, 274Andthatnowysmannedethfortowedde, Andthatnowisemanneedstowed, 275Nenomanthatentendethuntohevene. Noranymanthathopes(togo)toheaven. 276Withwildethonderdyntandfirylevene Withwildthunderboltandfierylightning 277Mootethywelkednekkebetobroke! Maythywrinkledneckbebrokeninpieces! 278Thowseystthatdroppynghouses,andeeksmoke, Thousayestthatleakyhouses,andalsosmoke, 279Andchidyngwyvesmakenmentoflee

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Andscoldingwivesmakementoflee 280Outofhirowenehouses;a,benedicitee! Outoftheirownhouses;ah,blessme! 281Whateylethswichanoldmanfortochide? Whatailssuchanoldmantochidelikethat? 282Thowseystwewyveswoloureviceshide Thousayestwewiveswillhideourvices 283Tilwebefast,andthannewewolhemshewe Untilwebesecurelytied(inmarriage),andthenwe willthemshow 284Welmaythatbeaproverbeofashrewe! Wellmaythatbeaproverbofascoundrel! 285Thouseistthatoxen,asses,hors,andhoundes, Thousayestthatoxen,asses,horses,andhounds, 286Theybeenassayedatdiversestoundes; Theyaretriedoutanumberoftimes; 287Bacyns,lavours,erthatmenhembye, Basins,washbowls,beforementhembuy, 288Spoonesandstooles,andalswichhousbondrye, Spoonsandstools,andallsuchhouseholditems, 289Andsobeenpottes,clothes,andarray; Andsoarepots,clothes,andadornments; 290Butfolkofwyvesmakennoonassay, Butfolkofwivesmakenotrial, 291Tiltheybeweddedoldedotardshrewe! Untiltheyareweddedolddodderingscoundrel! 292Andthanne,seistow,wewolourevicesshewe. Andthen,sayestthou,wewillshowourvices. 293Thouseistalsothatitdisplesethme Thousayestalsothatitdispleasesme 294Butifthatthouwoltpreysemybeautee, Unlessthouwillpraisemybeauty, 295Andbutthoupourealweyuponmyface, Andunlessthoupeeralwaysuponmyface, 296Andclepeme"fairedame"ineveryplace. Andcallme"dearlady"ineveryplace. 297Andbutthoumakeafeesteonthilkeday Andunlessthoumakeafeastonthatsameday 298ThatIwasborn,andmakemefresshandgay; ThatIwasborn,andmakemehappyandgay; 299Andbutthoudotomynoricehonour, Andunlessthoudohonortomynurse, 300Andtomychambererewithinnemybour, Andtomychambermaidwithinmybedchamber, 301Andtomyfadresfolkandhisallyes Andtomyfather'sfolkandhisallies 302Thusseistow,oldebarelfuloflyes! Thussayestthou,oldbarrelfuloflies! 303AndyetofoureapprenticeJanekyn, AndyetofourapprenticeJanekin, 304Forhiscrispeheer,shynyngeasgoldsofyn, Becauseofhiscurlyhair,shininglikegoldsofine, 305Andforhesquierethmebotheupanddoun, Andbecausehefamiliarlyattendsmeeverywhere, 306Yethastowcaughtafalssuspecioun. Yethastthoucaughtafalsesuspicion. 307Iwolhymnoght,thoghthouweredeedtomorwe! Idonotwanthim,thoughthouweredeadtomorrow! 308Buttelmethis:whyhydestow,withsorwe, Buttellmethis:whyhidestthou,badlucktoyou, 309Thekeyesofthychesteaweyfrome?

Thekeysofthystrongboxawayfromme? 310Itismygoodaswelasthyn,pardee! Itismypropertyaswellasthine,byGod! 311What,wenestowmakeanydiotofouredame? What,thinkthoutomakeafooloftheladyofthe house? 312NowbythatlordthatcalledisSeintJame, NowbythatlordthatiscalledSaintJames, 313Thoushaltnatbothe,thoghthatthouwerewood, Thoushaltnotboth,thoughthouwerecrazywith anger, 314Bemaisterofmybodyandofmygood; Bemasterofmybodyandofmyproperty; 315Thatoonthoushaltforgo,maugreethyneyen. Oneofthemthoumustgiveup,despiteanythingyou cando. 316Whathelpithitofmetoenquereorspyen? Whathelpsittoinquireaboutmeorspy? 317Itrowethouwoldestlokemeinthychiste! Ibelievethouwouldlockmeinthystrongbox! 318Thousholdestseye,"Wyf,gowhertheeliste; Thoushouldsay,"Wife,gowhereyouplease; 319Taakyouredisport;Iwolnatlevenotalys. Enjoyyourself;Iwillnotbelieveanygossip. 320Iknoweyowforatrewewyf,dameAlys." Iknowyouforatruewife,dameAlys." 321Welovenomanthattakethkeporcharge Welovenomanwhotakesnoticeorconcernabout 322Wherthatwegoon;wewolbenatourelarge. Wherewego;wewillbefree(todoaswewish). 323Ofallemenyblessedmoothebe, Ofallmenblessedmayhebe, 324Thewiseastrologien,DaunPtholome, Thewiseastrologer,DanPtolemy, 325ThatseiththisproverbeinhisAlmageste: WhosaysthisproverbinhisAlmagest: 326"Ofallemenhiswysdomisthehyeste "Ofallmenhiswisdomisthehighest 327Thatrekkethneverewhohaththeworldinhonde." Whonevercareswhohastheworldinhiscontrol." 328Bythisproverbethoushaltunderstonde, Bythisproverbthoushaltunderstand, 329Havethouynogh,whatthartheereccheorcare Ifthouhaveenough,whyshouldthoutakenoteor care 330Howmyrilythatotherefolkesfare? Howmerrilyotherfolksfare? 331For,certeyn,oldedotard,byyoureleve, For,certainly,oldsenilefool,byyourleave, 332Yeshulhavequeynterightynoghateve. Youshallhavepudendumrightenoughateve. 333Heistogreetanygardthatwoldewerne Heistoogreatamiserthatwouldrefuse 334Amantolighteacandleathislanterne; Amantolightacandleathislantern; 335Heshalhaveneverthelasselight,pardee. Heshallhaveneverthelesslight,byGod. 336Havethouynogh,theetharnatpleynethee. Ifthouhaveenough,thouneednotcomplain. 337Thouseystalso,thatifwemakeusgay Thousayestalso,thatifwemakeourselvesgay 338Withclothyng,andwithpreciousarray, Withclothing,andwithpreciousadornments, 339Thatitisperilofourechastitee; Thatitisdangeroustoourchastity;

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340Andyetwithsorwe!thoumostenforcethee, Andyetbadlucktothee!thoumustreinforcethy argument, 341AndseyethisewordesintheApostlesname: AndsaythesewordsintheApostle'sname: 342"Inhabitmaadwithchastiteeandshame "Inclothingmadewithchastityandshame 343Yewommenshulapparailleyow,"quodhe, Youwomenshallapparelyourselves,"hesaid, 344"Andnoghtintressedheerandgayperree, "Andnotincarefullyarrangedhairandgayprecious stones, 345Asperles,newithgold,neclothesriche." Suchaspearls,norwithgold,norrichcloth." 346Afterthytext,neafterthyrubriche, Inaccordancewiththytext,norinaccordwiththy interpretation, 347Iwolnatwircheasmuchelasagnat. Iwillnotdoasmuchasagnat. 348Thouseydestthis,thatIwaslykacat; Thousaidthis,thatIwaslikeacat; 349Forwhosowoldesengeacattesskyn, Forifanyonewouldsingeacat'sskin, 350Thannewoldethecatweldwelleninhisin; Thenwouldthecatwellstayinhisdwelling; 351Andifthecattesskynbeslykandgay, Andifthecat'sskinbesleekandgay, 352Shewolnatdwelleinhousehalfaday, Shewillnotstayinhousehalfaday, 353Butforthshewole,eranydaybedawed, Butforthshewill(go),beforeanydaybedawned, 354Toshewehirskynandgoonacaterwawed. Toshowherskinandgoyowlinglikeacatinheat. 355Thisistoseye,ifIbegay,sireshrewe, Thisistosay,ifIbewelldressed,sirscoundrel, 356Iwolrenneoutmyborelfortoshewe. Iwillrunouttoshowmypoorclothes. 357Sireoldefool,whathelpeththeetospyen? Siroldfool,whathelpisitfortheetospy? 358ThoghthoupreyeArguswithhishundredyen ThoughthouprayArguswithhishundredeyes 359Tobemywardecors,ashekanbest, Tobemybodyguard,ashebestknowshow, 360Infeith,heshalnatkepemebutmelest; Infaith,heshallnotkeepmebutasIplease; 361YetkoudeImakehisberd,somootIthee! YetcouldIdeceivehim,asImayprosper! 362Thouseydesteekthattherbeenthyngesthre, Thousaidalsothattherearethreethings, 363Thewhichethyngestroublenalthiserthe, Thewhichthingstroubleallthisearth, 364Andthatnowightmayenduretheferthe. Andthatnoonecanendurethefourth. 365Oleevesireshrewe,Jhesushortethylyf! Odearsirscoundrel,Jesusshortenthylife! 366Yetprechestowandseystanhatefulwyf Yetthoupreachestandsayestahatefulwife 367Yrekenedisforoonofthisemeschances. Isreckonedasoneofthesemisfortunes. 368Beenthernoneotheremanerresemblances Aretherenoothersortsofcomparisons 369Thatyemaylikneyoureparablesto, Thatyoucanuseinyoursayings,

370Butifaselywyfbeoonoftho? Withoutapoorwife'sbeingoneofthem? 371Thouliknesteekwommeneslovetohelle, Thoualsocomparewomen'slovetohell, 372Tobareynelond,therwatermaynatdwelle. Tobarrenland,wherewatermaynotremain. 373Thouliknestitalsotowildefyr; ThoucompareitalsotoGreek(inextinguishable)fire; 374Themooreitbrenneth,themooreithathdesir Themoreitburns,themoreithasdesire 375Toconsumeeverythyngthatbrentwolebe. Toconsumeeverythingthatwillbeburned. 376Thouseyest,rightaswormesshendeatree, Thousayest,justaswormsdestroyatree, 377Rightsoawyfdestroyethhirehousbonde; Rightsoawifedestroysherhusband; 378Thisknowetheythatbeentowyvesbonde.' Thisknowtheywhoareboundtowives.' 379Lordynges,rightthus,asyehaveunderstonde, Gentlemen,rightthus,asyouhaveheard, 380BaarIstiflymyneoldehousbondesonhonde Ifirmlysworetomyoldhusbands 381Thatthustheyseydeninhirdronkenesse; Thatthustheysaidintheirdrunkenness; 382Andalwasfals,butthatItookwitnesse Andallwasfalse,butItookwitness 383OnJanekyn,andonmynecealso. OnJanekin,andonmyniecealso. 384OLord!ThepeyneIdidehemandthewo, OLord!ThepainIdidthemandthewoe, 385Fulgiltelees,byGoddessweetepyne! Entirelyguiltless(theywere),byGod'ssweetpain! 386ForasanhorsIkoudebyteandwhyne. ForlikeahorseIcouldbiteandwhinny. 387Ikoudepleyne,andyitwasinthegilt, Icouldcomplain,andyetwasinthewrong, 388OrellesoftentymehaddeIbeenspilt. OrelsemanytimeshadIbeenruined. 389Whosothatfirsttomillecomth,firstgrynt; Whoeverfirstcomestothemill,firstgrinds; 390Ipleynedfirst,sowasourewerreystynt. Icomplainedfirst,sowasourwarended. 391Theywerefulgladetoexcusehemblyve Theywereverygladtoexcusethemselvesquickly 392Ofthyngofwhichtheynevereagiltehirlyve. Ofthingsofwhichtheywereneverguiltyintheir lives. 393OfwencheswoldeIberenhemonhonde, OfwencheswouldIfalselyaccusethem, 394Whanthatforsykunnethesmyghtetheystonde. Whenforsicknesstheycouldhardlystand. 395YettikledIhisherte,forthathe YetItickledhisheart,forhe 396WendethatIhaddeofhymsogreetchiertee! BelievedthatIhadofhimsogreataffection! 397Iswoorthatalmywalkyngeoutbynyghte Isworethatallmywalkingoutbynight 398Wasfort'espyewenchesthathedighte; Wastospyoutwencheswithwhomhehad intercourse; 399UnderthatcolourhaddeImanyamyrthe. UnderthatpretenseIhadmanyamirth. 400Foralswichwitisyevenusinourebyrthe;

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Forallsuchwitisgivenusinourbirth; 401Deceite,wepyng,spynnyngGodhathyive Deceit,weeping,spinningGodhasgiven 402Towommenkyndely,whilthattheymaylyve. Towomennaturally,whiletheymaylive. 403AndthusofothyngIavaunteme: AndthusofonethingIboast: 404AtteendeIhaddethebettreinechdegree, AttheendIhadthebetterineveryway, 405Bysleighte,orforce,orbysommanerthyng, Bytrickery,orforce,orbysomesuchthing, 406Asbycontinueelmurmurorgrucchyng. Asbycontinualgrumblingorgrouching. 407Namelyabeddehaddentheymeschaunce: Especiallyinbedtheyhadmisfortune: 408TherwoldeIchideanddohemnoplesaunce; TherewouldIscoldanddothemnopleasure; 409Iwoldenolengerinthebedabyde, Iwouldnolongerinthebedabide, 410IfthatIfeltehisarmovermysyde, IfIfelthisarmovermyside, 411Tilhehadmaadhisraunsonuntome; Untilhehadpaidhispenaltytome; 412ThannewoldeIsuffrehymdohisnycetee. ThenwouldIallowhimtodohisfoolishness. 413AndtherforeeverymanthistaleItelle, AndthereforethistaleItelltoeveryman, 414Wynnewhosomay,foralisfortoselle; Anyonecanprofit,foreverythingisforsale; 415Withemptyhandmenmaynonehaukeslure. Onecanlurenohawkswithanemptyhand. 416ForwynnyngwoldeIalhislustendure, ForprofitIwouldendureallhislust, 417Andmakemeafeynedappetit; Andmakemeafeignedappetite; 418AndyetinbaconhaddeIneveredelit. Andyetinbacon(oldmeat)Ineverhaddelight. 419ThatmademethatevereIwoldehemchide, ThatmademesothatIwouldalwaysscoldthem, 420Forthoghthepopehaddesetenhembiside, Forthoughthepopehadsatbesidethem, 421Iwoldenatsparehemathirowenebord, Iwouldnotsparethemattheirowntable, 422For,bymytrouthe,Iquittehemwordforword. For,bymytroth,Ipaidthembackwordforword. 423AshelpemeverrayGodomnipotent, AshelpmetrueGodomnipotent, 424ThoughIrightnowsholdemakemytestament, ThoughIrightnowshouldmakemywill, 425Ineowehemnatawordthatitnysquit. Iowethemnotonewordthathasnotbeenavenged. 426Ibroghteitsoaboutebymywit Ibroughtitsoaboutbymywit 427Thattheymosteyeveitup,asforthebeste, Thattheyhadtogiveitup,asthebesttheycoulddo, 428Orelleshaddeweneverebeeninreste; Orelsehadweneverbeenatpeace; 429Forthoghhelookedasawoodleon, Forthoughhelookedlikeafuriouslion, 430Yetsholdehefailleofhisconclusion. Yetshouldhefailtoattainhisgoal. 431ThannewoldeIseye,`Goodelief,taakkeep ThenIwouldsay,`Sweetheart,see 432HowmekelylookethWilkyn,ouresheep! HowmeeklylooksWilly,oursheep! 433Comneer,myspouse,latmebathycheke!

Comenear,myspouse,letmekissthycheek! 434Yesholdebeenalpacientandmeke, Youshouldbeallpatientandmeek, 435Andhanasweetespicedconscience, Andhaveasweettenderdisposition, 436SithyesoprecheofJobespacience. SinceyousopreachofJob'spatience. 437Suffrethalwey,synyesowelkanpreche; Sufferalways,sinceyousowellcanpreach; 438Andbutyedo,certeinweshalyowteche Andunlessyoudo,certainlyweshallteachyou 439Thatitisfairtohaveawyfinpees. Thatitisfairtohaveawifeinpeace. 440Oonofustwomostebowen,doutelees, Oneofustwomustbow,doubtless, 441Andsithamanismooreresonable Andsinceamanismorereasonable 442Thanwommanis,yemostebeensuffrable. Thanawomanis,youmustbeabletobearsuffering. 443Whateylethyowtogrucchethusandgrone? Whatailsyoutogrouchthusandgroan? 444Isitforyewoldehavemyqueynteallone? Isitbecauseyouwanttohavemypudendumallto yourself? 445Wy,taakital!Lo,haveiteverydeel! Why,takeitall!Lo,haveiteverybit! 446Peter!Ishreweyow,butyeloveitweel; BySaintPeter!Iwouldcurseyou,ifyoudidnotloveit well; 447ForifIwoldesellemybelechose, ForifIwouldsellmy`prettything,' 448Ikoudewalkeasfresshasisarose; Icouldwalkasfresh(newlyclothed)asisarose; 449ButIwolkepeitforyoureowenetooth. ButIwillkeepitforyourownpleasure. 450Yebetoblame,byGod!Iseyyowsooth.' Youaretoblame,byGod!Itellyouthetruth.' 451Swichemanerewordeshaddeweonhonde. Suchsortsofwordswehadinhand. 452NowwolIspekenofmyfourthehousbonde. NowwillIspeakofmyfourthhusband. 453Myfourthehousbondewasarevelour Myfourthhusbandwasareveller 454Thisistoseyn,hehaddeaparamour Thisistosay,hehadamistress 455AndIwasyongandfulofragerye, AndIwasyoungandfullofplayfulness, 456Stibournandstrong,andjolyasapye. Stubbornandstrong,andjollyasamagpie. 457HowkoudeIdauncetoanharpesmale, HowwellIcoulddancetoasmallharp, 458Andsynge,ywis,asanynyghtyngale, Andsing,indeed,likeanynightingale, 459WhanIhaddronkeadraughteofsweetewyn! WhenIhaddrunkadraftofsweetwine! 460Metellius,thefoulecherl,theswyn, Metellius,thefoulchurl,theswine, 461Thatwithastafbiraftehiswyfhirlyf, Whowithastaffdeprivedhiswifeofherlife, 462Forshedrankwyn,thoghIhaddebeenhiswyf, Becauseshedrankwine,ifIhadbeenhiswife, 463Hesholdenathandauntedmefrodrynke! Heshouldnothavefrightenedmeawayfromdrink! 464AndafterwynonVenusmosteIthynke, AndafterwineonVenusmustIthink,

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465Foralsosikerascoldengendrethhayl, Forassurelyascoldengendershail, 466Alikerousmouthmostehanalikeroustayl. Agluttonousmouthmusthavealecheroustail. 467Inwommenvinolentisnodefence Indrunkenwomenthereisnodefense 468Thisknowenlecchoursbyexperience. Thislechersknowbyexperience. 469ButLordCrist!whanthatitremembrethme ButLordChrist!whenIremember 470Uponmyyowthe,andonmyjolitee, Myyouth,andmygaiety, 471Ittiklethmeaboutemynherteroote. Itticklesmetothebottomofmyheart. 472Untothisdayitdoothmynherteboote Untothisdayitdoesmyheartgood 473ThatIhavehadmyworldasinmytyme. ThatIhavehadmyworldinmytime. 474Butage,allas,thatalwoleenvenyme, Butage,alas,thatallwillpoison, 475Hathmebiraftmybeauteeandmypith. Hasdeprivedmeofmybeautyandmyvigor. 476Latgo.Farewel!Thedevelgotherwith! Letitgo.Farewell!Thedevilgowithit! 477Theflourisgoon;therisnamooretotelle; Theflourisgone;thereisnomoretotell; 478Thebren,asIbestkan,nowmosteIselle; Thebran,asIbestcan,nowImustsell; 479ButyettoberightmyriewolIfonde. ButyetIwilltrytoberightmerry. 480NowwolItellenofmyfourthehousbonde. NowwillItellofmyfourthhusband. 481Iseye,Ihaddeinhertegreetdespit Isay,Ihadinheartgreatanger 482Thatheofanyootherhaddelit. Thathehaddelightinanyother. 483Buthewasquit,byGodandbySeintJoce! Buthewaspaidback,byGodandbySaintJoce! 484Imadehymofthesamewodeacroce; Imadehimacrossofthesamewood; 485Natofmybody,innofoulmanere, Notofmybody,innofoulmanner, 486Butcerteinly,Imadefolkswichcheere Butcertainly,Itreatedfolkinsuchaway 487ThatinhisowenegreceImadehymfrye ThatImadehimfryinhisowngrease 488Forangre,andforverrayjalousye. Foranger,andforpurejealousy. 489ByGod,inertheIwashispurgatorie, ByGod,inearthIwashispurgatory, 490ForwhichIhopehissoulebeinglorie. ForwhichIhopehissoulmaybeinglory. 491For,Goditwoot,hesatfulofteandsong, For,Godknowsit,hesatveryoftenandcriedoutin pain, 492Whanthathisshoofulbitterlyhymwrong. Whenhisshoeverybitterlypinchedhim. 493Therwasnowight,saveGodandhe,thatwiste, Therewasnopersonwhoknewit,saveGodandhe, 494Inmanywise,howsooreIhymtwiste. Inmanyaway,howpainfullyItorturedhim. 495HedeydewhanIcamfroJerusalem, HediedwhenIcamefromJerusalem, 496Andlithygraveundertheroodebeem, Andliesburiedundertheroodbeam,

497Alishistombenoghtsocuryus Althoughhistombisnotsoelaborate 498AswasthesepulcreofhymDaryus, AswasthesepulcherofthatDarius, 499WhichthatAppelleswroghtesubtilly; WhichAppelleswroughtskillfully; 500Itnysbutwasttoburyehympreciously. Itisnothingbutwastetoburyhimexpensively. 501Lathymfarewel;Godyevehissoulereste! Lethimfarewell;Godgivehissoulrest! 502Heisnowinhisgraveandinhischeste. Heisnowinhisgraveandinhiscasket. 503NowofmyfifthehousbondewolItelle. NowofmyfifthhusbandIwilltell. 504Godletehissouleneverecomeinhelle! Godlethissoulnevercomeinhell! 505Andyetwashetomethemoosteshrewe; Andyethewastomethegreatestscoundrel; 506ThatfeeleIonmyribbesalbyrewe, ThatfeelIonmyribsoneafteranother, 507Andevereshaluntomynendyngday. Andevershalluntomyfinalday. 508Butinourebedhewassofresshandgay, Butinourbedhewassolivelyandgay, 509Andtherwithalsowelkoudehemeglose, Andmoreoverhesowellcoulddeceiveme, 510Whanthathewoldehanmybelechose; Whenhewouldhavemy`prettything'; 511Thatthoghhehaddemebeteoneverybon, Thatthoughhehadbeatmeoneverybone, 512Hekoudewynneagaynmyloveanon. Hecouldwinbackmylovestraightway. 513ItroweIlovedhymbest,forthathe IbelieveIlovedhimbest,becausehe 514Wasofhislovedaungeroustome. Wasofhislovestandoffishtome. 515Wewommenhan,ifthatIshalnatlye, Wewomenhave,ifIshallnotlie, 516Inthismatereaqueyntefantasye: Inthismatteracuriousfantasy: 517Waytewhatthyngwemaynatlightlyhave, Notethatwhateverthingwemaynoteasilyhave, 518Therafterwolwecriealdayandcrave. Wewillcryalldayandcraveforit. 519Forbedeusthyng,andthatdesirenwe; Forbidusathing,andwedesireit; 520Preesseonusfaste,andthannewolwefle. Pressonusfast,andthenwillweflee. 521Withdaungeroutewealourechaffare; Withniggardlinesswespreadoutallourmerchandise; 522Greetpreesatmarketmakethdeereware, Agreatcrowdatthemarketmakeswaresexpensive, 523Andtogreetcheepisholdeatlitelprys: Andtoogreatasupplymakesthemoflittlevalue: 524Thisknowetheverywommanthatiswys. Everywomanthatiswiseknowsthis. 525MyfifthehousbondeGodhissouleblesse! MyfifthhusbandGodblesshissoul! 526WhichthatItookforlove,andnorichesse, WhomItookforlove,andnoriches, 527HesomtymewasaclerkofOxenford, HewasformerlyaclerkofOxford, 528Andhaddeleftscole,andwenteathomtobord Andhadleftschool,andcamehometoboard 529Withmygossib,dwellyngeinouretoun;

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Withmyclosefriend,dwellinginourtown; 530Godhavehirsoule!HirnamewasAlisoun. Godhavehersoul!HernamewasAlisoun. 531Sheknewmynherte,andeekmyprivetee, Sheknewmyheart,andalsomysecrets, 532Betthanoureparisshepreest,somootIthee! Betterthanourparishpriest,asImayprosper! 533TohirebiwreyedImyconseilal. ToherIrevealedallmysecrets. 534Forhaddemynhousbondepissedonawal, Forhadmyhusbandpissedonawall, 535Ordoonathyngthatsholdehancosthislyf, Ordoneathingthatshouldhavecosthislife, 536Tohire,andtoanotherworthywyf, Toher,andtoanotherworthywife, 537Andtomynece,whichthatIlovedweel, Andtomyniece,whomIlovedwell, 538Iwoldehantooldhisconseileverydeel. Iwouldhavetoldeveryoneofhissecrets. 539AndsoIdidefuloften,Goditwoot, AndsoIdidveryoften,Godknowsit, 540Thatmadehisfaceoftenreedandhoot Thatmadehisfaceoftenredandhot 541Forverrayshame,andblamedhymselfforhe Fortrueshame,andblamedhimselfbecausehe 542Hadtooldtomesogreetapryvetee. Hadtoldtomesogreatasecret. 543AndsobifelthatonesinaLente AndsoithappenedthatonceinaSpringtime 544SooftentymesItomygossybwente, SincefrequentlyIwenttovisitmyclosefriend, 545ForevereyetIlovedtobegay, ForIalwayslovedtobegay, 546AndfortowalkeinMarch,Averill,andMay, AndtowalkinMarch,April,andMay, 547Frohoustohous,toheeresondrytalys Fromhousetohouse,tohearvariousbitsofgossip 548ThatJankynclerk,andmygossybdameAlys, ThatJankintheclerk,andmyclosefrienddameAlys, 549AndImyself,intothefeeldeswente. AndImyself,intothefieldswent. 550MynhousbondewasatLondounalthatLente; MyhusbandwasatLondonallthatSpring; 551Ihaddethebettreleyserfortopleye, Ihadthebetteropportunitytoamusemyself, 552Andfortose,andeekfortobeseye Andtosee,andalsotobeseen 553Oflustyfolk.WhatwisteIwhermygrace Byamorousfolk.WhatdidIknowaboutwheremy goodfortune 554Wasshapenfortobe,orinwhatplace? Wasdestinedtobe,orinwhatplace? 555TherforeImademyvisitaciouns ThereforeImademyvisitations 556Tovigiliesandtoprocessiouns, Toreligiousfeastsandtoprocessions, 557Toprechyngeek,andtothisepilgrimages, Topreachingalso,andtothesepilgrimages, 558Topleyesofmyracles,andtomariages, Toplaysaboutmiracles,andtomarriages, 559Andwereduponmygayescarletgytes. Andworemygayscarletrobes. 560Thisewormes,nethisemotthes,nethisemytes, Theseworms,northesemoths,northesemites, 561Uponmyperil,fretehemneveradeel; Uponmyperil(Iswear),chewedonthemneverabit;

562Andwostowwhy?Fortheywereusedweel. Andknowthouwhy?Becausetheywerewellused. 563NowwolItellenforthwhathappedme. NowwillItellforthwhathappenedtome. 564Iseyethatinthefeeldeswalkedwe, Isaythatinthefieldswewalked, 565Tiltrewelywehaddeswichdaliance, Untiltrulywehadsuchflirtation, 566ThisclerkandI,thatofmypurveiance ThisclerkandI,thatformyprovisionforthefuture 567Ispaktohymandseydehymhowthathe, Ispoketohimandsaidtohimhowhe, 568IfIwerewydwe,sholdeweddeme. IfIwereawidow,shouldwedme. 569ForcerteinlyIseyfornobobance ForcertainlyIsaythisfornoboast 570YetwasIneverewithoutenpurveiance Iwasneveryetwithoutprovidingbeforehand 571Ofmariage,n'ofotherethyngeseek. Formarriage,norforotherthingsalso. 572Iholdeamouseshertenatworthaleek Iholdamouse'sheartnotworthaleek 573Thathathbutoonholefortosterteto, Thathasbutoneholetofleeto, 574Andifthatfaille,thanneisalydo. Ifthatshouldfail,thenallislost. 575Ibarhymonhondehehaddeenchantedme Ifalselysworethathehadenchantedme 576Mydametaughtemethatsoutiltee Mymothertaughtmethattrick 577AndeekIseydeImetteofhymalnyght, AndalsoIsaidIdreamedofhimallnight, 578HewoldehanslaynmeasIlayupright, HewouldhaveslainmeasIlayonmyback, 579Andalmybedwasfulofverrayblood; Andallmybedwasfullofrealblood; 580`ButyetIhopethatyeshaldomegood, `ButyetIhopethatyoushalldomegood, 581Forbloodbitokenethgold,asmewastaught.' Forbloodsymbolizesgold,asIwastaught.' 582Andalwasfals;Idremedofitrightnaught, Andallwasfalse;Idreamedofitnotatall, 583ButasIfolwedaymydamesloore, ButIfollowedalwaysmymother'steaching, 584Aswelofthisasofotherethyngesmoore. Aswellinthisasinotherthingsmore. 585Butnow,sire,latmesewhatIshalseyn. Butnow,sir,letmeseewhatIshallsay. 586Aha!ByGod,Ihavemytaleageyn. Aha!ByGod,Ihavemytaleagain. 587Whanthatmyfourthehousbondewasonbeere, Whenmyfourthhusbandwasonthefuneralbier, 588Iweepalgate,andmadesorycheere, Iweptcontinuously,andactedsorry, 589Aswyvesmooten,foritisusage, Aswivesmustdo,foritisthecustom, 590Andwithmycoverchiefcoveredmyvisage, Andwithmykerchiefcoveredmyface, 591ButforthatIwaspurveyedofamake, ButbecauseIwasprovidedwithamate, 592Iweptebutsmal,andthatIundertake. Iweptbutlittle,andthatIaffirm.

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593Tochirchewasmynhousbondebornamorwe Tochurchwasmyhusbandcarriedinthemorning 594Withneighebores,thatforhymmadensorwe; Byneighbors,whoforhimmadesorrow; 595AndJankyn,oureclerk,wasoonoftho. AndJankin,ourclerk,wasoneofthose. 596AshelpmeGod,whanthatIsaughhymgo AshelpmeGod,whenIsawhimgo 597Afterthebeere,methoughtehehaddeapaire Afterthebier,Ithoughthehadapair 598Ofleggesandoffeetsocleneandfaire Oflegsandoffeetsoneatandfair 599ThatalmynherteIyafuntohishoold. ThatallmyheartIgaveuntohiskeeping. 600Hewas,Itrowe,twentywynteroold, Hewas,Ibelieve,twentyyearsold, 601AndIwasfourty,ifIshalseyesooth; AndIwasforty,ifIshalltellthetruth; 602ButyetIhaddealweyacoltestooth. ButyetIhadalwaysacolt'stooth. 603GattothedIwas,andthatbicammeweel; WithteethsetwideapartIwas,andthatbecameme well; 604IhaddetheprenteofseinteVenusseel. IhadtheprintofSaintVenus'sseal. 605AshelpmeGod,Iwasalustyoon, AshelpmeGod,Iwasalustyone, 606Andfaire,andriche,andyong,andwelbigon, Andfair,andrich,andyoung,andwellfixed, 607Andtrewely,asmynehousbondestoldeme, Andtruly,asmyhusbandstoldme, 608Ihaddethebestequoniammyghtebe. Ihadthebestpudendumthatmightbe. 609Forcertes,IamalVenerien Forcertainly,IamallinfluencedbyVenus 610Infeelynge,andmynherteisMarcien. Infeeling,andmyheartisinfluencedbyMars. 611Venusmeyafmylust,mylikerousnesse, Venusmegavemylust,myamorousness, 612AndMarsyafmemysturdyhardynesse; AndMarsgavememysturdyboldness; 613MynascendentwasTaur,andMarstherinne. MyascendantwasTaurus,andMarswastherein. 614Allas,allas!Thateverelovewassynne! Alas,alas!Thateverlovewassin! 615Ifolwedaymyninclinacioun Ifollowedalwaysmyinclination 616Byvertuofmyconstellacioun; Byvirtueofthestateoftheheavensatmybirth; 617ThatmademeIkoudenoghtwithdrawe ThatmademethatIcouldnotwithdraw 618MychambreofVenusfromagoodfelawe. MychamberofVenusfromagoodfellow. 619YethaveIMartesmarkuponmyface, YethaveIMars'markuponmyface, 620Andalsoinanotherpriveeplace. Andalsoinanotherprivateplace. 621ForGodsowysbemysavacioun, ForasGodmaybemysalvation, 622Inelovedneverebynodiscrecioun, Ineverlovedinmoderation, 623Buteverefolwedemynappetit, Butalwaysfollowedmyappetite, 624Alwereheshort,orlong,orblak,orwhit; Whetherhewereshort,ortall,orblackhaired,or blond; 625Itooknokep,sothathelikedme,

Itooknonotice,providedthathepleasedme, 626Howpoorehewas,neeekofwhatdegree. Howpoorhewas,noralsoofwhatrank. 627WhatsholdeIseyebut,atthemonthesende, WhatshouldIsaybut,atthemonth'send, 628Thisjolyclerk,Jankyn,thatwassohende, Thisjollyclerk,Jankin,thatwassocourteous, 629Hathweddedmewithgreetsolempnytee, Hasweddedmewithgreatsolemnity, 630AndtohymyafIalthelondandfee AndtohimIgaveallthelandandproperty 631Thateverewasmeyeventherbifoore. Thateverwasgiventomebeforethen. 632Butafterwardrepentedmefulsoore; ButafterwardIrepentedverybitterly; 633Henoldesuffrenothyngofmylist. Hewouldnotallowmeanythingofmydesires. 634ByGod,hesmootmeonesonthelyst, ByGod,hehitmeonceontheear, 635ForthatIrenteoutofhisbookaleef, BecauseItorealeafoutofhisbook, 636Thatofthestrookmynerewaxaldeef. Sothatofthestrokemyearbecamealldeaf. 637StibournIwasasisaleonesse, Iwasasstubbornasisalioness, 638Andofmytongeaverrayjangleresse, Andofmytongueatruechatterbox, 639AndwalkeIwolde,asIhaddoonbiforn, AndIwouldwalk,asIhaddonebefore, 640Fromhoustohous,althoughhehaditsworn; Fromhousetohouse,althoughhehadswornthe contrary; 641Forwhichheoftentymeswoldepreche, Forwhichheoftentimeswouldpreach, 642AndmeofoldeRomayngeestesteche; AndteachmeofoldRomanstories; 643HowheSympliciusGallusleftehiswyf, Howhe,SimpliciusGallus,lefthiswife, 644Andhireforsookfortermeofalhislyf, Andforsookherforrestofallhislife, 645Noghtbutforopenhevededhehirsay Becauseofnothingbutbecausehesawherbare headed 646Lookyngeoutathisdoreuponaday. Lookingoutathisdooroneday. 647AnotherRomayntoldehemebyname, AnotherRomanhetoldmebyname, 648That,forhiswyfwasatasomeresgame Who,becausehiswifewasatamidsummerrevel 649Withoutenhiswityng,heforsookhireeke. Withouthisknowledge,heforsookheralso. 650AndthannewoldeheuponhisBibleseke AndthenhewouldseekinhisBible 651ThatilkeproverbeofEcclesiaste ThatsameproverbofEcclesiasticus 652Wherehecomandethandforbedethfaste Wherehecommandsandstrictlyforbidsthat 653Manshalnatsuffrehiswyfgorouleaboute. Manshouldsufferhiswifegowanderabout. 654Thannewoldeheseyerightthus,withoutendoute: Thenwouldhesayrightthus,withoutdoubt: 655`Whosothatbuyldethhishousalofsalwes, `Whoeverbuildshishouseallofwillowtwigs,

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656Andprikethhisblyndehorsoverthefalwes, Andspurshisblindhorseovertheopenfields, 657Andsuffrethhiswyftogosekenhalwes, Andsuffershiswifetogoonpilgrimages, 658Isworthytobeenhangedonthegalwes!' Isworthytobehangedonthegallows!' 659Butalfornoght,Isettenoghtanhawe Butallfornothing,Igavenotahawthornberry 660Ofhisproverbesn'ofhisoldesawe, Forhisproverbsnorforhisoldsayings, 661NeIwoldenatofhymcorrectedbe. NorwouldIbecorrectedbyhim. 662Ihatehymthatmyvicestellethme, Ihatehimwhotellsmemyvices, 663Andsodoomo,Godwoot,ofusthanI. Andsodomoreofus,Godknows,thanI. 664Thismadehymwithmewoodaloutrely; Thismadehimallutterlyfuriouswithme; 665Inoldenoghtforberehyminnocas. Iwouldnotputupwithhiminanyway. 666NowwolIseyeyowsooth,bySeintThomas, NowwillItellyouthetruth,bySaintThomas, 667WhythatIrenteoutofhisbookaleef, WhyItorealeafoutofhisbook, 668ForwhichhesmootmesothatIwasdeef. ForwhichhehitmesohardthatIwasdeaf. 669Hehaddeabookthatgladly,nyghtandday, Hehadabookthatregularly,nightandday, 670Forhisdesporthewolderedealway; Forhisamusementhewouldalwaysread; 671HeclepeditValerieandTheofraste, HecalleditValerieandTheofrastus, 672Atwhichbookheloughalweyfulfaste. Atwhichbookhealwaysheartilylaughed. 673AndeektherwassomtymeaclerkatRome, AndalsotherewasonceaclerkatRome, 674Acardinal,thathighteSeintJerome, Acardinal,whoiscalledSaintJerome, 675ThatmadeabookagaynJovinian; ThatmadeabookagainstJovinian; 676InwhichbookeektherwasTertulan, InwhichbookalsotherewasTertullian, 677Crisippus,Trotula,andHelowys, Crisippus,Trotula,andHeloise, 678ThatwasabbessenatferfroParys, WhowasabbessnotfarfromParis, 679AndeektheParablesofSalomon, AndalsotheParablesofSalomon, 680OvidesArt,andbookesmanyon, Ovid'sArt,andmanyotherbooks, 681Andallethisewereboundeninovolume. Andallthesewereboundinonevolume. 682Andeverynyghtanddaywashiscustume, Andeverynightanddaywashiscustom, 683Whanhehaddeleyserandvacacioun Whenhehadleisureandsparetime 684Fromootherworldlyoccupacioun, Fromotherworldlyoccupations, 685Toredenonthisbookofwikkedwyves. Toreadinthisbookofwickedwives. 686Heknewofhemmolegendesandlyves Heknewofthemmorelegendsandlives 687ThanbeenofgoodewyvesintheBible. ThanareofgoodwomenintheBible. 688Fortrustethwel,itisanimpossible

Fortrustwell,itisanimpossibility 689Thatanyclerkwolspekegoodofwyves, Thatanyclerkwillspeakgoodofwomen, 690Butifitbeofhoolyseinteslyves, Unlessitbeofholysaints'lives, 691Neofnoonootherwommanneverthemo. Norofanyotherwomaninanyway. 692Whopeyntedetheleon,telmewho? Whopaintedthelion,tellmewho? 693ByGod,ifwommenhaddewritenstories, ByGod,ifwomenhadwrittenstories, 694Asclerkeshanwithinnehireoratories, Asclerkshavewithintheirstudies, 695Theywoldehanwritenofmenmoorewikkednesse Theywouldhavewrittenofmenmorewickedness 696ThanalthemarkofAdammayredresse. Thanallthemalesexcouldsetright. 697ThechildrenofMercurieandofVenus ThechildrenofMercury(clerks)andofVenus(lovers) 698Beeninhirwirkyngfulcontrarius; Aredirectlycontraryintheiractions; 699Mercurielovethwysdamandscience, Mercuryloveswisdomandknowledge, 700AndVenuslovethryotanddispence. AndVenuslovesriotandextravagantexpenditures. 701And,forhirediversedisposicioun, And,becauseoftheirdiversedispositions, 702Echfallethinotheresexaltacioun. Eachfallsintheother'smostpowerfulastronomical sign. 703Andthus,Godwoot,Mercurieisdesolat Andthus,Godknows,Mercuryispowerless 704InPisces,wherVenusisexaltat, InPisces(theFish),whereVenusisexalted, 705AndVenusfalleththerMercurieisreysed. AndVenusfallswhereMercuryisraised. 706Therforenowommanofnoclerkispreysed. Thereforenowomanispraisedbyanyclerk. 707Theclerk,whanheisoold,andmaynoghtdo Theclerk,whenheisold,andcannotdo 708OfVenuswerkesworthhisoldesho, AnyofVenus'sworksworthhisoldshoe, 709Thannesithedoun,andwritinhisdotage Thenhesitsdown,andwritesinhisdotage 710Thatwommenkannatkepehirmariage! Thatwomencannotkeeptheirmarriage! 711Butnowtopurpos,whyItoldethee Butnowtothepoint,whyItoldthee 712ThatIwasbetenforabook,pardee! ThatIwasbeatenforabook,byGod! 713UponanyghtJankyn,thatwasouresire, UponanightJankin,thatwasmasterofourhouse, 714Reddeonhisbook,ashesatbythefire, Readonhisbook,ashesatbythefire, 715OfEvafirst,thatforhirwikkednesse OfEvefirst,howforherwickedness 716Wasalmankyndebroghttowrecchednesse, Allmankindwasbroughttowretchedness, 717ForwhichthatJhesuCristhymselfwasslayn, ForwhichJesusChristhimselfwasslain, 718Thatboghteuswithhishertebloodagayn. Whoboughtusbackwithhisheart'sblood. 719Lo,heereexpresofwommanmayyefynde Lo,hereclearlyofwomanyoumayfind 720Thatwommanwasthelosofalmankynde. Thatwomanwasthecauseofthelossofallmankind.

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721ThoreddehemehowSampsonlostehisheres: ThenhereadmehowSampsonlosthishair: 722Slepynge,hislemmankitteitwithhirsheres; Sleeping,hislovercutitwithhershears; 723Thurghwhichtresonlostehebothehisyen. Throughwhichtreasonhelostbothhiseyes. 724Thoreddeheme,ifthatIshalnatlyen, Thenhereadtome,ifIshallnotlie, 725OfHerculesandofhisDianyre, OfHerculesandofhisDianyre, 726Thatcausedhymtosettehymselfafyre. Whocausedhimtosethimselfonfire. 727Nothyngforgathethecareandthewo Heforgotnotabitofthecareandthewoe 728ThatSocrateshaddewithhiswyvestwo, ThatSocrateshadwithhistwowives, 729HowXantippacastepisseuponhisheed. HowXantippacastepissuponhishead. 730Thisselymansatstilleasheweredeed; Thispoormansatstillasifheweredead; 731Hewipedhisheed,namooredorsteheseyn, Hewipedhishead,nomoredaredhesay, 732But`Erthatthonderstynte,comthareyn!' But`Beforethunderstops,therecomesarain!' 733OfPhasipha,thatwasthequeeneofCrete, OfPhasipha,thatwasthequeenofCrete, 734Forshrewednesse,hymthoughtethetaleswete; Forsheermalignancy,hethoughtthetalesweet; 735Fy!Speknamooreitisagrislythyng Fie!Speaknomoreitisagrislything 736Ofhirehorriblelustandhirlikyng. Ofherhorriblelustandherpleasure. 737OfClitermystra,forhirelecherye, OfClitermystra,forherlechery, 738Thatfalslymadehirehousbondefortodye, Thatfalselymadeherhusbandtodie, 739Hereddeitwithfulgooddevocioun. Hereaditwithverygooddevotion. 740Hetoldemeeekforwhatoccasioun Hetoldmealsoforwhatoccasion 741AmphioraxatThebeslostehislyf. AmphioraxatThebeslosthislife. 742Mynhousbondehaddealegendeofhiswyf, Myhusbandhadalegendofhiswife, 743Eriphilem,thatforanoucheofgold Eriphilem,thatforabroochofgold 744HathprivelyuntotheGrekestold HassecretlyuntotheGreekstold 745Wherthathirhousbondehiddehyminaplace, Whereherhusbandhidhiminaplace, 746ForwhichhehaddeatThebessorygrace. ForwhichhehadatThebesasadfate. 747OfLyviatoldeheme,andofLucye: OfLiviatoldheme,andofLucie: 748Theybothemadehirhousbondesfortodye, Theybothmadetheirhusbandstodie, 749Thatoonforlove,thatootherwasforhate. Thatoneforlove,thatotherwasforhate. 750Lyviahirhousbonde,onanevenlate, Liviaherhusband,onalateevening, 751Empoysonedhath,forthatshewashisfo;

Haspoisoned,becauseshewashisfoe; 752Lucia,likerous,lovedhirehousbondeso Lucia,lecherous,lovedherhusbandsomuch 753That,forhesholdealweyuponhirethynke, That,sothatheshouldalwaysthinkuponher, 754Sheyafhymswichamanerelovedrynke Shegavehimsuchasortoflovedrink 755Thathewasdeederitwerebythemorwe; Thathewasdeadbeforeitwasmorning; 756Andthusalgateshousbondeshansorwe. Andthusalwayshusbandshavesorrow. 757ThannetoldehemehowoonLatumyus ThenhetoldmehowoneLatumius 758CompleyneduntohisfelaweArrius ComplaineduntohisfellowArrius 759Thatinhisgardyngrowedswichatree Thatinhisgardengrewsuchatree 760Onwhichheseydehowthathiswyvesthre Onwhichhesaidhowhisthreewives 761Hangedhemselfforhertedespitus. Hangedthemselvesforthemaliceoftheirhearts 762`Oleevebrother,'quodthisArrius, `Odearbrother,'thisArriussaid, 763`Yifmeaplanteofthilkeblissedtree, `Givemeashootofthatsameblessedtree, 764Andinmygardynplantedshalitbee.' Andinmygardenshallitbeplanted.' 765Oflatterdate,ofwyveshathhered Oflatterdate,ofwiveshasheread 766Thatsommehanslaynhirhousbondesinhirbed, Thatsomehaveslaintheirhusbandsintheirbed, 767Andletehirlecchourdightehirealthenyght, Andletherlechercopulatewithherallthenight, 768Whanthatthecorpslayinthefloorupright. Whenthecorpselayinthefloorflatonitsback. 769Andsommehandryvenaylesinhirbrayn, Andsomehavedrivennailsintheirbrains, 770Whilthattheyslepte,andthustheyhadhemslayn. Whiletheyslept,andthustheyhadthemslain. 771Sommehanhemyevepoysouninhiredrynke. Somehavegiventhempoisonintheirdrink. 772Hespakmooreharmthanhertemaybithynke, Hespokemoreharmthanheartmayimagine, 773Andtherwithalheknewofmoproverbes Andconcerningthisheknewofmoreproverbs 774Thaninthisworldthergrowengrasorherbes. Thaninthisworldtheregrowgrassorherbs. 775`Betis,'quodhe,`thynhabitacioun `Betteris,'hesaid,`thyhabitation 776Bewithaleonorafouldragoun, Bewithalionorafouldragon, 777Thanwithawommanusyngefortochyde. Thanwithawomanaccustomedtoscold. 778Betis,'quodhe,`hyeintheroofabyde, Betteris,'hesaid,`tostayhighintheroof, 779Thanwithanangrywyfdouninthehous; Thanwithanangrywifedowninthehouse; 780Theybeensowikkedandcontrarious, Theyaresowickedandcontrary, 781Theyhatenthathirhousbondeslovenay.' Theyalwayshatewhattheirhusbandslove.' 782Heseyde,`Awommancasthirshameaway, Hesaid,`Awomancaststheirshameaway, 783Whanshecastofhirsmok';andforthermo, Whenshecastsoffherundergarment';and

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furthermore, 784`Afairwomman,butshebechaastalso, `Afairwoman,unlesssheisalsochaste, 785Islykagoldrynginasowesnose.' Islikeagoldringinasow'snose.' 786Whowoldewene,orwhowoldesuppose, Whowouldbelieve,orwhowouldsuppose, 787Thewothatinmynhertewas,andpyne? Thewoethatinmyheartwas,andpain? 788AndwhanIsaughhewoldeneverefyne AndwhenIsawhewouldnevercease 789Toredenonthiscursedbookalnyght, Readingonthiscursedbookallnight, 790AlsodeynlythreleveshaveIplyght AllsuddenlyhaveIpluckedthreeleaves 791Outofhisbook,rightasheradde,andeke Outofhisbook,rightasheread,andalso 792Iwithmyfestsotookhymonthecheke Iwithmyfistsohithimonthecheek 793Thatinourefyrhefilbakwardadoun. Thatinourfirehefelldownbackwards. 794Andheupstirteasdoothawoodleoun, Andheleapedupasdoesafuriouslion, 795Andwithhisfesthesmootmeontheheed Andwithhisfisthehitmeonthehead 796ThatinthefloorIlayasIweredeed. ThatonthefloorIlayasifIweredead. 797AndwhanhesaughhowstillethatIlay, AndwhenhesawhowstillIlay, 798Hewasagastandwoldehanfledhisway, Hewasfrightenedandwouldhavefledonhisway, 799TilattelasteoutofmyswoghIbreyde. UntilatthelastoutofmyswoonIawoke. 800`O!hastowslaynme,falsetheef?'Iseyde, `O!hastthouslainme,falsethief?'Isaid, 801`Andformylandthushastowmordredme? `Andformylandthushastthoumurderedme? 802ErIbedeed,yetwolIkissethee.' BeforeIamdead,yetwillIkissthee.' 803Andneerhecam,andkneledfaireadoun, Andnearhecame,andkneeledgentlydown, 804Andseyde,`DeeresusterAlisoun, Andsaid,`DearsisterAlisoun, 805AshelpmeGod,Ishaltheeneveresmyte! SohelpmeGod,Ishallnever(again)smitethee! 806ThatIhavedoon,itisthyselftowyte. WhatIhavedone,itisthyselftoblame(youdroveme toit). 807Foryeveitme,andthatItheebiseke!' Forgiveitme,andthatIbeseechthee!' 808AndyeteftsoonesIhittehymonthecheke, AndyetimmediatelyIhithimonthecheek, 809Andseyde,`Theef,thusmuchelamIwreke; Andsaid,`Thief,thusmuchamIavenged; 810NowwolIdye,Imaynolengerspeke.' NowwillIdie,Imaynolongerspeak.' 811Butattelaste,withmuchelcareandwo, Butatthelast,withmuchcareandwoe, 812Wefilleacordedbyusselventwo. Wemadeanagreementbetweenourtwoselves. 813Heyafmealthebridelinmynhond, Hegavemeallthecontrolinmyhand, 814Tohanthegovernanceofhousandlond, Tohavethegovernanceofhouseandland, 815Andofhistonge,andofhishondalso;

Andofhistongue,andofhishandalso; 816Andmadehymbrennehisbookanonrighttho. Andmadehimburnhisbookimmediatelyrightthen. 817AndwhanthatIhaddegetenuntome, AndwhenIhadgottenuntome, 818Bymaistrie,althesoveraynetee, Bymastery,allthesovereignty, 819Andthatheseyde,`Mynowenetrewewyf, Andthathesaid,`Myowntruewife, 820Doastheelustthetermeofalthylyf; Doasyoupleasetherestofallthylife; 821Keepthynhonour,andkeepeekmynestaat' Guardthyhonor,andguardalsomyreputation' 822Afterthatdaywehaddenneverdebaat. Afterthatdayweneverhadanargument. 823Godhelpemeso,Iwastohymaskynde AsGodmayhelpme,Iwastohimaskind 824AsanywyffromDenmarkuntoYnde, AsanywifefromDenmarkuntoIndia, 825Andalsotrewe,andsowashetome. Andalsotrue,andsowashetome. 826IpreytoGod,thatsitinmagestee, IpraytoGod,whositsinmajesty, 827Soblessehissouleforhismercydeere. Soblesshissoulforhismercydear. 828NowwolIseyemytale,ifyewolheere." NowwillIsaymytale,ifyouwillhear." Beholdethewordesbitwenethe SomonourandtheFrere 829TheFrerelough,whanhehaddeherdalthis; TheFriarlaughed,whenhehadheardallthis; 830"Nowdame,"quodhe,"sohaveIjoyeorblis, "Nowdame,"hesaid,"asImayhavejoyorbliss, 831Thisisalongpreambleofatale!" Thisisalongpreambleofatale!" 832AndwhantheSomonourherdetheFreregale, AndwhentheSummonerheardtheFriarcryout, 833"Lo,"quodtheSomonour,"Goddesarmestwo! "Lo,"saidtheSummoner,"ByGod'stwoarms! 834Afrerewolentremettehymeveremo. Afriarwillalwaysintrudehimself(inothers'affairs). 835Lo,goodemen,aflyeandeekafrere Lo,goodmen,aflyandalsoafriar 836Wolfalleineverydysshandeekmateere. Willfallineverydishandalsoeverydiscussion. 837Whatspekestowofpreambulacioun? Whatspeakestthouofperambulation? 838What!amble,ortrotte,orpees,orgositdoun! What!amble,ortrot,orkeepstill,orgositdown! 839Thoulettestouredisportinthismanere." Thouspoilourfuninthismanner." 840"Ye,woltowso,sireSomonour?"quodtheFrere; "Yes,wiltthouhaveitthus,sirSummoner?"saidthe Friar; 841"Now,bymyfeithIshal,erthatIgo, "Now,bymyfaithIshall,beforeIgo, 842Telleofasomonourswichataleortwo Tellofasummonersuchataleortwo 843Thatallethefolkshallaugheninthisplace." Thatallthefolkshalllaughinthisplace." 844"Nowelles,Frere,Ibishrewethyface," "Nowotherwise,Friar,Icursethyface,"

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845QuodthisSomonour,"andIbishreweme, SaidthisSummoner,"andIcursemyself, 846ButifItelletalestwoorthre UnlessItelltalestwoorthree 847OffrereserIcometoSidyngborne OffriarsbeforeIcometoSiitingbourne 848ThatIshalmakethynhertefortomorne, ThatIshallmakethyhearttomourn, 849ForwelIwootthypacienceisgon." ForwellIknowthypatienceisgone." 850OureHoostecride"Pees!Andthatanon!" OurHostcried"Peace!Andthatrightnow!" 851Andseyde,"Latthewommantellehiretale. Andsaid,"Letthewomantellhertale. 852Yefareasfolkthatdronkenbenofale. Youactlikefolkthataredrunkonale. 853Do,dame,telleforthyouretale,andthatisbest." Do,dame,tellforthyourtale,andthatisbest." 854"Alredy,sire,"quodshe,"rightasyowlest, "Allready,sir,"shesaid,"rightasyouplease, 855IfIhavelicenceofthisworthyFrere." IfIhavepermissionofthisworthyFriar." 856"Yis,dame,"quodhe,"telforth,andIwolheere." "Yes,dame,"hesaid,"tellforth,andIwillhear." HeereendeththeWyfofBathehirProloge TheWifeofBath'sTale HeerebigynneththeTaleoftheWyfofBathe 857Inth'oldedayesoftheKyngArthour, IntheolddaysofKingArthur, 858OfwhichthatBritonsspekengreethonour, OfwhomBritonsspeakgreathonor, 859Alwasthislandfulfildoffayerye. Thislandwasallfilledfullofsupernaturalcreatures. 860Theelfqueene,withhirjolycompaignye, Theelfqueen,withherjollycompany, 861Dauncedfulofteinmanyagrenemede. Dancedveryofteninmanyagreenmead. 862Thiswastheoldeopinion,asIrede; Thiswastheoldbelief,asIread; 863Ispekeofmanyehundredyeresago. Ispeakofmanyhundredyearsago. 864Butnowkannomansenoneelvesmo, Butnownomancanseeanymoreelves, 865Fornowthegretechariteeandprayeres Fornowthegreatcharityandprayers 866Oflymytoursandotherehoolyfreres, Oflicensedbeggarsandotherholyfriars, 867Thatsercheneverylondandeverystreem, Thatoverruneverylandandeverystream, 868Asthikkeasmotesinthesonnebeem, Asthickasspecksofdustinthesunbeam, 869Blessyngehalles,chambres,kichenes,boures, Blessinghalls,chambers,kitchens,bedrooms, 870Citees,burghes,castels,hyetoures, Cities,towns,castles,hightowers, 871Thropes,bernes,shipnes,dayeryes Villages,barns,stables,dairies 872Thismakeththattherbennofayeryes. Thismakesitthattherearenofairies.

873Fortheraswonttowalkenwasanelf Forwhereanelfwasaccustomedtowalk 874Therwalkethnowthelymytourhymself Therewalksnowthelicensedbeggingfriarhimself 875Inundermelesandinmorwenynges, Inlatemorningsandinearlymornings, 876Andseythhismatynsandhishoolythynges Andsayshismorningprayersandhisholythings 877Ashegoothinhislymytacioun. Ashegoesinhisassigneddistrict. 878Wommenmaygosauflyupanddoun. Womenmaygosafelyupanddown. 879Ineverybusshorundereverytree Ineverybushorundereverytree 880Therisnoonootherincubusbuthe, Thereisnootherevilspiritbuthe, 881Andhenewoldoonhembutdishonour. Andhewillnotdothemanyharmexceptdishonor. 882AndsobifelthatthiskyngArthour AndsoithappenedthatthiskingArthur 883Haddeinhishousalustybacheler, Hadinhishousealustybachelor, 884Thatonadaycamridyngefroryver, Thatononedaycameridingfromhawking, 885Andhappedthat,alloneashewasborn, Andithappenedthat,aloneashewasborn, 886Hesaughamaydewalkyngehymbiforn, Hesawamaidenwalkingbeforehim, 887Ofwhichmaydeanon,maugreehirheed, Ofwhichmaidenstraightway,despiteallshecould do, 888Byverrayforce,heraftehiremaydenhed; Byutterforce,hetookawayhermaidenhead; 889Forwhichoppressiounwasswichclamour Forwhichwrongwassuchclamor 890AndswichpursuteuntothekyngArthour AndsuchdemandforjusticeuntokingArthur 891Thatdampnedwasthisknyghtfortobedeed, Thatthisknightwascondemnedtobedead, 892Bycoursoflawe,andsholdehanlosthisheed Bycourseoflaw,andshouldhavelosthishead 893Paraventureswichwasthestatuttho Perhapssuchwasthestatutethen 894Butthatthequeeneandotherladyesmo Exceptthatthequeenandotherladiesaswell 895Solongepreyedenthekyngofgrace Solongprayedthekingforgrace 896Tilhehislyfhymgrauntedintheplace, Untilhegrantedhimhisliferightthere, 897Andyafhymtothequeene,alathirwille, Andgavehimtothequeen,allatherwill, 898Tochesewheithershewoldehymsaveorspille. Tochoosewhethershewouldhimsaveorputto death. 899Thequeenethankeththekyngwithalhirmyght, Thequeenthanksthekingwithallhermight, 900Andafterthisthusspakshetotheknyght, Andafterthisshespokethustotheknight, 901Whanthatshesaughhirtyme,uponaday: Whenshesawhertime,uponaday: 902"Thoustandestyet,"quodshe,"inswicharray "Thoustandestyet,"shesaid,"insuchcondition, 903Thatofthylyfyethastownosuretee. Thatofthylifeyetthouhastnoassurance 904Igrantetheelyf,ifthoukansttellenme

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Igranttheelife,ifthoucansttellme 905Whatthyngisitthatwommenmoostdesiren. Whatthingitisthatwomenmostdesire. 906Bewar,andkeepthynekkeboonfromiren! Beware,andkeepthyneckbonefromiron(axe)! 907Andifthoukanstnattellenitanon, Andifthoucanstnottellitrightnow, 908YetwolIyevetheelevefortogon YetIwillgivetheeleavetogo 909Atwelfmonthandaday,tosecheandleere Atwelvemonthandaday,toseektolearn 910Anansweresuffisantinthismateere; Asatisfactoryanswerinthismatter; 911AndsureteewolIhan,erthatthoupace, AndIwillhave,beforethougo,apledge 912Thybodyfortoyeldeninthisplace." Tosurrenderthybodyinthisplace." 913Wowasthisknyght,andsorwefullyhesiketh; Woewasthisknight,andsorrowfullyhesighs; 914Butwhat!Hemaynatdoalashymliketh. Butwhat!Hecannotdoallashepleases. 915Andatthelastehecheeshymfortowende Andatthelasthechosetoleave 916Andcomeagayn,rightattheyeresende, Andcomeagain,exactlyattheyear'send, 917WithswichanswereasGodwoldehympurveye; WithsuchanswerasGodwouldprovidehim; 918Andtakethhisleve,andwendethforthhisweye. Andtakeshisleave,andgoesforthonhisway. 919Heseketheveryhousandeveryplace Heseekseveryhouseandeveryplace 920Whereashehopethfortofyndegrace Wherehehopestohavetheluck 921Tolernewhatthyngwommenlovenmoost, Tolearnwhatthingwomenlovemost, 922Buthenekoudearryveninnocoost Buthecouldnotarriveinanyregion 923Wherashemyghtefyndeinthismateere Wherehemightfindinthismatter 924Twocreaturesaccordyngeinfeere. Twocreaturesagreeingtogether. 925Sommeseydewommenlovenbestrichesse, Somesaidwomenloverichesbest, 926Sommeseydehonour,sommeseydejolynesse, Somesaidhonor,somesaidgaiety, 927Sommerichearray,sommeseydenlustabedde, Somerichclothing,somesaidlustinbed, 928Andoftetymetobewydweandwedde. Andfrequentlytobewidowandwedded. 929Sommeseydethatourehertesbeenmoostesed Somesaidthatourheartsaremosteased 930Whanthatwebeenyflateredandyplesed. Whenweareflatteredandpleased. 931Hegoothfulnythesothe,Iwolnatlye. Hegoesverynearthetruth,Iwillnotlie. 932Amanshalwynneusbestwithflaterye, Amanshallwinusbestwithflattery, 933Andwithattendanceandwithbisynesse Andwithattentionsandwithsolicitude 934Beenweylymed,bothemooreandlesse. Wearecaught,everyoneofus. 935Andsommeseyenthatwelovenbest Andsomesaythatwelovebest

936Fortobefreeanddorightasuslest, Tobefreeanddojustasweplease, 937Andthatnomanrepreveusofourevice, Andthatnomanreproveusforourvices, 938Butseyethatwebewiseandnothyngnyce. Butsaythatwearewiseandnotatallsilly. 939Fortrewelytherisnoonofusalle, Fortrulythereisnotoneofusall, 940Ifanywightwolclaweusonthegalle, Ifanyonewillscratchusonthesorespot, 941Thatwenelkike,forheseithussooth. Thatwewillnotkickback,becausehetellsusthe truth. 942Assay,andheshalfyndeitthatsodooth; Tryit,andwhoeversodoesshallfindittrue; 943For,beweneversoviciouswithinne, For,beweneversoviciouswithin, 944Wewolbeenholdenwiseandcleneofsynne. Wewanttobeconsideredwiseandcleanofsin. 945Andsommeseynthatgreetdelithanwe Andsomesaythatwehavegreatdelight 946Fortobeenholdenstable,andeeksecree, Tobeconsideredsteadfast,andalso(abletokeepa) secret, 947Andinopurposstedefastlytodwelle, Andinonepurposesteadfastlytoremain, 948Andnatbiwreyethyngthatmenustelle. Andnotrevealthingsthatmentellus. 949Butthattaleisnatwortharakestele. Butthattaleisnotwortharakehandle. 950Pardee,wewommenkonnenothynghele; ByGod,wewomencanhidenothing; 951WitnesseonMydawolyeheerethetale? WitnessonMidaswillyouhearthetale? 952Ovyde,amongesotherethyngessmale, Ovid,amongothersmallmatters, 953SeydeMydahadde,underhislongeheres, SaidMidashad,underhislonghair, 954Growyngeuponhisheedtwoasseseres, Twoass'sears,growinguponhishead, 955Thewhichevicehehyddeashebestmyghte Thewhichvicehehidashebestcould 956Fulsubtillyfromeverymannessighte, Veryskillfullyfromeveryman'ssight, 957That,savehiswyf,therwisteofitnamo. That,exceptforhiswife,thereknewofitnoothers. 958Helovedhiremoost,andtrustedhirealso; Helovedhermost,andtrustedheralso; 959Hepreyedehirethattonocreature Heprayedherthattonocreature 960Shesholdetellenofhisdisfigure. Sheshouldtellofhisdisfigurement. 961Sheswoorhim,"Nay";foralthisworldtowynne, Shesworehim,"Nay";forallthisworldtowin, 962Shenoldedothatvileynyeorsynne, Shewouldnotdothatdishonororsin, 963Tomakehirhousbondehansofoulaname. Tomakeherhusbandhavesofoulareputation. 964Shenoldenattelleitforhiroweneshame. Shewouldnottellitforherownshame. 965Butnathelees,hirthoughtethatshedyde Butnonetheless,shethoughtthatshewoulddie 966Thatshesolongesholdeaconseilhyde;

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Ifsheshouldhideasecretsolong; 967Hirthoughteitswalsosooreaboutehirherte Shethoughtitswelledsosoreaboutherheart 968Thatnedelysomwordhiremosteasterte; Thatnecessarilysomewordmustescapeher; 969Andsithshedorstetelleittonoman, Andsinceshedaredtellittonoman, 970Dountoamareysfastebysheran Sherandowntoamarshcloseby 971Tilshecamtherehirhertewasafyre Untilshecamethereherheartwasafire 972Andasabitorebomblethinthemyre, Andasabitternbumblesinthemire, 973Sheleydehirmouthuntothewaterdoun: Shelaidhermouthdownuntothewater: 974"Biwreyemenat,thouwater,withthysoun," "Betraymenot,thouwater,withthysound," 975Quodshe;"totheeItelleitandnamo; Shesaid;"totheeItellitandnoothers; 976Mynhousbondehathlongeasseserystwo! Myhusbandhastwolongassesears! 977Nowismynhertealhool;nowisitoute. Nowismyheartallwhole;nowisitout. 978Imyghtenolengerkepeit,outofdoute." Icouldnolongerkeepit,withoutdoubt." 979Heeremayyese,thoghweatymeabyde, Hereyoumaysee,thoughweatimeabide, 980Yetoutitmoot;wekannoconseilhyde. Yetoutitmustcome;wecanhidenosecret. 981Theremenantofthetaleifyewolheere, Theremnantofthetaleifyouwillhear, 982RedethOvyde,andtheryemayitleere. ReadOvid,andthereyoumaylearnit. 983Thisknyght,ofwhichmytaleisspecially, Thisknight,ofwhommytaleisinparticular, 984Whanthathesaughhemyghtenatcometherby Whenhesawhemightnotcometothat 985Thisistoseye,whatwommenlovemoost Thisistosay,whatwomenlovemost 986Withinnehisbrestfulsorwefulwasthegoost. Withinhisbreastverysorrowfulwasthespirit. 987Buthoomhegooth;hemyghtenatsojourne; Buthomehegoes;hecouldnotlinger; 988Thedaywascomethathomwardmostehetourne. Thedaywascomethathomewardhemustturn. 989Andinhisweyithappedhymtoryde, Andinhiswayhehappenedtoride, 990Inalthiscare,underaforestsyde, Inallthiscare,nearaforestside, 991Wherashesaughuponadauncego Wherehesawuponadancego 992Ofladyesfoureandtwenty,andyetmo; Ladiesfourandtwenty,andyetmore; 993Towardthewhichedauncehedrowfulyerne, Towardthewhichdancehedrewveryeagerly, 994Inhopethatsomwysdomsholdehelerne. Inhopethatheshouldlearnsomewisdom. 995Butcerteinly,erhecamfullythere, Butcertainly,beforehecamefullythere, 996Vanysshedwasthisdaunce,henystewhere. Vanishedwasthisdance,heknewnotwhere. 997Nocreaturesaughhethatbarlyf, Hesawnocreaturethatborelife, 998Saveonthegrenehesaughsittyngeawyf Saveonthegreenhesawsittingawoman 999Afoulerwightthermaynomandevyse.

Therecannomanimagineanugliercreature. 1000Agayntheknyghtthisoldewyfganryse, Attheknight'scomingthisoldwifedidrise, 1001Andseyde,"Sireknyght,heerforthnelithnowey. Andsaid,"Sirknight,thereliesnoroadoutofhere. 1002Telmewhatthatyeseken,byyourefey! Tellmewhatyouseek,byyourfaith! 1003Paraventureitmaythebettrebe; Perhapsitmaybethebetter; 1004Thiseoldefolkkanmuchelthyng,"quodshe. Theseoldfolkknowmanythings,"shesaid. 1005"Myleevemooder,"quodthisknyght,"certeyn "Mydearmother,"saidthisknight,"certainly 1006InambutdeedbutifthatIkanseyn IamasgoodasdeadunlessIcansay 1007Whatthyngitisthatwommenmoostdesire. Whatthingitisthatwomenmostdesire. 1008Koudeyemewisse,Iwoldewelquiteyourehire." Ifyoucouldteachme,Iwouldwellrepayyou." 1009"Plightmethytroutheheereinmynhand,"quod she, "Pledgemethywordhereinmyhand,"shesaid, 1010"ThenextethyngthatIrequerethee, "ThenextthingthatIrequireofthee, 1011Thoushaltitdo,ifitlyeinthymyght, Thoushaltdoit,ifitliesinthypower, 1012AndIwoltelleityoweritbenyght." AndIwilltellittoyoubeforeitisnight." 1013"Haveheermytrouthe,"quodtheknyght,"I grante." "Haveheremypledgedword,"saidtheknight,"I agree." 1014"Thanne,"quodshe,"Idarmewelavante "Then,"shesaid,"Idaremewellboast 1015Thylyfissauf,forIwolstondetherby; Thylifeissafe,forIwillstandthereby; 1016Uponmylyf,thequeenewolseyeasI. Uponmylife,thequeenwillsayasI. 1017Latsewhichistheproudesteofhemalle Let'sseewhichistheproudestofthemall 1018Thatwerethonacoverchieforacalle Thatwearsakerchieforahairnet 1019ThatdarseyenayofthatIshaltheeteche. Thatdaressay`nay'ofwhatIshallteachthee. 1020Latusgoforthwithoutenlengerspeche." Letusgoforthwithoutlongerspeech." 1021Thorownedsheapistelinhisere, Thenshewhisperedamessageinhisear, 1022Andbadhymtobegladandhavenofere. Andcommandedhimtobegladandhavenofear. 1023Whantheybecomentothecourt,thisknyght Whentheyarecometothecourt,thisknight 1024Seydehehadholdehisday,ashehaddehight, Saidhehadheldhisday,ashehadpromised, 1025Andredywashisanswere,ashesayde. Andhisanswerwasready,ashesaid. 1026Fulmanyanoblewyf,andmanyamayde, Verymanyanoblewife,andmanyamaid, 1027Andmanyawydwe,forthattheybeenwise, Andmanyawidow,becausetheyarewise, 1028Thequeenehirselfsittyngeasajustise, Thequeenherselfsittingasajustice, 1029Assembledbeen,hisanswerefortoheere;

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Areassembled,tohearhisanswer; 1030Andafterwardthisknyghtwasbodeappeere. Andafterwardthisknightwascommandedto appear. 1031Toeverywightcomandedwassilence, Silencewascommandedtoeveryperson, 1032Andthattheknyghtsholdetelleinaudience Andthattheknightshouldtellinopencourt 1033Whatthyngthatworldlywommenlovenbest. Whatthing(itis)thatworldlywomenlovebest. 1034Thisknyghtnestoodnatstilleasdothabest, Thisknightstoodnotsilentasdoesabeast, 1035Buttohisquestiounanonanswerde Buttohisquestionstraightwayanswered 1036Withmanlyvoys,thatalthecourtitherde: Withmanlyvoice,sothatallthecourtheardit: 1037"Myligelady,generally,"quodhe, "Myliegelady,withoutexception,"hesaid, 1038"Wommendesirentohavesovereynetee "Womendesiretohavesovereignty 1039Asweloverhirhousbondashirlove, Aswelloverherhusbandasherlove, 1040Andfortobeeninmaistriehymabove. Andtobeinmasteryabovehim. 1041Thisisyouremoostedesir,thoghyemekille. Thisisyourgreatestdesire,thoughyoukillme. 1042Doothasyowlist;Iamheeratyourewille." Doasyouplease;Iamheresubjecttoyourwill." 1043Inalthecourtnewastherwyf,nemayde, Inallthecourttherewasnotwife,normaid, 1044Newydwethatcontrariedthathesayde, Norwidowthatdeniedwhathesaid, 1045Butseydenhewasworthyhanhislyf. Butsaidthathewasworthytohavehislife. 1046Andwiththatwordupstirtetheoldewyf, Andwiththatwordupsprangtheoldwoman, 1047Whichthattheknyghtsaughsittyngeonthegrene: Whomtheknightsawsittingonthegreen: 1048"Mercy,"quodshe,"mysovereynladyqueene! "Mercy,"shesaid,"mysovereignladyqueen! 1049Erthatyourecourtdeparte,domeright. Beforeyourcourtdeparts,domejustice. 1050Itaughtethisanswereuntotheknyght; Itaughtthisanswertotheknight; 1051Forwhichheplightemehistrouthethere, Forwhichhepledgedmehiswordthere, 1052ThefirstethyngthatIwoldehymrequere ThefirstthingthatIwouldaskofhim 1053Hewoldeitdo,ifitlayinhismyghte. Hewoulddo,ifitlayinhispower. 1054BiforethecourtthannepreyeIthee,sirknyght," BeforethecourtthenIpraythee,sirknight," 1055Quodshe,"thatthoumetakeuntothywyf, Saidshe,"thatthoutakemeasthywife, 1056ForwelthouwoostthatIhavekeptthylyf. ForwellthouknowthatIhavesavedthylife. 1057IfIseyefals,seynay,uponthyfey!" IfIsayfalse,say`nay',uponthyfaith!" 1058Thisknyghtanswerde,"Allasandweylawey! Thisknightanswered,"Alasandwoeisme! 1059Iwootrightwelthatswichwasmybiheste. Iknowrightwellthatsuchwasmypromise. 1060ForGoddeslove,ascheesanewerequeste!

ForGod'slove,chooseanewrequest! 1061Taakalmygoodandlatmybodygo." Takeallmygoodsandletmybodygo." 1062"Nay,thanne,"quodshe,"Ishreweusbothetwo! "Nay,then,"shesaid,"Icursebothofustwo! 1063ForthoghthatIbefoul,andoold,andpoore ForthoughIamugly,andold,andpoor 1064Inoldeforalthemetal,neforoore Iwouldnotforallthemetal,norforore 1065Thatunderertheisgraveorlithabove, Thatunderearthisburiedorliesabove, 1066ButifthywyfIwere,andeekthylove." HaveanythingexceptthatIwerethywife,andalso thylove." 1067"Mylove?"quodhe,"nay,mydampnacioun! "Mylove?"hesaid,"nay,mydamnation! 1068Allas,thatanyofmynacioun Alas,thatanyofmyfamily 1069Sholdeeveresofouledisparagedbe!" Shouldeverbesofoullydegraded!" 1070Butalfornoght;theendeisthis,thathe Butallfornaught;theendisthis,thathe 1071Constreynedwas;henedesmostehirewedde, Constrainedwas;hemustbynecessitywedher, 1072Andtakethhisoldewyf,andgoothtobedde. Andtakeshisoldwife,andgoestobed. 1073Nowwoldensommenseye,paraventure, Nowwouldsomemensay,perhaps, 1074ThatformynecligenceIdonocure ThatbecauseofmynegligenceImakenoeffort 1075Totellenyowthejoyeandalth'array Totellyouthejoyandalltherichdisplay 1076Thatatthefeestewasthatilkeday. Thatwasatthe(wedding)feastthatsameday. 1077TowhichthyngshortlyanswerenIshal: TowhichthingshortlyIshallanswer: 1078Iseyethernasnojoyenefeesteatal; Isaytherewasnojoynorfeastatall; 1079Thernasbuthevynesseandmuchesorwe. Therewasnothingbutheavinessandmuchsorrow. 1080Forprivelyheweddedhireonmorwe, Forheweddedherinprivateinthemorning, 1081Andaldayafterhiddehymasanowle, Andalldayafterhidhimselflikeanowl, 1082Sowowashym,hiswyflookedsofoule. Sowoefulwashe,hiswifelookedsougly. 1083Greetwasthewotheknyghthaddeinhisthoght, Greatwasthewoetheknighthadinhisthought, 1084Whanhewaswithhiswyfabeddeybroght; Whenhewasbroughttobedwithhiswife; 1085Hewalwethandheturnethtoandfro. Hewallowsandheturnstoandfro. 1086Hisoldewyflaysmylyngeeveremo, Hisoldwifelaysmilingevermore, 1087Andseyde,"Odeerehousbonde,benedicitee! Andsaid,"Odearhusband,blessme! 1088Faretheveryknyghtthuswithhiswyfasye? Doeseveryknightbehavethuswithhiswifeasyou do? 1089IsthisthelaweofkyngArthureshous? IsthisthelawofkingArthur'shouse? 1090Iseveryknyghtofhissodangerous?

110

Iseveryknightofhissoaloof? 1091Iamyoureoweneloveandyourewyf; Iamyourownloveandyourwife; 1092Iamshewhichthatsavedhathyourelyf, Iamshewhohassavedyourlife, 1093And,certes,yetnedideIyownevereunright; And,certainly,Ididyouneverwrongyet; 1094Whyfareyethuswithmethisfirstenyght? Whybehaveyouthuswithmethisfirstnight? 1095Yefarenlykamanhadlosthiswit. Youactlikeamanwhohadlosthiswit. 1096Whatismygilt?ForGoddeslove,telit, Whatismyoffense?ForGod'slove,tellit, 1097Anditshalbeenamended,ifImay." Anditshallbeamended,ifIcan." 1098"Amended?"quodthisknyght,"Allas,nay,nay! "Amended?"saidthisknight,"Alas,nay,nay! 1099Itwolnatbeenamendedneveremo. Itwillnotbeamendedevermore. 1100Thouartsoloothly,andsoooldalso, Thouartsoloathsome,andsooldalso, 1101Andthertocomenofsoloughakynde, Andmoreoverdescendedfromsuchlowborn lineage, 1102ThatlitelwonderisthoghIwalweandwynde. ThatlittlewonderisthoughItossandtwistabout. 1103SowoldeGodmynhertewoldebreste!" SowouldGodmyheartwouldburst!" 1104"Isthis,"quodshe,"thecauseofyoureunreste?" "Isthis,"shesaid,"thecauseofyourdistress?" 1105"Ye,certeinly,"quodhe,"nowonderis." "Yes,certainly,"hesaid,"itisnowonder." 1106"Now,sire,"quodshe,"Ikoudeamendealthis, "Now,sir,"shesaid,"Icouldamendallthis, 1107Ifthatmeliste,eritweredayesthre, IfIpleased,beforethreedayswerepast, 1108Sowelyemyghtebereyowuntome. Providingthatyoumightbehavewelltowardsme. 1109"But,foryespekenofswichgentillesse "But,sinceyouspeakofsuchnobility 1110Asisdescendedoutofoldrichesse, Asisdescendedoutofoldriches, 1111Thattherforesholdenyebegentilmen, Thatthereforeyoushouldbenoblemen, 1112Swicharroganceisnatworthanhen. Sucharroganceisnotworthahen. 1113Lookewhothatismoostvertuousalway, Lookwhoismostvirtuousalways, 1114Pryveeandapert,andmoostentendethay Inprivateandpublic,andmostintendsever 1115Todothegentildedesthathekan; Todothenobledeedsthathecan; 1116Taakhymforthegrettestgentilman. Takehimforthegreatestnobleman. 1117Cristwoleweclaymeofhymouregentillesse, Christwantsustoclaimournobilityfromhim, 1118Natofoureeldresforhireoldrichesse. Notfromourancestorsfortheiroldriches. 1119Forthoghtheyyeveusalhirheritage, Forthoughtheygiveusalltheirheritage, 1120Forwhichweclaymetobeenofheighparage,

Forwhichweclaimtobeofnoblelineage, 1121Yetmaytheynatbiquethefornothyng Yettheycannotbequeathbyanymeans 1122Tonoonofushirvertuouslyvyng, Toanyofustheirvirtuousliving, 1123Thatmadehemgentilmenycalledbe, Thatmadethembecallednoblemen, 1124Andbadusfolwenheminswichdegree. Andcommandedustofollowtheminsuchmatters. 1125"WelkanthewisepoeteofFlorence, "WellcanthewisepoetofFlorence, 1126ThathighteDant,spekeninthissentence. WhoiscalledDante,speakonthismatter. 1127Lo,inswichmanerrymisDantestale: Lo,insuchsortofrimeisDante'sspeech: 1128`Fulseldeuprisethbyhisbranchessmale `Veryseldomgrowsupfromitssmallbranches 1129Prowesseofman,forGod,ofhisgoodnesse, Nobilityofman,forGod,ofhisgoodness, 1130Wolethatofhymweclaymeouregentillesse'; Wantsustoclaimournobilityfromhim'; 1131Forofoureeldresmaywenothyngclayme Forfromourancestorswecanclaimnothing 1132Buttemporelthyng,thatmanmayhurteand mayme. Excepttemporalthings,thatmayhurtandinjurea man. 1133"EekeverywightwootthisaswelasI, "AlsoeverypersonknowsthisaswellasI, 1134Ifgentillessewereplantednatureelly Ifnobilitywereplantednaturally 1135Untoacerteynlynagedounthelyne, Untoacertainlineagedowntheline, 1136Pryveeandapertthannewoldetheyneverefyne Theninprivateandinpublictheywouldnevercease 1137Todoonofgentillessethefaireoffice; Todothejustdutiesofnobility; 1138Theymyghtedonovileynyeorvice. Theycoulddonodishonororvice. 1139"Taakfyrandberitinthederkestehous "Takefireandbearitinthedarkesthouse 1140BitwixthisandthemountofKaukasous, BetweenthisandthemountofCaucasus, 1141Andlatmenshettethedoresandgothenne; Andletmenshutthedoorsandgoaway; 1142Yetwolethefyrasfairelyeandbrenne Yetwillthefireasbrightlyblazeandburn 1143Astwentythousandmenmyghteitbiholde; Asiftwentythousandmenmightitbehold; 1144Hisofficenatureelaywolitholde, Itsnaturalfunctionitwillalwayshold, 1145Upperilofmylyf,tilthatitdye. Onperilofmylife(Isay),untilitdies. 1146"Heeremayyesewelhowthatgenterye "Heremayyouseewellthatnobility 1147Isnatannexedtopossessioun, Isnotjoinedwithpossession, 1148Sithfolknedoonhiroperacioun Sincefolknotdobehaveastheyshould 1149Alwey,asdooththefyr,lo,inhiskynde. Always,asdoesthefire,lo,initsnature. 1150For,Goditwoot,menmayweloftenfynde

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For,Godknowsit,menmaywelloftenfind 1151Alordessonedoshameandvileynye; Alord'ssondoingshameanddishonor; 1152Andhethatwolehanprisofhisgentrye, Andhewhowillhavepraiseforhisnoblebirth, 1153Forhewasborenofagentilhous Becausehewasbornofanoblehouse 1154Andhaddehiseldresnobleandvertuous, Andhadhisnobleandvirtuousancestors, 1155Andnelhymselvendonogentildedis Andwillnothimselfdoanynobledeeds 1156Nefolwenhisgentilauncestrethatdeedis, Norfollowhisnobleancestrythatisdead, 1157Henysnatgentil,beheducorerl, Heisnotnoble,behedukeorearl, 1158Forvileynssynfuldedesmakeacherl. Forchurlishsinfuldeedsmakeachurl. 1159Forgentillessenysbutrenomee Fornobilityisnothingbutrenown 1160Ofthyneauncestres,forhireheighbountee, Ofthyancestors,fortheirgreatgoodness, 1161Whichisastrangethyngtothypersone. Whichisathingnotnaturallypartofthyperson. 1162ThygentillessecomethfroGodallone. ThynobilitycomesfromGodalone. 1163Thannecomthoureverraygentillesseofgrace; Thenourtruenobilitycomesfromgrace; 1164Itwasnothyngbiquetheuswithoureplace. Itwasnotatallbequeathedtouswithoursocial rank. 1165"Thenkethhounoble,asseithValerius, "Thinkhownoble,assaysValerius, 1166WasthilkeTulliusHostillius, WasthatsameTulliusHostillius, 1167Thatoutofpoverteroostoheighnoblesse. Thatoutofpovertyrosetohighnobility. 1168ReedethSenek,andredetheekBoece; ReadSeneca,andreadalsoBoethius; 1169Thershulyeseenexpresthatitnodredeis Thereshallyouseeclearlythatitisnodoubt 1170Thatheisgentilthatdoothgentildedis. Thatheisnoblewhodoesnobledeeds. 1171Andtherfore,leevehousbonde,Ithusconclude: Andtherefore,dearhusband,Ithusconclude: 1172Alwereitthatmyneauncestreswererude, Althoughitissothatmyancestorswererude, 1173YetmaythehyeGod,andsohopeI, YetmaythehighGod,andsohopeI, 1174Grantemegracetolyvenvertuously. Grantmegracetolivevirtuously. 1175ThanneamIgentil,whanthatIbigynne ThenamInoble,whenIbegin 1176Tolyvenvertuouslyandweyvesynne. Tolivevirtuouslyandabandonsin. 1177"Andtherasyeofpovertemerepreeve, "Andwhereasyoureprovemeforpoverty, 1178ThehyeGod,onwhomthatwebileeve, ThehighGod,onwhomwebelieve, 1179Inwilfulpovertecheestolyvehislyf. Involuntarypovertychosetolivehislife. 1180Andcerteseveryman,mayden,orwyf Andcertainlyeveryman,maiden,orwoman 1181MayunderstondethatJhesus,hevenekyng, CanunderstandthatJesus,heaven'sking, 1182Newoldenatcheseaviciouslyvyng.

Wouldnotchooseaviciousformofliving. 1183Gladpoverteisanhonestthyng,certeyn; Gladpovertyisanhonestthing,certain; 1184ThiswoleSenecandothereclerkesseyn. ThiswillSenecaandotherclerkssay. 1185Whosothathalthympaydofhispoverte, Whoeverconsidershimselfsatisfiedwithhis poverty, 1186Iholdehymriche,alhaddehenatasherte. Iconsiderhimrich,althoughhehadnotashirt. 1187Hethatcoveitethisapovrewight, Hewhocovetsisapoorperson, 1188Forhewoldehanthatisnatinhismyght; Forhewouldhavethatwhichisnotinhispower; 1189Buthethatnoghthath,necoveitethhave, Buthewhohasnothing,norcovetstohave anything, 1190Isriche,althoughyeholdehymbutaknave. Isrich,althoughyouconsiderhimbutaknave. 1191Verraypoverte,itsyngethproprely; Truepoverty,itrightlysings; 1192Juvenalseithofpovertemyrily: Juvenalsaysofpovertymerrily: 1193`Thepovreman,whanhegothbytheweye, `Thepoorman,whenhegoesalongtheroadway, 1194Biforethetheveshemaysyngeandpleye.' Beforethethieveshemaysingandplay.' 1195Poverteishatefulgoodand,asIgesse, Povertyisahatefulgoodand,asIguess, 1196Afulgreetbryngereoutofbisynesse; Averygreatremoverofcares; 1197Agreetamendereeekofsapience Agreatamenderalsoofwisdom 1198Tohymthattakethitinpacience. Tohimthattakesitinpatience. 1199Poverteisthis,althoughitsemealenge: Povertyisthis,althoughitmayseemmiserable: 1200Possessiounthatnowightwolchalenge. Apossessionthatnoonewillchallenge. 1201Povertefulofte,whanamanislowe, Povertyveryoften,whenamanislow, 1202MakethhisGodandeekhymselftoknowe. MakeshimknowhisGodandalsohimself. 1203Poverteaspectacleis,asthynkethme, Povertyisaneyeglass,asitseemstome, 1204Thurghwhichhemayhisverrayfreendessee. Throughwhichonemayseehistruefriends. 1205Andtherfore,sire,synthatInoghtyowgreve, Andtherefore,sir,sinceIdonotinjureyou, 1206Ofmypovertenamooreyemerepreve. You(should)nolongerreprovemeformypoverty. 1207"Now,sire,ofeldeyerepreveme; "Now,sir,ofoldageyoureproveme; 1208Andcertes,sire,thoghnoonauctoritee Andcertainly,sir,thoughnoauthority 1209Wereinnobook,yegentilsofhonour Wereinanybook,yougentlefolkofhonor 1210Seynthatmensholdeanooldwightdoonfavour Saythatmenshouldbecourteoustoanoldperson 1211Andclepehymfader,foryouregentillesse; Andcallhimfather,becauseofyournobility; 1212AndauctoursshalIfynden,asIgesse. AndauthorsshallIfind,asIguess. 1213"NowtheryeseyethatIamfoulandold, "NowwhereyousaythatIamuglyandold,

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1214Thandredeyounoghttobeenacokewold; Thandonotfeartobeacuckold; 1215Forfiltheandeelde,alsomootIthee, Forfilthandoldage,asImayprosper, 1216Beengretewardeynsuponchastitee. Aregreatguardiansofchastity. 1217Butnathelees,synIknoweyouredelit, Butnonetheless,sinceIknowyourdelight, 1218Ishalfulfilleyoureworldlyappetit. Ishallfulfillyourworldlyappetite. 1219"Chesenow,"quodshe,"oonofthisethynges tweye: "Choosenow,"shesaid,"oneofthesetwothings: 1220TohanmefoulandoldtilthatIdeye, TohavemeuglyandolduntilIdie, 1221Andbetoyowatrewe,humblewyf, Andbetoyouatrue,humblewife, 1222Andnevereyowdispleseinalmylyf, Andneverdispleaseyouinallmylife, 1223Orellesyewolhanmeyongandfair, Orelseyouwillhavemeyoungandfair, 1224Andtakeyoureaventureoftherepair Andtakeyourchancesofthecrowd 1225Thatshalbetoyourehousbycauseofme, Thatshallbeatyourhousebecauseofme, 1226Orinsomootherplace,maywelbe. Orinsomeotherplace,asitmaywellbe. 1227Nowcheseyourselven,wheitherthatyowliketh." Nowchooseyourself,whicheveryouplease." 1228Thisknyghtavysethhymandsoresiketh, Thisknightdeliberatesandpainfullysighs, 1229Butattelasteheseydeinthismanere: Butatthelasthesaidinthismanner: 1230"Myladyandmylove,andwyfsodeere, "Myladyandmylove,andwifesodear, 1231Iputmeinyourewisegovernance; Iputmeinyourwisegovernance; 1232Chesethyoureselfwhichmaybemoostplesance Chooseyourselfwhichmaybemostpleasure 1233Andmoosthonourtoyowandmealso. Andmosthonortoyouandmealso. 1234Idonoforsthewheitherofthetwo, Idonotcarewhichofthetwo, 1235Forasyowliketh,itsuffisethme." Forasitpleasesyou,isenoughforme." 1236"ThannehaveIgeteofyowmaistrie,"quodshe, "ThenhaveIgottenmasteryofyou,"shesaid, 1237"SynImaycheseandgoverneasmelest?" "SinceImaychooseandgovernasIplease?" 1238"Ye,certes,wyf,"quodhe,"Iholdeitbest." "Yes,certainly,wife,"hesaid,"Iconsideritbest." HeereendeththeWyvesTaleofBathe

1239"Kysme,"quodshe,"webenolengerwrothe, "Kissme,"shesaid,"wearenolongerangry, 1240For,bymytrouthe,Iwolbetoyowbothe For,bymytroth,Iwillbetoyouboth 1241Thisistoseyn,ye,bothefairandgood. Thisistosay,yes,bothfairandgood. 1242IpreytoGodthatImootestervenwood, IpraytoGodthatImaydieinsane 1243ButItoyowbealsogoodandtrewe UnlessItoyoubeasgoodandtrue 1244Aseverewaswyf,synthattheworldwasnewe. Aseverwaswife,sincetheworldwasnew. 1245AndbutIbetomornasfairtoseene AndunlessIamtomorrowmorningasfairtobeseen 1246Asanylady,emperice,orqueene, Asanylady,empress,orqueen, 1247Thatisbitwixetheestandekethewest, Thatisbetweentheeastandalsothewest, 1248Doothwithmylyfanddethrightasyowlest. Dowithmylifeanddeathrightasyouplease. 1249Castupthecurtyn,lookehowthatitis." Castupthecurtain,lookhowitis." 1250Andwhantheknyghtsaughverrailyalthis, Andwhentheknightsawtrulyallthis, 1251Thatshesofairwas,andsoyongtherto, Thatshesowasbeautiful,andsoyoungmoreover, 1252Forjoyehehentehireinhisarmestwo. Forjoyheclaspedherinhistwoarms. 1253Hishertebathedinabathofblisse. Hisheartbathedinabathofbliss. 1254Athousandtymeareweheganhirekisse, Athousandtimeinarowhedidherkiss, 1255Andsheobeyedhymineverythyng Andsheobeyedhimineverything 1256Thatmyghtedoonhymplesanceorlikyng. Thatmightdohimpleasureorenjoyment. 1257Andthustheylyveuntohirlyvesende Andthustheyliveuntotheirlives'end 1258Inparfitjoye;andJhesuCristussende Inperfectjoy;andJesusChristussend 1259Housbondesmeeke,yonge,andfresshabedde, Husbandsmeek,young,andvigorousinbed, 1260Andgracet'overbydehemthatwewedde; Andgracetooutlivethemwhomwewed; 1261AndeekIprayeJhesushortehirlyves AndalsoIprayJesusshortentheirlives 1262Thatnoghtwolbegovernedbyhirwyves; Thatwillnotbegovernedbytheirwives; 1263Andoldeandangrynygardesofdispence, Andoldandangrymisersinspending, 1264Godsendehemsooneverraypestilence! Godsendthemsoontheverypestilence!

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ThewifeofBathsPrologue
HerprologuegivesinsightintotheroleofwomenintheLateMiddleAgesandisprobablyofinteresttoChaucerhimself, forthecharacterisoneofhismostdevelopedones,withherprologuetwiceaslongashertale.Healsogoessofarasto describe two sets of clothing for her in his General Prologue. She holds her own among the bickering pilgrims, and evidenceinthemanuscriptssuggeststhatalthoughshewasfirstassignedadifferent,plainertaleperhapstheonetold bytheShipmanshereceivedherpresenttaleashersignificanceincreased.ShecallsherselfbothAlysonandAlysinthe prologue,buttoconfusemattersthesearealsothenamesofher'gossib'(aclosefriendorgossip),whomshementions severaltimes,aswellasmanyfemalecharactersthroughoutTheCanterburyTales. TheWifeofBathbelievesherselfanexpertontherelationsbetweenmenandwomen,havinghadfivehusbandsherself, beginningwithherfirstatage12.Sheprovidesalonghistoryanddefendshermanymarriageswithselectedquotations fromBiblicalandothersources,glossedtosupportherviews.Shealsoexpandsonthestatusofsex,claimingthatvirginity is not necessary to be a good and virtuous person, and asks the rhetorical question of what genitals are for, if not for procreation.ManyofhercommentsarecounterargumentstothoseputforthbySt.Jerome,mainlyinhiswork"Against Jovinianus". She is both direct and opinionated, particularly about the futility of men attempting to gain sovereignty or domination overwomen,andheropinionspreparethereaderforhertale,oftenmislabeledabretonlai,abouttheroleofsovereignty inmarriage. Thetaleisoftenregardedasthefirstofthesocalled"marriagegroup"oftales,whichincludestheClerk's,theMerchant's and the Franklin's tales. But some scholars contest this grouping, first proposed by Chaucer scholar George Lyman Kittredge,notleastbecausethelatertalesofMelibeeandtheNunsPriestalsodiscussthistheme.Aseparationbetween talesthatdealwithmoralissuesandonesthatdealwithmagicalissues,astheWifeofBath'sdoes,isfavouredbysome scholars. At the start of her prologue, the Wifeof Bath argues that experienceand homegrown wisdom are better guides in life thantexts,scripture,andtradition.Shepositsthatherexperiencemakeshereminentlysuitedtotellataleofwomenand theirtruedesire,andhertalecanbeseenasarefutationofthewaywomenhavebeenglossed"byearliermalewriters. ChaucermayhaveintendedtobothpokefunattheWifeofBath'sincompleteunderstandingofthesourcessheusesand to show her spunk and native intelligence. Since the tale isn't very supportive of a switch in gender roles, given the subservient nature of the old woman at the end, it is unclear whether Chaucer was supportive of strong independent femalepersonalities.

TheWifeofBathstale
HertalebeginswithanallusiontotheabsenceoffairiesinmoderndayandtheirprevalenceinKingArthur'stime.She thenstartsinonhertalethoughsheinterruptsandisinterruptedseveraltimesthroughoutthetelling,creatingseveral digressions.AknightinKingArthur'scourtrapesawomaninacornfield.Bylaw,hispunishmentisdeath,butthequeen intercedes on his behalf, and the king turns the knight over to her for judgement. The queen punishes the knight by sendinghimoutonaquesttofindoutwhatwomenreallywant"morethananythingelse,"givinghimayearandadayto discoveritandhavinghiswordthathewillreturn.Ifhefailstosatisfythequeenwithhisanswer,heforfeitshislife.He searches,buteverywomanhefindssayssomethingdifferent,fromrichestoflattery. On his way back to the queen after failing to find the truth, he sees four and twenty ladies dancing. They disappear suddenly, leavingbehind anold hag whom heasks for help. She says she'll tell himthe answer that will save him if he promisestograntherrequestatatimeshechooses.Heagreesandtheygobacktothecourtwherethequeenpardons himafterheexplainsthatwhatwomenwantmostis"tohavethesovereigntyaswellupontheirhusbandastheirlove, andtohavemasterytheirmanabove."Theoldwomancriesouttohimbeforethecourtthatshesavedhimandthather rewardwillbethathetakesherashiswifeandlovesher.Heprotests,buttonoavail,andthemarriagetakesplacethe nextday. Theoldwomanandtheknightconverseabouttheknight'shappinessintheirmarriagebedanddiscussthatheisunhappy becausesheisuglyandlowborn.Shediscoursesupontheoriginsofgentility,astoldbyJesusandDante,andreflectson theoriginsofpoverty.Shesayshecanchoosebetweenherbeinguglyandfaithfulorbeautifulandunfaithful.Hegivesthe choicetohertobecomewhateverwouldbringthemosthonourandhappinesstothembothandshe,pleasedwithher masteryofherhusband,becomesfairandfaithfultolivewithhimhappilyuntiltheendoftheirdays.

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Wewommenhan,ifthatIshalnatlye, Inthismatereaqueyntefantasye: Waytewhatthyngwemaynatlightlyhave, Therafterwolwecriealdayandcrave. Forbedeusthyng,andthatdesirenwe; Preesseonusfaste,andthannewolwefle.

Theme
Throughoutthe Roman Catholic Church Middle Ages authority was in the books andthe men whowrote them. Dutiful monks, friars and brothers copied the sacred texts worshipfully as repositories of truth; the books, then, were sacred treasuriesthesemenwerewillingtodiedefending.Theyweremenofthebook,andthebookwastheirdistinctivecultural achievement. Butthatwholeworldwassweptawaybybubonicplague,theBlackDeathof134951,whenChaucerwastenoreleven andonethirdofEuropespopulationdied.ThepilgrimsinChaucerspoemareallsurvivorsofthatcataclysm,newmen andwomeninanewworld. Theoldchurchhierarchywasunabletostoptheplague.Thesurvivorslookedaboutfornewsourcesofauthority,andone placeanumberofthembeganrelyingonwastheirownexperience."Iknowbyexperiencethattheoldchurchfathers werewrongwhentheywrotex(ory),"thesenewEuropeansclaimed.AndthatistheshapeoftheWifeofBathsopening claim:FromexperienceIknowthewoethatisinmarriage. IntheIntroductiontotheCambridgeUniversityPresseditionof''TheWifeofBathsPrologueandTale''JamesWinnysums itupthisway:Againsttheaccumulatedlearningofhertimessheposesthepungentwisdomofproverbialsayings,and thecertaintiesofknowledgewhichshehasgainedinthecutandthrustofdailyevents.Onesideofthecontestfetchesits opinionsfromwrittencommentaries,notconsultingtheevidenceoftangiblefactbutregardingthepronouncementsof theChurchandtheSchoolmenasunassailableauthority.Theotherbasesitselfuponthecertaintyofeverydayevents,and thepressingrealitiesofhumanaffairs,wherelearnedopinionsseeminsubstantial."(16) Thetaleutilizesthe"loathlylady"motif,theoldestexamplesofwhicharethemedievalIrishsovereigntymythslikethatof NialloftheNineHostages.Arthur'snephewGawaingoesonanearlyidenticalquesttodiscoverwhatwomentrulywantin the medieval poem ''The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle'', and the ballad "The Marriage of Sir Gawain", a retelling of the same story. The usual formula is simply that the woman will be a hag during the day and a beautiful womanatnight.Where"TheWife'sTale"differsfromthesestoriesistheinitialrapeandhisemphasisonfaithfulnessand theredemptivedecisionoftheknight.Theknight'sdecisionoffaithfulnessorfairness,hischoiceofthemosthonourable option,andthenhiseventualrewardformakingtherightchoice,displayshischivalrousnature.BoththetaleandtheWife ofBath'sprologuedealwiththequestionofwhohascontrolinrelationshipsbetweenmenandwomen. Critics are divided on the personality of the Wife of Bath. Some see her as a strong independent woman while others regardherasaterribleoldharridan.Thislatterviewishelpedbypotentialhintsinthetextthatshemayhavemurdered herfourthhusband.AsignificantbodyofmodernliterarycriticismregardstheWifeofBathasattackingthesubstantial body of antifeminist literature known by the later middle ages, though these critics are cognisant of the fact that [[feminism]],asadistinctpoliticalandintellectualmovement,didnotemergeuntilthenineteenthcentury.Chaucerwas takinginspirationfromasignificantamountofmisogynistliteraturearoundatthetimebutitissubjecttodebatewhether heiscopyingthesesentimentsorslylylampooningthem. TherearealsotheoriesthattheWife'stalewaswrittentoeaseChaucer'sguiltyconscience.Itisrecordedthatin1380 associatesofChaucerstoodsuretyforanamountequaltohalfhisyearlysalaryforachargebroughtbyCeciliaChampaign for"derapto"rapeorabduction;thesameviewhasbeentakenofhisLegendofGoodWomen,whichChaucerhimself describes as a penance. It remains important, however, as with any author, to observe the difference between the author'sintentionsandthemultiplicityofpotentialmeaningsinthetext.

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TheEnglishLiteratureasapartofGeneralMedievalEuropeanLiterature.
OneofthemoststrikinggeneralfactsinthelaterMiddleAgesistheuniformityoflifeinmanyofitsaspectsthroughoutall WesternEurope.Itwasonlyduringthisperiodthatthemodernnations,acquiringnationalconsciousness,begandefinitely to shape themselves out of the chaos which had followed the fall of the Roman Empire. The Roman Church, firmly established in every corner of every land, was the actual inheritor of much of the unifying power of the Roman government,andthefeudalsystemeverywheregavetosocietythesamepoliticalorganizationandideals.Inatruersense, perhaps,thanatanylatertime,WesternEuropewasonegreatbrotherhood,thinkingmuchthesamethoughts,speaking inpartthesamespeech,andactuatedbythesamebeliefs.Atleast,theliteratureoftheperiod,largelycomposedand copiedbythegreatarmyofmonks,exhibitseverywhereathoroughuniformityintypesandideas. WeofthetwentiethcenturyshouldnotallowourselvestothinkvaguelyoftheMiddleAgesasabenightedorshadowy periodwhenlifeandthepeoplewhoconstitutedithadscarcelyanythingincommonwithourselves.Inrealitythemenof the Middle Ages were moved by the same emotions and impulses as our own, and their lives presented the same incongruousmixtureofnobilityandbaseness.Yetitistruethattheexternalsoftheirexistencewerestrikinglydifferent from those of more recent times. In society the feudal systemlords with their serfs, towns struggling for municipal independence,kingsandnoblesdoing,peaceablyorwithviolence,verymuchwhattheypleased;aconstantconditionof public or private war; cities walled as a matter of course for protection against bands of robbers or hostile armies; the countrystilllargelycoveredwithforests,wildernesses,andfens;roadsinfestedwithbrigandsandsobadthattravelwas scarcelypossibleexceptonhorseback;inprivatelife,mostofthemoderncomfortsunknown,andthehouses,evenofthe wealthy,sofilthyanduncomfortablethatallclassesregularly,almostnecessarily,spentmostofthedaylighthoursinthe openair;inindustrynocoal,factories,orlargemachinery,butinthetownsguildsofworkmeneachturningoutbyhand hisslowproductofsinglearticles;almostnoeducationexceptforpriestsandmonks,almostnoconceptionsofgenuine scienceorhistory,butinsteadtheabstractsystemofscholasticlogicandphilosophy,highlyingeniousbuthighlyfantastic; in religion no outward freedom of thought except for a few courageous spirits, but the arbitrary dictates of a despotic hierarchy,insistingonanironboundcreedwhichtheremorselessprocessoftimewassteadilyrenderingmoreandmore inadequatethisofferssomeslightsuggestionoftheconditionsoflifeforseveralcenturies,endingwiththeperiodwith whichwearenowconcerned. Inmedievalliteraturelikewisethemodernstudentencountersmuchwhichseemsatfirstsightgrotesque.Oneofthemost conspicuousexamplesisthepervasiveuseofallegory.ThemenoftheMiddleAgesoftenwrote,aswedo,indirectterms andofsimplethings,butwhentheywishedtoriseabovethecommonplacetheyturnedwithafrequencywhichtoday appears astonishing to the devices of abstract personification and veiled meanings. No doubt this tendency was due in parttoanidealizingdissatisfactionwiththecrudenessoftheiractuallife(aswellastofrequentinabilitytoenterintothe realm of deeper and finer thought without the aid of somewhat mechanical imagery); and no doubt it was greatly furtheredalsobythemedievalpassionfortranslatingintoelaborateandfantasticsymbolismallthedetailsoftheBible narratives. But from whatever cause, the tendency hardened into a ruling convention; thousands upon thousands of medievalmanuscriptsseemtodeclarethattheworldisamirageofshadowyforms,orthatitexistsmerelytobodyforth remoteandhighlysurprisingideas. OfallthesecountlessallegoriesnonewasreiteratedwithmoreunweariedpersistencethanthatoftheSevenDeadlySins (thosesinswhichinthedoctrineoftheChurchleadtospiritualdeathbecausetheyarewilfullycommitted).Thesesinsare: Covetousness, Unchastity,Anger, Gluttony,Envy, Sloth,and,chief of all, Pride, the earliest ofall, through whichLucifer wasmovedtohisfatalrebellionagainstGod,whencespringallhumanills.Eachoftheseven,however,wasinterpretedas including so many related offences that among them they embraced nearly the whole range of possible wickedness. Personified, the SevenSins in themselvesalmost dominate medieval literature, a sort of shadowyevil pantheon. Moral andreligiousquestionscouldscarcelybediscussedwithoutregardtothem;andtheymaintaintheircommandingplace evenaslateasinSpenser's'FaerieQueene,'attheveryendofthesixteenthcentury.TotheSevenSinswerecommonly opposed, but with much less emphasis, the Seven Cardinal Virtues, Faith, Hope, Charity (Love), Prudence, Temperance, Chastity,andFortitude.Again,almostasprominentastheSevenSinswasthefigureofFortunewithherrevolvingwheel,a goddesswhomtheviolentvicissitudesandtragediesoflifeledthemenoftheMiddleAges,inspiteoftheirChristianity,to bringoverfromclassicalliteratureandvirtuallytoacceptasarealdivinity,withalmostabsolutecontrolinhumanaffairs. IntheseventeenthcenturyShakespeare'splaysarefullofallusionstoher,butsoforthatmatteristheeverydaytalkofall ofusinthetwentiethcentury.

Literatureinthethreelanguages.
ItisnottothepurposeinastudylikethepresenttogivespecialattentiontotheliteraturewritteninEnglandinLatinand French;wecanspeakonlybrieflyofthatcomposedinEnglish.ButinfactwhentheEnglishhadmadeitsnewbeginning,

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abouttheyear1200,thesamegeneralformsflourishedinallthreelanguages,sothatwhatissaidingeneraloftheEnglish appliesalmostasmuchtotheothertwoaswell.

ReligiousLiterature
Wemayvirtuallydividealltheliteratureoftheperiod,roughly,into(1)Religiousand(2)Secular.Butitmustbeobserved thatreligiouswritingswerefarmoreimportantasliteratureduringtheMiddleAgesthaninmorerecenttimes,andthe separationbetweenreligiousandsecularlessdistinctthanatpresent.Theformsofthereligiousliteraturewerelargely thesameasinthepreviousperiod.Thereweresongs,manyofthemaddressedtotheVirgin,somenotonlybeautifulin their sincere and tender devotion, speaking for the finer spirits in an age of crudeness and violence, but occasionally beautifulaspoetry.TherewereparaphrasesofmanypartsoftheBible,livesofsaints,inbothverseandprose,andvarious othermiscellaneouswork.Perhapsworthyofspecialmentionamongsingleproductionsisthe'CursorMundi'(Surveyorof the World), an early fourteenth century poem of twentyfour thousand lines ('Paradise Lost' has less than eleven thousand),relatinguniversalhistoryfromthebeginning,onthebasisoftheBiblicalnarrative.Mostimportantofallfor theirpromiseofthefuture,therewerethegermsofthemoderndramaintheformoftheChurchplays;buttothesewe shallgivespecialattentioninalaterchapter.

SecularLiterature
Insecularliteraturethevarietywasgreaterthaninreligious.Wemaybeginbytranscribingoneortwoofthesongs,which, thoughnotasnumerousthenasinsomelaterperiods,showthatthegreattraditionofEnglishsecularlyricpoetryreaches backfromourowntimetothatoftheAngloSaxonswithoutabreak.Thebestknownofallisthe'CuckooSong,'ofthe thirteenthcentury,intendedtobesunginharmonybyfourvoices:
Sumerisicumenin; Lhudesing,cuccu! Growethsedandblowethmed Andspringththewdenu. Sing,cuccu! Awebletethafterlomb, Lhouthaftercalvecu. Bullucsterteth,buckeverteth; Muriesing,cuccu! Cuccu,cuccu, Welsingesthu,cuccu; Neswikthunevernu.

Summeriscomein;loudsing,cuckoo!Growstheseedandbloomsthemead[meadow]andbudsthewoodanew.Sing, cuckoo!Theewebleatsforthelamb,lowsforthecalfthecow.Thebullockgambols,thebuckleaps;merrilysing,cuckoo! Cuckoo,cuckoo,wellsingestthou,cuckoo;ceasethounevernow. Thenextisthefirststanzaof'Alysoun'('FairAlice'):

BytueneMershantAveril, Whenspraybeginnthtospringe, Thelutelfoulhathhirewyl Onhyreludtosynge. Iehlibbeinlovelonginge Forsemlokestofallethinge; Hemaymeblissebringe; Ichaminhirebaundoun. Anhendyhapichabbeybent; Iehotfromheveneitismesent; Fromallewymmenmiloveislent AntlyhtonAlysoun.

BetweenMarchandApril,Whenthesproutbeginstospring,thelittlebirdhasherdesireInhertonguetosing.Ilivein lovelongingForthefairestofallthings;Shemaybringmebliss;Iamathermercy.AluckylotIhavesecured;Ithinkfrom heavenitissentme;fromallwomenmyloveisturnedAndislightedonAlysoun.

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Therewerealsopoliticalandsatiricalsongsandmiscellaneouspoemsofvarioussorts,amongthemcertain'Bestiaries,' accountsofthesupposedhabitsofanimals,generallydrawnoriginallyfromclassicaltradition,andmostofthemhighly fantasticandallegorizedintheinterestsofmoralityandreligion.Therewasanabundanceofextremelyrealisticcoarse tales, hardly belonging to literature, in both prose and verse. The popular ballads of the fourteenth century we must reserve for later consideration. Most numerous of all the prose works, perhaps, were the Chronicles, which were producedgenerallyinthemonasteriesandchieflyinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,thegreaterpartinLatin,some inFrench,andafewinrudeEnglishverse.ManyofthemweremereannalsliketheAngloSaxonChronicle,butsomewere the lifelong works of men with genuinehistorical vision. Somedealt merely with the history ofEngland, or a part of it, otherswiththatoftheentireworldasitwasknowntomedievalEurope.Themajoritywillneverbewithdrawnfromthe obscurityofthemanuscriptsonwhichthepatientcareoftheirauthorsinscribedthem;othershavebeenprintedinfull andserveasthemainbasisforourknowledgeoftheeventsoftheperiod.

TheRomances
Butthechiefformofsecularliteratureduringtheperiod,beginninginthemiddleofthetwelfthcentury,wastheromance, especially the metrical (verse) romance. The typical romances were the literary expression of chivalry. They were composedbytheprofessionalminstrels,someofwhom,asinAngloSaxontimes,wererichlysupportedandrewardedby kingsandnobles,whileothersstillwanderedaboutthecountry,alwayswelcomeinthemanorhouses.There,likeScott's LastMinstrel,theyrecitedtheirsometimesalmostendlessworksfrommemory,inthegreathallsorintheladies'bowers, totheaccompanimentofoccasionalstrainsontheirharps.Fortwoorthreecenturiestheromancesweretothelordsand ladies,andtothewealthiercitizensofthetowns,muchwhatnovelsaretothereadingpublicofourownday.Byfarthe greaterpartoftheromancescurrentinEnglandwerewritteninFrench,whetherbyNormansorbyFrenchnativesofthe English provinces in France, and the English ones which have been preserved are mostly translations or imitations of Frenchoriginals.Theromancesareextremerepresentativesofthewholeclassofliteratureofalltimestowhichtheyhave giventhename.Franklyabandoninginthemaintheworldofreality,theycarryintothatofidealizedandglamorousfancy the chief interests of the medieval lords and ladies, namely, knightly exploits in war, and lovemaking. Love in the romances, also, retains all its courtly affectations, together with that worship of woman by man which in the twelfth century was exalted into a sentimental art by the poetsof wealthy and luxurious Provence inSouthern France.Sideby side, again, with war and love, appears in the romances medieval religion, likewise conventionalized and childishly superstitious,butinsomeinadequatedegreeamitigatorofcrueltyandarestraineroflawlesspassion.Artistically,insome respects or all, the greater part of the romances are crude and immature. Their usual main or only purpose is to hold attention by successions of marvellous adventures, natural or supernatural; of structure, therefore, they are often destitute;thecharactersareordinarilymeretypes;andmotivationislittleconsidered.Therewere,however,exceptional authors, genuine artists, masters of meter and narrative, possessed by a true feeling for beauty; and in some of the romancesthepsychologicalanalysisoflove,inparticular,issubtileandpowerful,thedirectprecursorofoneofthemain developmentsinmodernfiction. Theromancesmayveryroughlybegroupedintofourgreatclasses.Firstintime,perhaps,comethosewhicharederived fromtheearlierFrenchepicsandinwhichlove,ifitappearsatall,issubordinatedtothemilitaryexploitsofCharlemagne andhistwelvepeersintheirwarsagainsttheSaracens.Secondaretheromanceswhich,batteredsalvagefromagreater past, retell in strangely altered romantic fashion the great stories of classical antiquity, mainly the achievements of Alexander the Great and the tragic fortunes of Troy. Third come the Arthurian romances, and fourth those scattering miscellaneousoneswhichdonotbelongtotheotherclasses,dealing,mostofthem,withnativeEnglishheroes.Ofthese, two,'KingHorn'and'Havelok,'springdirectfromthecommonpeopleandinbothsubstanceandexpressionreflectthe hard reality of their lives, while 'Guy of Warwick' and 'Bevis of Hampton,' which are among the best known but most tediousofallthelist,belong,intheiroriginalform,totheupperclasses. OfalltheromancestheArthurianarebyfarthemostimportant.TheybelongpeculiarlytoEnglishliterature,becausethey are based on traditions of British history,but they have assumed a very prominentplace in the literature of thewhole westernworld.Richinvariedcharactersandincidentstowhichauniversalsignificancecouldbeattached,intheirown timetheywerethemostpopularworksoftheirclass;andlivingonvigorouslyaftertheotherswereforgotten,theyhave continued to form one of the chief quarries of literary material and one of the chief sources of inspiration for modern poetsandromancers.Itseemswellworthwhile,therefore,tooutlinebrieflytheirliteraryhistory. The period in which their scene is nominally laid is that of the AngloSaxon conquest of Great Britain. Of the actual historicaleventsofthisperiodextremelylittleisknown,andeventhecapitalquestionwhethersuchapersonasArthur everreallyexistedcanneverreceiveadefiniteanswer.TheonlycontemporarywriteroftheleastimportanceistheBriton (priestormonk),Gildas,whoinaviolentLatinpamphletofabouttheyear550('TheDestructionandConquestofBritain') denounceshiscountrymenfortheirsinsandurgesthemtouniteagainsttheSaxons;andGildasgivesonlytheslightest

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sketchofwhathadactuallyhappened.HetellshowaBritishking(towhomlatertraditionassignsthenameVortigern) invited in the AngloSaxons as allies against the troublesome northern Scots and Picts, and how the AngloSaxons, victorious against these tribes, soon turned in furious conquest against the Britons themselves, until, under a certain AmbrosiusAurelianus, a man 'ofRoman race,' the Britons successfullydefended themselves and at last in the battle of MountBadoncheckedtheSaxonadvance. NextinorderafterGildas,butnotuntilabouttheyear800,appearsastrangelyjumbleddocument,lasteditedbyacertain Nennius,andentitled'HistoriaBritonum'(TheHistoryoftheBritons),whichaddstoGildas'outlinetraditions,naturaland supernatural, which had meanwhile been growing up among the Britons (Welsh). It supplies the names of the earliest Saxonleaders,HengistandHorsa(whoalsofigureinthe'AngloSaxonChronicle'),andnarratesatlengththeirtreacherous dealingswithVortigern.AmongotherstorieswefindthatofVortigern'stower,whereGildas'Ambrosiusappearsasaboy ofsupernaturalnature,destinedtodevelopintheromancesintothegreatmagicianMerlin.InNennius'bookoccursalso theearliestmentionofArthur,who,inacomparativelysoberpassage,issaid,sometimeafterthedaysofVortigern,to have'foughtagainsttheSaxons,togetherwiththekingsoftheBritons,buthehimselfwasleaderinthebattles.'Alist, also,isgivenofhistwelvevictories,endingwithMountBadon.Itisimpossibletodecidewhetherthereisreallyanytruth in this account of Nennius, or whether it springs wholly from the imagination of the Britons, attempting to solace themselvesfortheirnationaloverthrow;butitallowsustobelieveifwechoosethatsometimeintheearlysixthcentury therewasaBritishleaderofthenameofArthur,whobymilitarygeniusrosetohighcommandandforawhilebeatback theSaxonhordes.Atmost,however,itshouldbeclearlyrealized,Arthurwasprobablyonlyalocalleaderinsomelimited region,and,farfromfillingthesplendidplacewhichheoccupiesinthelaterromances,wasbutthehardpressedcaptain ofafewthousandbarbarousandhalfarmedwarriors. For three hundred years longer the traditions about Arthur continued to develop among the Welsh people. The most importantchangewhichtookplacewasArthur'selevationtothepositionofchiefherooftheBritish(Welsh)raceandthe subordinationtohim,ashisfollowers,ofalltheothernativeheroes,mostofwhomhadoriginallybeengods.ToArthur himselfcertaindivineattributeswereadded,suchashispossessionofmagicweapons,amongthemtheswordExcalibur. ItalsocametobepassionatelybelievedamongtheWelshthathewasnotreallydeadbutwouldsomedayreturnfrom the mysterious Other World to which he had withdrawn and reconquer the island for his people. It was not until the twelfthcenturythattheseArthuriantraditions,thecherishedheritageoftheWelshandtheircousins,theBretonsacross the English Channel in France, were suddenly adopted as the property of all Western Europe, so that Arthur became a universalChristianhero.Thisremarkabletransformation,nodoubtinsomedegreeinevitable,wasactuallybroughtabout chiefly through the instrumentality of a single man, a certain English archdeacon of Welsh descent, Geoffrey of Monmouth. Geoffrey, a literary and ecclesiastical adventurer looking about for a means of making himself famous, put forth about the year 1136, in Latin, a 'History of the Britons' from the earliest times to the seventh century, in which, imitating the form of the serious chronicles, he combined in cleverly impudent fashion all the adaptable miscellaneous material,fictitious,legendary,ortraditional,whichhefoundathand.IndealingwithArthur,Geoffreygreatlyenlargeson GildasandNennius;inpart,nodoubt,fromhisowninvention,inpart,perhaps,fromWelshtradition.HeprovidesArthur with a father, King Uther, makes of Arthur's wars against the Saxons only his youthful exploits, relates at length how ArthurconqueredalmostallofWesternEurope,andaddstotheearlierstorythefiguresofMerlin,Guenevere,Modred, Gawain, Kay, and Bedivere. What is not least important, he gives to Arthur's reign much of the atmosphere of feudal chivalrywhichwasthatoftherulingclassofhisownage. Geoffrey mayor may not have intendedhis astonishing story to be seriously accepted, but in fact it was received with almostuniversalcredence.Forcenturiesitwasincorporatedinoutlineorinexcerptsintoalmostallthesoberchronicles, andwhatisofmuchmoreimportanceforliterature,itwastakenupandrehandledinvariousfashionsbyverynumerous romancers. About twentyyears after Geoffrey wrote,the FrenchpoetWace, an English subject,paraphrased hisentire 'History'invivid,fluent,anddiffuseverse.Waceimpartstothewhole,inathoroughgoingway,themannersofchivalry, andadds,amongotherthings,amentionoftheRoundTable,whichGeoffrey,somewhatcharyofthesupernatural,had chosentoomit,thoughitwasoneoftheearlyelementsoftheWelshtradition.Otherpoetsfollowed,chiefamongthem the delightful Chretien of Troyes, all writing mostly of the exploits of single knights at Arthur's court, which they made over, probably, from scattering tales of Welsh and Breton mythology. To declare that most romantic heroes had been knights of Arthur's circle now became almost a matter of course. Prose romances also appeared, vast formless compilations, which gathered up into themselves story after story, according to the fancy of each successive editor. GreatestoftheadditionstothesubstanceofthecyclewasthestoryoftheHolyGrail,originallyanaltogetherindependent legend. Important changes necessarily developed. Arthur himself, in many of the romances, was degraded from his positionofthebravestknighttobetheinactivefigureheadofabrilliantcourt;andtheonlyreallyhistoricalelementinthe story,hisstruggleagainsttheSaxons,wasthrustfarintothebackground,whilealltheemphasiswaslaidontheromantic achievementsofthesingleknights.

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LAGHAMON'S'BRUT.'ThusithadcomeaboutthatArthur,originallythenationalherooftheWelsh,andthedeadlyfoeof theEnglish,wasadopted,asaChristianchampion,notonlyforoneofthemedievalNineWorthiesofallhistory,butfor thespecialgloryoftheEnglishraceitself.InthatlighthefiguresinthefirstimportantworkinwhichnativeEnglish reemergesaftertheNormanConquest,the'Brut'(Chronicle)wherein,abouttheyear1200,Laghamonparaphrased Wace'sparaphraseofGeoffrey. [Footnote:Laghamon'snameisgenerallywritten'Layamon,'butthisisincorrect.Theword'Brut'comesfromthename 'Brutus,' according to Geoffrey a Trojan hero and eponymous founder of the British race. Standing at the beginning of British(andEnglish)history,hisnamecametobeappliedtothewholeofit,justasthefirsttwoGreekletters,alphaand beta,havegiventhenametothealphabet.] LaghamonwasahumbleparishpriestinWorcestershire,andhisthirtytwothousandhalflines,inwhichheimperfectly follows the AngloSaxon alliterative meter, are rathercrude; though theyareby nomeansdull, rather are often strong withtheoldtimeAngloSaxonfightingspirit.InlanguagealsothepoemisalmostpurelySaxon;occasionallyitadmitsthe Frenchdeviceofrime,butitissaidtoexhibit,alltold,fewerthanahundredwordsofFrenchorigin.Expandingthroughout onWace'sversion,Laghamonaddssomeminorfeatures;butEnglishwasnotyetreadytotakeaplacebesideFrenchand Latinwiththereadingclass,andthepoemexercisednoinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftheArthurianstoryoronEnglish literature.

SirGawainandTheGreenKnight.
Wecanmakespecialmentionofonlyoneotherromance,whichallstudentsshouldreadinmoderntranslation,namely, 'SirGawain(pronouncedGaw'wain)andtheGreenKnight.'Thisisthebriefandcarefullyconstructedworkofanunknown butveryrealpoeticartist,wholivedacenturyandmorelaterthanLaghamonandprobablyalittleearlierthanChaucer. Thestoryconsistsoftwooldfolktales,herefinelyunitedintheformofanArthurianromanceandsotreatedastobring out all the better side of knightly feeling, with which the author is in charming sympathy. Like many other medieval writings,thisoneispreservedbymerechanceinasinglemanuscript,whichcontainsalsothreeslightlyshorterreligious poems(ofathousandortwolinesapiece),allpossiblybythesameauthorastheromance.Oneoftheminparticular,'The Pearl,'isanarrativeofmuchfinefeeling,whichmaywellhavecomefromsotrueagentlemanashe.Thedialectisthatof the Northwest Midland, scarcely more intelligible to modern readers thanAngloSaxon,but it indicates that the author belonged to the same border region between England and Wales from which came also Geoffrey of Monmouth and Laghamon,aregionwhereSaxonandNormanelementsweremingledwithCelticfancyanddelicacyoftemperament.The meter, also, is interestingthe AngloSaxon unrimed alliterative verse, but divided into long stanzas of irregular length, eachendingina'bob'offiveshortriminglines. 'SirGawainandtheGreenKnight'mayveryfittinglybringtoacloseourhastysurveyoftheentireNormanFrenchperiod, aperiodmainlyofformation,whichhasleftnoliteraryworkofgreatandpermanentfame,butinwhich,afterall,there weresomesincereandtalentedwriters,whohavefallenintoforgetfulnessratherthroughtheuntowardaccidentsoftime thanfromlackofgenuinemeritinthemselves.

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TheEndofTheMiddleAges.About1350toabout1500
Thefirstfiftyyears.Politicalandsocialconditions.
Ofthecenturyandahalf,from1350to1500,whichformsourthirdperiod,themostimportantpartforliteraturewasthe firstfiftyyears,whichconstitutestheageofChaucer. Themiddleofthefourteenthcenturywasalsothemiddleoftheexternallybrilliantfiftyyears'reignofEdwardIII.In1337 EdwardhadbeguntheterriblethoughofteninterruptedseriesofcampaignsinFrancewhichhistoriansgrouptogetheras the Hundred Tears' War, and having won the battle of Crecy against amazing odds, he had inaugurated at his court a periodofsplendorandluxury.Thecountryasawholewasreallyincreasinginprosperity;Edwardwasfosteringtrade,and thetownsandsomeofthetownmerchantswerebecomingwealthy;buttheoppressivenessofthefeudalsystem,now becomingoutgrown,wasapparent,abusesinsocietyandstateandchurchwerealmostintolerable,andthespiritwhich wastocreateourmodernage,beginningalreadyinItalytomovetowardtheRenaissance,wasfeltinfaintstirringseven sofartotheNorthasEngland. Thetowns,indeed,wereachievingtheirfreedom.Thankstocompactorganization,theywerelooseningthebondsoftheir dependenceonthelordsorbishopstowhommostofthempaidtaxes;andtheallianceoftheirrepresentativeswiththe knightsoftheshire(countrygentlemen)intheHouseofCommons,nowaseparatedivisionofParliament,waslayingthe foundation of the political power of the whole middle class. But the feudal system continued to rest cruelly on the peasants. Still bound, most of them, to the soil, as serfs of the land or tenants with definite and heavy obligations of service, living in dark and filthy hovels under indescribably unhealthy conditions, earning a wretched subsistence by ceaselesslabor,andalmostaltogetheratthemercyofmasterswhoregardedthemasscarcelybetterthanbeasts,theirlot wasindeedpitiable.Neverthelesstheirspiritwasnotbrokennortheirstatesohopelessasitseemed.Itwasbythearchers of the class of yeomen (small freeholders), men akin in origin and interests to the peasants, that the victories in the French wars were won, and the knowledge that this was so created in the peasants an increased selfrespect and an increaseddissatisfaction.Theirgropingeffortstobettertheirconditionreceivedstrongstimulusalsofromtheravagesof theterribleBlackDeath,apestilencewhich,sweepingoffatitsfirstvisitation,in1348,atleasthalfthepopulation,andon two later recurrences only smaller proportions, led to a scarcity of laborers and added strength to their demand for commutationofpersonalservicesbymoneypaymentsandforhigherwages.Thisdemandwasmetbytherulingclasses with sternly repressive measures, and the socialistic Peasants' Revolt of John Ball and Wat Tyler in 1381 was violently crushedoutinblood,butitexpressedagreathumancryforjusticewhichcouldnotpermanentlybedenied. HandinhandwiththeStateanditsinstitutions,inthisperiodasbefore,stoodtheChurch.Holdinginthetheoreticalbelief of almost every one the absolute power of all men's salvation or spiritual death, monopolizing almost all learning and education, the Church exercised in the spiritual sphere, and to no small extent in the temporal, a despotic tyranny, a tyrannyemployedsometimesforgood,sometimesforevil.Astheonlyevenpartiallydemocraticinstitutionoftheageit attracted to itself the most ambitious and able men of all classes. Though social and personal influence were powerful withinitsdoors,asalwaysinallhumanorganizations,neverthelessthesonofaserfforwhomtherewasnoothermeans of escape from his servitude might steal to the nearest monastery and there, gaining his freedom by a few months of concealment,mighthope,ifheprovedhisability,torisetothehighestposition,tobecomeabbot,bishoporperhapseven Pope.WithintheChurchweremanysincereandablemenunselfishlydevotingtheirlivestotheserviceoftheirfellows; butthemoraltoneoftheorganizationasawholehadsufferedfromitsworldlyprosperityandpower.Initsnumerous secular lordships and monastic orders it had become possessor of more than half the land in England, a proportion constantly increased through the legacies left by religiousminded persons for their souls' salvation; but from its vast income,severaltimesgreaterthanthatoftheCrown,itpaidnotaxes,andowingallegianceonlytothePopeitwasin effectaforeignpower,sometimesopenlyhostiletothenationalgovernment.Themonasteries,thoughstillperforming importantpublicfunctionsascentersofeducation,charity,andhospitality,hadrelaxedtheirdiscipline,andthelivesof themonkswereoftenscandalous.TheDominicanandFranciscanfriars,also,whohadcometoEnglandinthethirteenth century,soonafterthefoundationoftheirordersinItaly,andwhohadbeenfullatfirstofpassionatezealforthespiritual and physical welfare of the poor, had now departed widely from their early character and become selfish, luxurious, ignorant, and unprincipled. Much the same was true of the 'secular' clergy (those not members of monastic orders, correspondingtotheentireclergyofProtestantchurches).Thenthereweresuchunworthycharlatansasthepardoners and professional pilgrims, traveling everywhere under special privileges and fleecing the credulous of their money with fraudulentrelicsandpreposterousstoriesofedifyingadventure.Allthiscorruptionwasclearenoughtoeveryintelligent person,andweshallfinditanobjectofconstantsatirebytheauthorsoftheage,butitwastoofirmlyestablishedtobe easilyorquicklyrootedout.

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'Mandeville'sVoyage'
One of the earliest literary works of the period, however, was uninfluenced by these social and moral problems, being rather a very complete expression of the naive medieval delight in romantic marvels. This is the highly entertaining 'Voyage and Travels of Sir John Mandeville.' This clever book was actually written at Liege, in what is now Belgium, sometimebeforetheyear1370,andintheFrenchlanguage;fromwhich,attainingenormouspopularity,itwasseveral timestranslatedintoLatinandEnglish,andlaterintovariousotherlanguages.Fivecenturieshadtopassbeforescholars succeeded in demonstrating that the asserted author, 'Sir John Mandeville,' never existed, that the real author is undiscoverable,andthatthispretendedaccountofhisjourneyingsoveralltheknownandimaginedworldisacompilation fromalargenumberofpreviousworks.Yetthebook(theEnglishversionalongwiththeothers)reallydeserveditslong continuedreputation.ItstalesoftheEthiopianPresterJohn,ofdiamondsthatbypropercarecanbemadetogrow,of treeswhosefruitisanoddsortoflambs,andahundredotherequallyremarkablephenomena,arenarratedwithskilful verisimilitudeandstillstronglyholdthereader'sinterest,eveniftheynolongercommandbelief.Withallhiscredulity, too,theauthorhassomeoddendsofgenuinescience,amongotherstheconvictionthattheearthisnotflatbutround.In styletheEnglishversionsreflectthealmostuniversalmedievaluncertaintyofsentencestructure;neverthelesstheyare straightforwardandclear;andthebookisnotableasthefirstexampleinEnglishaftertheNormanConquestofproseused notforreligiousedificationbutforamusement(thoughwiththepurposealsoofgivinginstruction).'Mandeville,'however, isaveryminorfigurewhencomparedwithhisgreatcontemporaries,especiallywiththechiefofthem,GeoffreyChaucer.

TheFifteenthCentury.
The15thcent.isnotdistinguishedinEnglishletters,dueinparttothesocialdislocationcausedbytheprolongedWarsof theRoses.Ofthemany15thcenturyimitatorsofChaucerthebestknownareJohnLydgateandThomasHoccleve.Other poetsofthetimeincludeStephenHawesandAlexanderBarclayandtheScotspoetsWilliamDunbar,RobertHenryson, andGawinDouglas.ThepoetryofJohnSkelton,whichismostlysatiric,combinesmedievalandRenaissanceelements. WilliamCaxtonintroducedprintingtoEnglandin1475andin1485printedSirThomasMalory'sMorted'Arthur.Thisprose work,writteninthetwilightofchivalry,caststheArthuriantalesintocoherentformandviewsthemwithawarenessthat they represent a vanishing way of life. The miracle play, a long cycle of short plays based upon biblical episodes, was popular throughout the Middle Ages in England. The morality play, an allegorical drama centering on the struggle for man'ssoul,originatedinthe15thcent.ThefinestofthegenreisEveryman. WithChaucer'sdeathin1400thehalfcenturyoforiginalcreativeliteratureinwhichheisthemainfigurecomestoanend, and for a hundred and fifty years thereafter there is only a single author of the highest rank. For this decline political confusion is the chief cause; first, in the renewal of the Hundred Years' War, with its sordid effort to deprive another nation of its liberty, and then in the brutal and meaningless War of the Roses, a mere cutthroat civil butchery of rival factionswithnorealprincipleatstake.Throughoutthefifteenthcenturytheleadingpoets(ofprosewewillspeaklater) were avowed imitators of Chaucer, and therefore at best only secondrate writers. Most of them were Scots, and best knownistheScottishking,JamesI.Fortraditionseemscorrectinnamingthismonarchastheauthorofaprettypoem, 'TheKing'sQuair'('TheKing'sQuire,'thatisBook),whichrelatesinamedievaldreamallegoryoffourteenhundredlines howthecaptiveauthorseesandfallsinlovewithaladywhomintheendFortunepromisestobestowuponhim.Thismay wellbethepoeticrecordofKingJames'eighteenyearcaptivityinEnglandandhisactualmarriagetoanobleEnglishwife. IncomplimenttohimChaucer'sstanzaofsevenlines(rimingababbcc),whichKingJamesemploys,hasreceivedthename of'rimeroyal.'

The'popular'ballads.
Largelytothefifteenthcentury,however,belongthoseoftheEnglishandScottish'popular'balladswhichtheaccidentsof time have not succeeded in destroying. We have already considered the theory of the communal origin of this kind of poetryintheremoteprehistoricpast,andhaveseenthattheballadscontinuetoflourishvigorouslydowntothelater periodsofcivilization.ThestillexistingEnglishandScottishballadsaremostly,nodoubt,theworkofindividualauthorsof thefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,butnonethelesstheyexpressthelittlechangingmindandemotionsofthegreat bodyofthecommonpeoplewhohadbeensingingandrepeatingballadsforsomanythousandyears.Reallyessentially 'popular,'too,inspiritarethemorepretentiouspoemsofthewanderingprofessionalminstrels,whichhavebeenhanded down along with the others, just as the minstrels were accustomed to recite both sorts indiscriminately. Such minstrel balladsarethefamousonesonthebattleofChevyChase,orOtterburn.Theproductionofgenuinepopularballadsbegan to wane in the fifteenth century when the printing press gave circulation to the output of cheap London writers and substituted reading for the verbal memory by which the ballads had been transmitted, portions, as it were, of a half

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mysterious and almost sacred tradition. Yet the existing ballads yielded slowly, lingering on in the remote regions, and those which have been preserved were recovered during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by collectors from simplemenandwomenlivingapartfromthemaincurrentsoflife,towhoseheartsandlipstheywerestilldear.Indeed even now theballads and balladmaking are not altogether dead, butmay stillbefound nourishing in such outskirts of civilization as the cowboy plains of Texas, Rocky Mountain mining camps, or the nooks and corners of the Southern Alleghenies. Thetrue'popular'balladshaveaqualitypeculiarlytheirown,whichrendersthemfarsuperiortothesixteenthcentury imitations and which noconscious literaryartist has ever successfully reproduced. Longfellow's 'Skeleton inArmor' and Tennyson's'Revenge'arestirringartisticballads,buttheyarealtogetherdifferentintoneandeffectfromtheauthentic 'popular'ones.Someoftheelementswhichgotomakethispeculiar'popular'qualitycanbedefinitelystated.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The 'popular' ballads are the simple and spontaneous expression of the elemental emotion of the people, emotionoftencrudebutabsolutelygenuineandunaffected.Phrasesareoftenrepeatedintheballads,justasin thetalkofthecommonman,forthesakeofemphasis,butthereisneithercomplexityofplotorcharacterization norattemptatdecorativeliteraryadornmentthestoryandtheemotionwhichitcallsforthareallinall.Itisthis simple,directfervoroffeeling,thestraightforwardoutpouringoftheauthors'hearts,thatgivestheballadstheir power and entitles them toconsiderationamong the far more finished works of conscious literature. Both the emotionandthemoralsoftheballads,also,arepagan,oratleastpreChristian;vengeanceonone'senemiesis asmuchavirtueasloyaltytoone'sfriends;themostshamefulsinsarecowardiceandtreacheryinwarorlove; andtheloveisoftenlawless. Fromfirsttolastthetreatmentofthethemesisobjective,dramatic,andpicturesque.Everythingisaction,simple feeling,orvividscenes,withnomerelyabstractmoralizing(exceptinafewunusualcases);andoftenmuchofthe storyorsentimentisimpliedratherthandirectlystated.Thistoo,ofcourse,isthenaturalmannerofthecommon man,amannerperfectlyeffectiveeitherinanimatedconversationorinthechantofaminstrel,whereexpression andgesturecandosomuchoftheworkwhichtherestraintsofcivilizedsocietyhavetransferredtowords. To this spirit and treatment correspond the subjects of the ballads. They are such as make appeal to the underlyinghumaninstinctsbraveexploitsinindividualfightingorinorganizedwar,andtheromanceandpathos andtragedyofloveandoftheothermovingsituationsofsimplelife.Fromthe'popular'natureoftheballadsit hasresultedthatmanyofthemareconfinedwithinnoboundariesofraceornation,but,originatingonehere, one there, are spread in very varying versions throughout the whole, almost, of the world. Purely English, however, are those which deal with Robin Hood and his 'merry men,' idealized imaginary heroes of the Saxon commonpeopleinthedoggedstrugglewhichtheymaintainedforcenturiesagainsttheiroppressivefeudallords. Thecharactersand'properties'oftheballadsofallclassesaregenerallytypicalortraditional.Therearethebrave champion,whethernobleorcommonman,whoconquersorfallsagainstoverwhelmingodds;thefaithfullover of either sex; the woman whose constancy, proving stronger than man's fickleness, wins back her lover to her sideatlast;thetraitorousoldwoman(victimoftheblindandcruelprejudicewhichafteracenturyortwowas oftentosendhertothestakeasawitch);theloyallittlechild;andsomefewothers. Theverbalstyleoftheballads,liketheirspirit,isvigorousandsimple,generallyunpolishedandsometimesrough, butoftenpowerfulwithitstersedramaticsuggestiveness.Theusual,thoughnottheonly,poeticformisthefour linedstanzainlinesalternatelyoffourandthreestressesandrimingonlyinthesecondandfourthlines.Besides therefrainswhichareperhapsarelicofcommunalcompositionandtheconventionalepithetswhichtheballads sharewithepicpoetrytherearenumeroustraditionalballadexpressionsrathermeaninglessformulasandline tags used only to complete the rime or meter, the common useful scrapbag reserve of these unpretentious poets.ThelicenseofAngloSaxonpoetryinthenumberoftheunstressedsyllablesstillremains.Butitisevident thattheexistingversionsoftheballadsaregenerallymoreimperfectthantheoriginalforms;theyhavesuffered from the corruptions of generations of oral repetition, which the scholars who have recovered them have preserved with necessary accuracy, but which for appreciative reading editors should so far as possible revise away.

Amongthebestormostrepresentativesingleballadsare:TheHuntingoftheCheviot(otherwisecalledTheAncientBallad ofChevyChaseclearlyofminstrelauthorship);SirPatrickSpens;RobinHoodandGuyofGisborne;AdamBell,Clymofthe Clough,andWilliamofCloudeslee;CaptainCar,orEdomo'Gordon;KingEstmere(thoughthishasbeensomewhataltered byBishopPercy,whohadanddestroyedtheonlysurvivingcopyofit);Edward,Edward;YoungWaters;SweetWilliam's Ghost;LordThomasandFairAnnet.KinmontWillieisveryfine,butseemstobelargelytheworkofSirWalterScottand thereforenottruly'popular.'

SirThomasMaloryandhis'MorteDarthur.'
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Theonefifteenthcenturyauthorofthefirstrank,abovereferredto,isSirThomasMalory(theaispronouncedasintally). HeisprobablytobeidentifiedwiththeSirThomasMalorywhoduringthewarsinFranceandthecivilstrifeoftheRoses thatfollowedwasanadherentoftheEarlsofWarwickandwhodiedin1471undersentenceofoutlawrybythevictorious EdwardIV.Andsomepassingobservations,atleast,inhisbookseemtoindicatethatifheknewandhadsharedallthe splendorandinspirationofthelastyearsofmedievalchivalry,hehadexperiencedalsothedisappointmentandbitterness of defeat and prolonged captivity. Further than this we know of him only that he wrote 'Le Morte Darthur' and had finisheditby1467. Malory'spurposewastocollectinasingleworkthegreatbodyofimportantArthurianromanceandtoarrangeitinthe formofacontinuoushistoryofKingArthurandhisknights.Hecalledhisbook'LeMorteDarthur,'TheDeathofArthur, fromthetitleofseveralpopularArthurianromancestowhich,sincetheydealtonlywithArthur'slateryearsanddeath,it wasproperlyenoughapplied,andfromwhichitseemstohavepassedintogeneralcurrencyasanamefortheentirestory of Arthur's life. [Footnote: Since the French word 'Morte' is feminine, the preceding article was originally 'La,' but the wholenamehadcometobethoughtofasacompoundphraseandhenceasmasculineorneuteringender.]Actuallyto gettogetheralltheArthurianromanceswasnotpossibleforanymaninMalory'sday,orinanyother,buthegatheredup agoodlynumber,mostofthem,atleast,writteninFrench,andcombinedthem,onthewholewithunusualskill,intoa workofaboutonetenththeiroriginalbulk,whichstillranks,withallqualifications,asoneofthemasterpiecesofEnglish literature.Dealingwithsuchmiscellaneousmaterial,hecouldnotwhollyavoidinconsistencies,sothat,forexample,he sometimes introduces in full health in a later book a knight whom a hundred pages earlier he had killed and regularly buried;butthisneednotcausethereaderanythingworsethanmildamusement.NotMalorybuthisage,also,istoblame forhissometimeshazyandpuzzledtreatmentofthesupernaturalelementinhismaterial.Intheremoteearliestformof the stories, as Celtic myths, this supernatural element was no doubt frank and very large, but Malory's authorities, the moreskepticalFrenchromancers,adaptingittotheirownage,hadoftenmoreorlessfullyrationalizedit;transforming, forinstance,theblackriverofDeathwhichtheoriginalheroesoftenhadtocrossonjourneystotheCelticOtherWorld into a rude and forbidding moat about the hostile castle into which the romancers degraded the Other World itself. Countless magic details, however, still remained recalcitrant to such treatment; and they evidently troubled Malory, whose devotion to his story was earnest and sincere. Some of them he omits, doubtless as incredible, but others he retains,ofteninaformwheretheimpossibleismerelygarbledintotheunintelligible.Forasingleinstance,inhisseventh bookhedoesnotsatisfactorilyexplainwhythevaliantGarethonhisarrivalatArthur'scourtasksatfirstonlyforayear's foodanddrink.Intheoriginalstory,wecanseetoday,Garethmusthavebeenunderawitch'sspellwhichcompelledhim toaseasonofdistastefulservitude;butthismotivatingbitofsuperstitionMalorydiscards,orrather,inthiscase,ithad beenlostfromthestoryatamuchearlierstage.Itresults,therefore,thatMalory'ssupernaturalincidentsareoftenfar fromclearandsatisfactory;yetthereaderislittletroubledbythisdifficultyeitherinsothoroughlyromanticawork. OthertechnicalfaultsmayeasilybepointedoutinMalory'sbook.Thoroughunity,eitherinthewholeorintheseparate storiessolooselywoventogether,couldnotbeexpected;incontinualreadingthelongsuccessionofsimilarcombatafter combatandtheconstantrepetitionofstereotypedphrasesbecomemonotonousforapresentdayreader;anditmustbe confessedthatMaloryhaslittleofthemodernliterarycraftsman'spowerofcloseknitstyleorproportionandemphasisin details. But these faults also may be overlooked, and the work is truly great, partly because it is an idealist's dream of chivalry,aschivalrymighthavebeen,achivalryoffaithfulknightswhowentaboutredressinghumanwrongsandwere loyalloversandzealousservantsofHolyChurch;greatalsobecauseMalory'sheartisinhisstories,sothathetellsthemin themainwell,andinveststhemwithadelightfulatmosphereofromancewhichcanneverloseitsfascination. Thestyle,also,inthenarrowersense,isstrongandgood,anddoesitsparttomakethebook,exceptfortheWiclifBible, unquestionably the greatest monument of English prose of the entire period before the sixteenth century. There is no affectationofelegance,butratherknightlystraightforwardnesswhichhaspowerwithoutlackofease.Thesentencesare oftenlong,butalways'loose'andclear;andshortonesareoftenusedwiththeinstinctiveskillofsincerity.Everythingis picturesqueanddramaticandeverywherethereischivalrousfeelingandgenuinehumansympathy.

WilliamCaxtonandtheintroductionofprintingtoEngland,1476
Malory'sbookisthefirstgreatEnglishclassicwhichwasgiventotheworldinprintinsteadofwrittenmanuscript;forit was shortly after Malory's death that the printing press was brought to England by William Caxton. The invention of printing, perhaps the most important event of modern times, took place in Germany not long after the middle of the fifteenthcentury,andthedevelopmentoftheartwasrapid.Caxton,ashrewdandenterprisingKentishman,wasbyfirst profession a cloth merchant, and having taken up his residence across the Channel, was appointed by the king to the important post of Governor of the English Merchants in Flanders. Employed later in the service of the Duchess of Burgundy (sister of Edward IV), his ardent delight in romances led him to translate into English a French 'Recueil des HistoiresdeTroye'(CollectionoftheTroyStories).Tosupplythelargedemandforcopiesheinvestigatedandmastered

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the new art by which they might be so wonderfully multiplied and about 1475, at fifty years of age, set up a press at Bruges in the modern Belgium, where he issued his 'Recueil,' which was thus the first English book ever put into print. Duringthenextyear,1476,justacenturybeforethefirsttheaterwastobebuiltinLondon,CaxtonreturnedtoEngland andestablishedhisshopinWestminster,thenaLondonsuburb.Duringthefifteenremainingyearsofhislifehelabored diligently,printinganaggregateofmorethanahundredbooks,whichtogethercomprisedoverfourteenthousandpages. Aside from Malory's romance, which he put out in 1485, the most important of his publications was an edition of Chaucer's'CanterburyTales.'WhilelaboringasapublisherCaxtonhimselfcontinuedtomaketranslations,andinspiteof many difficulties he, together with his assistants, turned into English from French no fewer than twentyone distinct works.FromeverypointofviewCaxton'sservicesweregreat.Astranslatorandeditorhisstyleiscarelessanduncertain, butlikeMalory'sitissincereandmanly,andvitalwithenergyandenthusiasm.Asprinter,inatimeofrapidchangesinthe language,whenthroughthewarsinFranceandhergrowinginfluencethesecondgreatinfusionofLatinFrenchwordswas comingintotheEnglishlanguage,hedidwhatcouldbedoneforconsistencyinformsandspelling.Partlymedievaland partlymoderninspirit,hemayfittinglystandattheclose,ornearlyattheclose,ofourstudyofthemedievalperiod.

TheMedievalDrama
For the sake of clearness we have reserved for a separate chapter the discussion of the drama of the whole medieval period,which,thoughitdidnotreachaveryhighliterarylevel,wasoneofthemostcharacteristicexpressionsoftheage. Itshouldbeemphasizedthattonootherformdoeswhatwehavesaidofthesimilarityofmedievalliteraturethroughout WesternEuropeapplymoreclosely,sothatwhatwefindtrueofthedramainEnglandwouldforthemostpartholdgood fortheothercountriesaswell.

Jugglers,FolkPlays,Pageants.
AtthefalloftheRomanEmpire,whichmarksthebeginningoftheMiddleAges,thecorruptRomandrama,proscribedby theChurch,hadcometoanunhonoredend,andtheactorshadbeenmergedintothegreatbodyofdisreputablejugglers andinferiorminstrelswhowanderedoverallChristendom.Theperformancesofthesesocialoutcasts,crudeandimmoral astheywere,continuedforcenturiesunsuppressed,becausetheyrespondedtothedemandfordramaticspectaclewhich isoneofthedeepestthoughnotleasttroublesomeinstinctsinhumannature.Thesamedemandwaspartlysatisfiedalso by the rude country folkplays, survivals of primitive heathen ceremonials, performed at such festival occasions as the harvest season, which in all lands continue to flourish among the country people long after their original meaning has beenforgotten.InEnglandthefolkplays,throughouttheMiddleAgesandinremotespotsdownalmosttothepresent time, sometimes took the form of energetic dances (Morris dances, they came to be called, through confusion with Moorishperformancesofthesamegeneralnature).Othersofthem,however,exhibitedinthemidstofmuchroughand tumblefightingandbuffoonery,aslightthreadofdramaticaction.Theircharactersgraduallycametobeaconventional set,partlyfamousfiguresofpopulartradition,suchasSt.George,RobinHood,MaidMarian,andtheGreenDragon.Other offshootsofthefolkplaywerethe'mummings'and'disguisings,'collectivenamesformanyformsofprocessions,shows, andotherentertainments,suchas,amongtheupperclasses,thatprecursoroftheElizabethanMaskinwhichagroupof personsindisguise,invitedoruninvited,attendedaformaldancingparty.InthelaterpartoftheMiddleAges,also,there were the secular pageants, spectacular displays (rather different from those of the twentieth century) given on such occasions as when a king or other person of high rank made formal entry into a town. They consisted of an elaborate scenic background set up near the city gate or on the street, with figures from allegorical or traditional history who engagedinsomepantomimeordeclamation,butwithverylittledramaticdialog,ornone.

Tropes,LiturgicalPlays,andMysteryPlays.
Butalltheseforms,thoughtheywerenotaltogetherwithoutlaterinfluence,wereveryminoraffairs,andtherealdrama oftheMiddleAgesgrewup,withoutdesignandbythemerenatureofthings,fromtheregularservicesoftheChurch. Wemusttryinthefirstplacetorealizeclearlytheconditionsunderwhichthechurchservice,themass,wasconducted during all the medieval centuries. We should picture to ourselves congregations of persons for the most part grossly ignorant,ofunquestioningthoughverysuperficialfaith,andofemotionseasilyarousedtofeverheat.OftheLatinwords oftheservicetheyunderstoodnothing;andoftheBiblestorytheyhadonlyaverygeneralimpression.Itwasnecessary, therefore,thattheserviceshouldbegivenastronglyspectacularandemotionalcharacter,andtothisendnoeffortwas spared. The great cathedrals and churches were much the finest buildings of the time, spacious with lofty pillars and shadowyrecesses,richinsculpturedstoneandinpaintedwindowsthatcastonthewallsandpavementssoftandglowing patternsofmanycolorsandshiftingforms.Theserviceitselfwasingreatpartmusical,theconfidentnotesofthefullchoir joiningwiththeresonantorgantones;andafteralltheresttherichlyrobedpriestsandministrantspassedalongtheaisles in stately processions enveloped in fragrant clouds of incense. That the eye if not the ear of the spectator, also, might

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catchsomedefiniteknowledge,thepriestsastheyreadtheBiblestoriessometimesdisplayedpaintedrollswhichvividly picturedtheprincipaleventsoftheday'slesson. Still,however,alackwasstronglyfelt,andatlast,accidentallyandslowly,begantheprocessofdramatizingtheservices. First,inevitably,tobesotreatedwasthecentralincidentofChristianfaith,thestoryofChrist'sresurrection.Theearliest stepswereverysimple.First,duringtheceremoniesonGoodFriday,thedaywhenChristwascrucified,thecrosswhich stood all the year above the altar, bearing the Savior's figure, was taken down and laid beneath the altar, a dramatic symboloftheDeathandBurial;andtwodayslater,on'thethirdday'oftheBiblephraseology,thatisonEasterSunday,as thestoryoftheResurrectionwaschantedbythechoir,thecrosswasuncoveredandreplaced,amidtherejoicingsofthe congregation.Next,andbeforetheNormanConquest,theGospeldialogbetweentheangelandthethreeMarysatthe tombofChristcamesometimestobechantedbythechoirinthoseresponseswhicharecalled'tropes': 'Whomseekyeinthesepulcher,OChristians?''JesusofNazareththecrucified,Oangel.''Heisnothere;hehasarisenas hesaid.Go,announcethathehasrisenfromthesepulcher.'Afterthisalittledramaticactionwasintroducedalmostasa matterofcourse.Onepriestdressedinwhiterobessat,torepresenttheangel,byoneofthesquarebuilttombsnearthe junctionofnaveandtransept,andthreeothers,personatingtheMarys,advancedslowlytowardhimwhiletheychanted theirportionofthesamedialog.Asthelastmomentouswordsoftheangeldiedawayajubilant'TeDeum'burstfrom, organ and choir, and every member of the congregation exulted, often with sobs, in the great triumph which brought salvationtoeveryChristiansoul. Little by little, probably, as time passed, this Easter scene was further enlarged, in part by additions from the closing incidents of the Savior's life. A similar treatment, too, was being given to the Christmas scene, still more humanly beautiful, of his birth in the manger, and occasionally the two scenes might be taken from their regular places in the service, combined, and presented at any season of the year. Other Biblical scenes, as well, came to be enacted, and, further,therewereaddedstoriesfromChristiantradition,suchasthatofAntichrist,and,ontheirparticulardays,thelives ofChristiansaints.ThusfarthesecompositionsarecalledLiturgicalPlays,becausetheyformed,ingeneral,apartofthe churchservice(liturgy).Butassomeofthemwereunitedintoextendedgroupsandastheinterestofthecongregation deepened,thechurchesbegantoseemtoosmallandinconvenient,theexcitedaudiencesforgottheproperreverence, andtheperformancesweretransferredtothechurchyard,andthen,whenthegravestonesprovedtroublesome,tothe market place, the villagegreen, or any convenient field. By this time the people had ceased to be patient with the unintelligible Latin, and it was replaced at first, perhaps,and inpart, by French, butfinally by English; though probably verse was always retained as more appropriate than prose to the sacred subjects. Then, the religious spirit yielding inevitablyinparttothatofmerrymaking,minstrelsandmountebanksbegantoflocktothecelebrations;andregularfairs, even, grew up about them. Gradually, too, the priests lost their hold even on the plays themselves; skilful actors from amongthelaymenbegantotakemanyoftheparts;andatlastinsometownsthetradeguilds,orunionsofthevarious handicrafts,whichhadsecuredcontrolofthetowngovernments,assumedentirecharge. Thesechanges,veryslowlycreepingin,onebyone,hadcomeaboutinmostplacesbythebeginningofthefourteenth century. In 1311 a new impetus was given to the whole ceremony by the establishment of the late spring festival of CorpusChristi,acelebrationofthedoctrineoftransubstantiation.Onthisoccasion,orsometimesonsomeotherfestival, it became customary for the guilds to present an extended series of the plays, a series which together contained the essential substance of the Christian story, and therefore of the Christian faith. The Church generally still encouraged attendance,andnotonlydidallthetownspeoplejoinwholeheartedly,butfromallthecountryroundthepeasantsflocked in. On one occasion the Pope promised the remission of a thousand days of purgatory to all persons who should be presentattheChesterplays,andtothisexemptionthebishopofChesteraddedsixtydaysmore. Thelistofplaysthuspresentedcommonlyincluded:TheFallofLucifer;theCreationoftheWorldandtheFallofAdam; NoahandtheFlood;AbrahamandIsaacandthepromiseofChrist'scoming;aProcessionoftheProphets,alsoforetelling Christ;themaineventsoftheGospelstory,withsomeadditionsfromChristiantradition;andtheDayofJudgment.The longestcyclenowknown,thatatYork,contained,whenfullydeveloped,fiftyplays,orperhapsevenmore.Generallyeach playwaspresentedbyasingleguild(thoughsometimestwoorthreeguildsortwoorthreeplaysmightbecombined),and sometimes, though not always, there was a special fitness in the assignment, as when the watermen gave the play of Noah'sArkorthebakersthatoftheLastSupper.InthisconnectedformtheplaysarecalledtheMysteryorMiracleCycles. [Footnote: 'Miracle' was themedieval word inEngland;'Mystery'has been takenby recent scholars from the medieval French usage. It is not connected with our usual word 'mystery,' but possibly is derived from the Latin 'ministerium,' 'function,'whichwasthenameappliedtothetradeguildasanorganizationandfromwhichourtitle'Mr.'alsocomes.]In manyplaces,however,detachedplays,orgroupsofplayssmallerthanthefullcycles,continuedtobepresentedatone seasonoranother.

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Eachcycleasawhole,itwillbeseen,hasanaturalepicunity,centeringaboutthemajesticthemeofthespiritualhistory andthefinaljudgmentofallMankind.Butunitybothofmaterialandofatmospheresuffersnotonlyfromthediversity amongtheseparateplaysbutalsofromtheviolentintrusionofthecomedyandthefarcewhichthecoarsetasteofthe audiencedemanded.Sometimes,inthelaterperiod,altogetheroriginalandveryrealisticscenesfromactualEnglishlife were added, like the veryclever but verycoarse parody on theNativity play in the'Towneley'cycle. More often comic treatment was given to the Bible scenes and characters themselves. Noah's wife, for example, came regularly to be presentedasashrew,whowouldnotenterthearkuntilshehadbeenbeatenintosubmission;andHerodalwaysappears asablusteringtyrant,whosefamestillsurvivesinaproverbofShakespeare'scoinage'tooutHerodHerod.' Themannerofpresentationofthecyclesvariedmuchindifferenttowns.Sometimestheentirecyclewasstillgiven,like thedetachedplays,atasinglespot,themarketplaceorsomeothercentralsquare;butoften,toaccommodatethegreat crowds, there were several 'stations' at convenient intervals. In the latter case each play might remain all day at a particularstationandbecontinuouslyrepeatedasthecrowdmovedslowlyby;butmoreoftenitwasthe,spectatorswho remained,andtheplays,mountedonmovablestages,the'pageant'wagons,weredrawninturnbytheguildapprentices fromonestationtoanother.Whentheaudiencewasstationary,thecommonpeoplestoodinthesquareonallsidesof the stage, while persons of higher rank or greater means were seated on temporary wooden scaffolds or looked down fromthewindowsoftheadjacenthouses.Intheconstructionofthe'pageant'allthelittlethatwaspossiblewasdoneto meettheneedsofthepresentation.Belowthemainfloor,orstage,wasthecurtaineddressingroomoftheactors;and whentheplayrequired,ononesidewasattached'HellMouth,'agreatandhorriblehumanhead,whenceissuedflames andfiendishcries,oftenthefiendsthemselves,andintowhichlostsinnerswereviolentlyhurled.Onthestagethescenery was necessarily very simple. A small raised platform or pyramid might represent Heaven, where God the Father was seated,andfromwhichastheactionrequiredtheangelscamedown;asingletreemightindicatetheGardenofEden;and adoorwayanentirehouse.Inpartialcompensationthecostumeswereoftenelaborate,withallthefineryofthechurch wardrobe and much of those of the wealthy citizens. The expense accounts of the guilds, sometimes luckily preserved, furnish many picturesque and amusing items, such as these: 'Four pair of angels' wings, 2 shillings and 8 pence.' 'For mendingofhellhead,6pence.''Item,linkforsettingtheworldonfire.'Apparentlywomenneveracted;menandboys tookthewomen'sparts.Alltheplaysofthecyclewerecommonlyperformedinasingleday,beginning,atthefirststation, perhapsasearlyasfiveo'clockinthemorning;butsometimesthreedaysorevenmorewereemployed.Totheguildsthe givingoftheplayswasaveryseriousmatter.Ofteneachguildhada'pageanthouse'whereitstoredits'properties,'anda pageantmasterwhotrainedtheactorsandimposedsubstantialfinesonmembersremissincooperation. We have said that the plays were always composed in verse. The stanza forms employed differ widely even within the same cycle, since the single plays were very diverse in both authorship and dates. The quality of the verse, generally mediocre at the outset, has often suffered much in transmission from generation to generation. In other respects also therearegreatcontrasts;sometimesthefeelingandpowerofasceneareadmirable,revealinganauthorofrealability, sometimesthereisonlycrudeandwoodenamateurishness.Themedievallackofhistoricsensegivestoalltheplaysthe settingoftheauthors'owntimes;Romanofficersappearasfeudalknights;andalltheheathens(includingtheJews)are Saracens, worshippers of 'Mahound' and 'Termagaunt'; while the good characters, however long they may really have livedbeforetheChristianera,swearstoutlybySt.JohnandSt.PaulandtheothermedievalChristiandivinities.Thefrank coarsenessoftheplaysisoftenmerelydisgusting,andsuggestshowsuperficial,inmostcases,wasthemedievalreligious sense.Withnothoughtofincongruity,too,thesewritersbroughtGodtheFatherontothestageinbodilyform,andthen, attempting in all sincerity to show him reverence, gilded his face and put into his mouth long speeches of exceedingly tediousdeclamation.Thewholeemphasis,asgenerallyinthereligionofthetimes,wasonthefearofhellratherthanon theloveofrighteousness.Yetinspiteofeverythinggrotesqueandinconsistent,theplaysnodoubtlargelyfulfilledtheir religiouspurposeandexercisedonthewholeanelevatinginfluence.ThehumblesubmissionoftheboyIsaactothewillof God and of his earthly father, the yearning devotion of Mary the mother of Jesus, and the infinite love and pity of the torturedChristhimself,musthavestruckintoevencallousheartsforatleastalittletimesomegenuineconsciousnessof the beauty and power of the finer and higher life. A literary form which supplied much of the religious and artistic nourishmentofhalfacontinentforhalfathousandyearscannotbelightlyregardedordismissed.

TheMoralityPlays.
The Mystery Plays seem to have reached their greatest popularity in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In the dawninglightoftheRenaissanceandthemodernspirittheygraduallywaned,thoughinexceptionalplacesandinspecial revivalstheydidnotaltogetherceasetobegivenuntiltheseventeenthcentury.OntheContinentofEurope,indeed,they still survive, after a fashion, in a single somewhat modernized form, the celebrated Passion Play of Oberammergau. In Englandbytheendofthefifteenthcenturytheyhadbeenforthemostpartreplacedbyakindredspecieswhichhadlong beengrowingupbesidethem,namelytheMoralityPlays.

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TheMoralityPlayprobablyaroseinpartfromthedesireofreligiouswriterstoteachtheprinciplesofChristianlivingina more direct and compact fashion than was possible through the Bible stories of the Mysteries. In its strict form the MoralityPlaywasadramatizedmoralallegory.ItwasinpartanoffshootfromtheMysteries,insomeofwhichtherehad appearedamongtheactorsabstractallegoricalfigures,eithergoodorbad,suchasTheSevenDeadlySins,Contemplation, and RaiseSlander. In the Moralities the majority of the characters are of this sortthough not to the exclusion of supernaturalpersonssuchasGodandtheDevilandtheheroisgenerallyatypefigurestandingforallMankind.Forthe control of the hero the two definitely opposing groups of Virtues and Vices contend; the commonest type of Morality presents in brief glimpses the entire story of the hero's life, that is of the life of every man. It shows how he yields to temptation and lives for the most part in reckless sin, but at last in spite of all his flippancy and folly is saved by PerseveranceandRepentance,pardonedthroughGod'smercy,andassuredofsalvation.Ascomparedwiththeusualtype ofMysteryplaystheMoralitieshadforthewritersthisadvantage,thattheyallowedsomeindependenceintheinvention ofthestory;andhowpowerfultheymightbemadeinthehandsofareallygiftedauthorhasbeenfinelydemonstratedin ourowntimebythestagerevivalofthebestofthem,'Everyman'(whichisprobablyatranslationfromaDutchoriginal). Inmostcases,however,thespiritofmedievalallegoryprovedfatal,thegenuinelyabstractcharactersaremostlyshadowy andunreal,andthespeechesoftheVirtuesareextremeexamplesofintolerablesanctimoniousdeclamation.Againstthis tendency,ontheotherhand,thepersistentinstinctforrealismprovidedapartialantidote;theVicesareoftenverylifelike rascals, abstract only in name. In these cases the whole plays become vivid studies in contemporary low life, largely human and interesting except for their prolixity and the coarseness which they inherited from the Mysteries and multiplied on their own account. During the Reformation period, in the early sixteenth century, the character of the Moralities, more strictly so called, underwent something of a change, and they weresometimes made the vehicle for religiousargument,especiallybyProtestants.

TheInterludes.
Earlyinthesixteenthcentury,theMoralityinitsturnwaslargelysupersededbyanothersortofplaycalledtheInterlude. ButjustasinthecaseoftheMysteryandtheMorality,theInterludedevelopedoutoftheMorality,andthetwocannot alwaysbedistinguished,somesingleplaysbeingdistinctlydescribedbytheauthorsas'MoralInterludes.'IntheInterludes therealismoftheMoralitiesbecamestillmorepronounced,sothatthetypicalInterludeisnothingmorethanacoarse farce, with no pretense at religious or ethical meaning. The name Interlude denotes literally 'a play between,' but the meaning intended between whom or what) is uncertain. The plays were given sometimes in the halls of nobles and gentlemen,eitherwhenbanquetswereinprogressoronotherfestivaloccasions;sometimesbeforelessselectaudiences inthetownhallsoronvillagegreens.Theactorsweresometimesstrollingcompaniesofplayers,whomightbeminstrels 'orrustics,andweresometimesalsoretainersofthegreatnobles,allowedtopracticetheirdramaticabilityontoursabout thecountrywhentheywerenotneededfortheirmasters'entertainment.IntheInterludeMoralitiesandInterludesfirst appearsTheVice,aroguewhosumsupinhimselfalltheVicesoftheolderMoralitiesandservesasthebuffoon.Oneof hismostpopularexploitswastobelabortheDevilaboutthestagewithawoodendagger,ahabitwhichtookagreathold onthepopularimagination,asnumerousreferencesinlaterliteraturetestify.Transformedbytime,theViceappearsin theElizabethandrama,andthereafter,astheclown.

ThelaterinfluenceoftheMedievalDrama.
Thevariousdramaticformsfromthetenthcenturytothemiddleofthesixteenthatwhichwehavethushastilyglanced folkplays, mummings and disguisings, secular pageants, Mystery plays, Moralities, and Interludeshave little but a historical importance. But besides demonstrating the persistence of the popular demand for drama, they exerted a permanentinfluenceinthattheyformedcertainstagetraditionswhichweretomodifyorlargelycontrolthegreatdrama oftheElizabethanperiodandtosomeextentoflatertimes.Amongthesetraditionswerethedisregardforunity,partlyof action, but especially of time and place; the mingling of comedy with even the intensest scenes of tragedy; the nearly complete lack of stage scenery, with a resultant willingness in the audience to make the largest possible imaginative assumptions;thepresenceofcertainstockfigures,suchastheclown;andthepresentationofwomen'spartsbymenand boys.Theplays,therefore,mustbereckonedwithindramatichistory.

TheSixteenthCentury.TheRenaissanceandtheReignofElizabeth
TheRenaissance
ThefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesaretheperiodoftheEuropeanRenaissanceorNewBirth,oneofthethreeorfour great transforming movements of European history. This impulse by which the medieval society of scholasticism, feudalism,andchivalrywastobemadeoverintowhatwecallthemodernworldcamefirstfromItaly.Italy,liketherestof

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the Roman Empire, had been overrun and conquered in the fifth century by the barbarian Teutonic tribes, but the devastation had been less complete there than in the more northern lands, and there, even more, perhaps, than in France,thebulkofthepeopleremainedLatininbloodandincharacter.HenceitresultedthatthoughtheMiddleAges wereinItalyaperiodofterriblepoliticalanarchy,yetItalianculturerecoveredfarmorerapidlythanthatofthenorthern nations,whomtheItalianscontinueddowntothemodernperiodtoregardcontemptuouslyasstillmerebarbarians.By thefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,further,theItalianshadbecomeintellectuallyoneofthekeenestraceswhomthe worldhaseverknown,thoughinmoralstheyweresinkingtoalmostincrediblecorruption.Alreadyinfourteenthcentury Italy,therefore,themovementforamuchfullerandfreerintellectuallifehadbegun,andwehaveseenthatbyPetrarch andBoccacciosomethingofthisspiritwastransmittedtoChaucer.InEnglandChaucerwasfollowedbythemedievalizing fifteenthcentury,butinItalytherewasnosuchinterruption. The Renaissance movement first received definite direction from the rediscovery and study of Greek literature, which clearlyrevealedtheunboundedpossibilitiesoflifetomenwhohadbeengropingdissatisfiedwithinthenownarrowlimits ofmedievalthought.BeforeChaucerwasdeadthestudyofGreek,almostforgotteninWesternEuropeduringtheMiddle Ages,hadbeenrenewedinItaly,anditreceivedastillfurtherimpulsewhenatthetakingofConstantinoplebytheTurksin 1453GreekscholarsandmanuscriptswerescatteredtotheWest.Itishardforustodaytorealizethemeaningforthe menofthefifteenthcenturyofthisrevivedknowledgeofthelifeandthoughtoftheGreekrace.ThemedievalChurch,at firstmerelyfromthebrutalnecessitiesofaperiodofanarchy,hadforthemostpartfrownedonthejoyandbeautyoflife, permittingpleasure,indeed,tothelaity,butasathinghalfdangerous,anddeclaringthattherewasperfectsafetyonly withinthewallsofthenominallyasceticChurchitself.Theintellectuallife,also,nearlyrestrictedtopriestsandmonks,had been formalized and conventionalized, until in spite of the keenness of its methods and the brilliancy of many of its scholars,ithadbecomelargelybarrenandunprofitable.Thewholesphereofknowledgehadbeensubjectedtothemere authorityoftheBibleandofafewgreatmindsofthepast,suchasAristotle.Allquestionswerearguedanddecidedonthe basisoftheirassertions,whichhadoftenbecomewhollyinadequateandwereoftenwarpedintogrotesquelyimpossible interpretations and applications. Scientific investigation was almost entirely stifled, and progress was impossible. The wholefieldofreligionandknowledgehadbecomelargelystagnantunderanarbitrarydespotism. To the minds which were being paralyzed under this system, Greek literature brought the inspiration for which they longed.Foritwastheliteratureofagreatandbrilliantpeoplewho,farfromattemptingtomakeadivorcewithinman's nature,hadaimedto'seelifesteadilyandseeitwhole,'who,givingfreeplaytoalltheirpowers,hadfoundinpleasure andbeautysomeofthemostessentialconstructiveforces,andhadembodiedbeautyinworksofliteratureandartwhere thesignificanceofthewholespirituallifewasmoresplendidlysuggestedthanintheachievementsofany,oralmostany, otherperiod.Theenthusiasm,therefore,withwhichtheItaliansturnedtothestudyofGreekliteratureandGreeklifewas boundless,anditconstantlyfoundfreshnourishment.Everyyearrestoredfromforgottenrecessesoflibrariesorfromthe ruins of Roman villas another Greek author or volume or work of art, and those which had never been lost were reinterpreted with much deeper insight. Aristotle was again vitalized, and Plato's noble idealistic philosophy was once more appreciatively studied and understood. In the light of this new revelation Latin literature, also, which had never ceasedtobealmostsuperstitiouslystudied,tookonafargreaterhumansignificance.VergilandCicerowereregardedno longerasmysteriousprophetsfromadimlyimaginedpast,butasrealmenoffleshandblood,speakingoutofexperiences remoteintimefromthepresentbutnolesshumanlyreal.Theword'human,'indeed,becamethechosenmottoofthe Renaissancescholars;'humanists'wasthetitlewhichtheyappliedtothemselvesastomenforwhom'nothinghumanwas withoutappeal.'Newcreativeenthusiasm,also,andmagnificentactualnewcreation,followedthediscoveryoftheold treasures, creation in literature and all the arts; culminating particularly in the early sixteenth century in the greatest groupofpainterswhomanycountryhaseverseen,LionardodaVinci,Raphael,andMichelangelo.InItaly,tobesure,the light of the Renaissance had its palpable shadow; in breaking away from the medieval bondage into the unhesitating enjoymentofallpleasure,thehumaniststoooftenoverleapedallrestraintsandplungedintowildexcess,oftenintomere sensuality.HencetheItalianRenaissanceiscommonlycalledPagan,andhencewhenyoungEnglishnoblesbegantotravel toItalytodrinkatthefountainheadofthenewinspirationmoralistsathomeprotestedwithmuchreasonagainstthe ideas and habits which many of them brought back with their new clothes and flaunted as evidences of intellectual emancipation. History, however, shows no great progressive movement unaccompanied by exaggerations and extravagances. TheRenaissance,penetratingnorthward,pastfirstfromItalytoFrance,butasearlyasthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury EnglishstudentswerefrequentingtheItalianuniversities.SoonthestudyofGreekwasintroducedintoEngland,also,first atOxford;anditwascultivatedwithsuchgoodresultsthatwhen,earlyinthesixteenthcentury,thegreatDutchstudent and reformer, Erasmus, unable through poverty to reach Italy, came to Oxford instead, he found there a group of accomplishedscholarsandgentlemenwhoseinstructionandhospitablecompanionshiparousedhisunboundeddelight. OnememberofthisgroupwasthefinespiritedJohnColet,laterDeanofSt.Paul'sCathedralinLondon,whowastobring newlifeintothesecondaryeducationofEnglishboysbytheestablishmentofSt.Paul'sGrammarSchool,basedonthe principleofkindnessinplaceofthemercilessseverityofthetraditionalEnglishsystem.

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Greataswasthestimulusofliteraryculture,itwasonlyoneofseveralinfluencesthatmadeuptheRenaissance.While Greekwasspeakingsopowerfullytothecultivatedclass,otherforceswerecontributingtorevolutionizelifeasawhole andallmen'soutlookuponit.Theinventionofprinting,multiplyingbooksinunlimitedquantitieswherebeforetherehad beenonlyafewmanuscriptslaboriouslycopiedpagebypage,absolutelytransformedalltheprocessesofknowledgeand almost of thought. Not much later began the vast expansion of the physical world through geographical exploration. TowardtheendofthefifteenthcenturythePortuguesesailor,VascodaGama,finishingtheworkofDiaz,discoveredthe searoutetoIndiaaroundtheCapeofGoodHope.AfewyearsearlierColumbushadrevealedtheNewWorldandvirtually proved that the earth is round, a proof scientifically completed a generation after him when Magellan's ship actually circledtheglobe.FollowingcloseafterColumbus,theCabots,Italianborn,butnaturalizedEnglishmen,discoveredNorth America,andforahundredyearstherivalshipsofSpain,England,andPortugalfilledthewatersofthenewWestandthe new East. In America handfuls of Spanish adventurers conquered great empires and despatched home annual treasure fleets of gold and silver, which the audacious English seacaptains, half explorers and half pirates, soon learned to interceptandplunder.Themarvelswhichwereconstantlybeingrevealedasactualfactsseemednolesswonderfulthan theextravagancesofmedievalromance;anditwasscarcelymorethanamatterofcoursethatmenshouldsearchinthe newstrangelandsforthefountainofperpetualyouthandthephilosopher'sstone.Thesupernaturalbeingsandeventsof Spenser's'FaerieQueene'couldscarcelyseemincredibletoanagewhereincredulitywasalmostunknownbecauseitwas impossibletosetaboundhowfaranyonemightreasonablybelieve.Butthehorizonofman'sexpandedknowledgewas not to be limited even to his own earth. About the year 1540, the Polish Copernicus opened a still grander realm of speculation(nottobeadequatelypossessedforseveralcenturies)bytheannouncementthatourworldisnotthecenter oftheuniverse,butmerelyoneofthesatellitesofitsfarsuperiorsun. ThewholeofEnglandwasprofoundlystirredbytheRenaissancetoanewandmostenergeticlife,butnotleastwasthis trueoftheCourt,whereforatimeliteraturewasverylargelytocenter.Sincetheoldnobilityhadmostlyperishedinthe wars,bothHenryVII,thefounderoftheTudorline,andhisson,HenryVIII,adoptedthepolicyofreplacingitwithableand wealthymenofthemiddleclass,whowouldbestronglydevotedtothemselves.Thecourtthereforebecameabrilliant and crowded circle of unscrupulous but unusually adroit statesmen, and a center of lavish entertainments and display. Under this new aristocracy the rigidity of the feudal system was relaxed, and life became somewhat easier for all the dependentclasses.Moderncomforts,too,werelargelyintroduced,andwiththemtheItalianarts;Tudorarchitecture,in particular, exhibited the originality and splendor of an energetic and selfconfident age. Further, both Henries, though perhaps as essentially selfish and tyrannical as almost any of their predecessors, were politic and farsighted, and they tookagenuineprideintheprosperityoftheirkingdom.Theyencouragedtrade;andinthepeacewhichwastheirbestgift thewellbeingofthenationasawholeincreasedbyleapsandbounds.

TheReformation
Lastly, the literature of the sixteenth century and later was profoundly influenced by that religious result of the Renaissance which we know as the Reformation. While in Italy the new impulses were chiefly turned into secular and often corrupt channels, in the Teutonic lands they deeply stirred the Teutonic conscience. In 1517 Martin Luther, protesting against the unprincipled and flippant practices that were disgracing religion, began the breach between Catholicism, with its insistence on the supremacy of the Church, and Protestantism, asserting the independence of the individualjudgment.InEnglandLuther'sactionrevivedthespiritofLollardism,whichhadnearlybeencrushedout,andin spiteofaminoritydevotedtotheoldersystem,thenationasawholebegantomoverapidlytowardchange.Advocatesof radicalrevolutionthrustthemselvesforwardinlargenumbers,whileculturedandthoughtfulmen,includingtheOxford group,indulgedthetooidealhopeofagradualandpeacefulreform. TheactualcourseofthereligiousmovementwasdeterminedlargelybythepersonalandpoliticalprojectsofHenryVIII. Conservative at the outset, Henry even attacked Luther in a pamphlet, which won from the Pope for himself and his successors the title 'Defender of the Faith.' But when the Pope finally refused Henry's demand for the divorce from KatharineofSpain,whichwouldmakepossibleamarriagewithAnneBoleyn,Henryangrilythrewoffthepapalauthority and declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church in England, thus establishing the separate English (Anglican, Episcopal)church.InthebriefreignofHenry'sson,EdwardVI,theseparationwasmademoredecisive;underEdward's sister,Mary,Catholicismwasrestored;butthelastofHenry'schildren,Elizabeth,comingtothethronein1558,gavethe finalvictorytotheEnglishcommunion.Underallthesesovereigns(tocompleteoursummaryofthemovement)themore radicalProtestants,Puritansastheycametobecalled,wereactiveinagitation,undeterredbyfrequentcruelpersecution andlargelyinfluencedbythecorrespondingsectsinGermanyandbythePresbyterianismestablishedbyCalvininGeneva andlaterbyJohnKnoxinScotland.Elizabeth'sskilfulmanagementlongkeptthemajorityofthePuritanswithintheEnglish Church,wheretheyformedanimportantelement,workingforsimplerpracticesandintroducingthemincongregations whichtheycontrolled.ButtowardtheendofthecenturyandofElizabeth'sreign,feelinggrewtenser,andgroupsofthe Puritans, sometimes under persecution, definitely separated themselves from the State Church and established various sectarianbodies.Shortlyafter1600,inparticular,theIndependents,orCongregationalists,foundedinHollandthechurch

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whichwassoontocolonizeNewEngland.Athome,underJamesI,thebreachwidened,untilthenationwasdividedinto twohostilecamps,withresultsmostradicallydecisiveforliterature.Butforthepresentwemustreturntotheearlypart ofthesixteenthcentury.

SirThomasMoreandhis'Utopia'
Outoftheconfusedandbitterstrifeofchurchesandparties,whiletheoutcomewasstilluncertain,issuedagreatmassof controversialwritingwhichdoesnotbelongtoliterature.Afewworks,however,moreorlessdirectlyconnectedwiththe religiousagitation,cannotbepassedby. One of the most attractive and finest spirits of the reign of Henry VIII was Sir Thomas More. A member of the Oxford group in its second generation, a close friend of Erasmus, his house a center of humanism, he became even more conspicuousinpubliclife.Ahighlysuccessfullawyer,hewasrapidlyadvancedbyHenryVIIIincourtandinnationalaffairs, untilonthefallofCardinalWolseyin1529hewasappointed,muchagainsthiswill,tothehighestofficeopentoasubject, thatofLordChancellor(headofthejudicialsystem).AdevotedCatholic,hetookapartwhichmusthavebeenrevoltingto himselfinthetorturingandburningofProtestants;buthisabsoluteloyaltytoconscienceshoweditselftobetterpurpose wheninthealmostinevitablereverseoffortunehechoseharshimprisonmentanddeathratherthantotaketheformal oathofallegiancetothekinginoppositiontothePope.Hisquietjestsonthescaffoldsuggesttheneverfailingsenseof humor which was one sign of the completeness and perfect poise of his character; while the hairshirt which he wore throughout his life and the severe penances to which he subjected himself reveal strikingly how the expression of the deepestconvictionsofthebestnaturesmaybedeterminedbyinheritedandoutwornmodesofthought. More'smostimportantworkwashis'Utopia,'publishedin1516.Thename,whichisGreek,meansNoPlace,andthebook isoneofthemostfamousofthatseriesofattemptstooutlineanimaginaryidealconditionofsocietywhichbeginswith Plato's'Republic'andhascontinuedtoourowntime. 'Utopia,'broadlyconsidered,dealsprimarilywiththequestionwhichiscommontomostofthesebooksandinwhichboth ancientGreeceandEuropeoftheRenaissancetookaspecialinterest,namelythequestionoftherelationoftheStateand theindividual.Itconsistsoftwoparts.InthefirstthereisavividpictureoftheterribleevilswhichEnglandwassuffering through war, lawlessness, the wholesale and foolish application of the death penalty, the misery of the peasants, the absorption of the land by the rich, and the other distressing corruptions in Church and State. In the second part, in contrasttoallthis,acertainimaginaryRaphaelHythlodayedescribesthecustomsofUtopia,aremoteislandintheNew World,towhichchancehascarriedhim.TosomeoftheidealsthussetforthMorecanscarcelyhaveexpectedtheworld evertoattain;andsomeofthemwillhardlyappealtothemajorityofreadersofanyperiod;butinthemainhelaysdown anadmirableprogramforhumanprogress,nosmallpartofwhichhasbeenactuallyrealizedinthefourcenturieswhich havesinceelapsed. ThecontrollingpurposeinthelifeoftheUtopiansistosecureboththewelfareoftheStateandthefulldevelopmentof theindividualundertheascendancyofhishigherfaculties.TheStateisdemocratic,socialistic,andcommunistic,andthe will of the individual is subordinated to the advantage of all, but the real interests of each and all are recognized as identical.Everyoneisobligedtowork,butnottooverwork;sixhoursadaymaketheallottedperiod;andtherestofthe timeisfree,butwithplentifulprovisionoflecturesandotheraidsfortheeducationofmindandspirit.Allthecitizensare taughtthefundamentalart,thatofagriculture,andinadditioneachhasaparticulartradeorprofessionofhisown.There isnosurfeit,excess,orostentation.Clothingismadefordurability,andeveryone'sgarmentsarepreciselylikethoseof everyoneelse,exceptthatthereisadifferencebetweenthoseofmenandwomenandthoseofmarriedandunmarried persons.Thesickarecarefullytended,butthevictimsofhopelessorpainfuldiseasearemercifullyputtodeathiftheyso desire. Crime is naturally ata minimum, but those whopersist in it are made slaves (not executed, for why should the State be deprived of their services?). Detesting war, the Utopians make a practice of hiring certain barbarians who, conveniently,aretheirneighbors,todowhateverfightingisnecessaryfortheirdefense,andtheywinifpossible,notby the revolting slaughter of pitched battles, but by the assassination of their enemies' generals. In especial, there is completereligioustoleration,exceptforatheism,andexceptforthosewhourgetheiropinionswithoffensiveviolence. 'Utopia' was written and published in Latin; among the multitude of translations into many languages the earliest in English,inwhichitisoftenreprinted,isthatofRalphRobinson,madein1551.

TheEnglishBibleandBooksofDevotion.
To this century of religious change belongs the greater part of the literary history of the English Bible and of the ritual booksoftheEnglishChurch.SincethesuppressionoftheWiclifitemovementthecirculationoftheBibleinEnglishhad been forbidden, but growing Protestantism insistently revived the demand for it. The attitude of Henry VIII and his

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ministerswasinconsistentanduncertain,reflectingtheirownchangingpointsofview.In1526WilliamTyndale,azealous Protestant controversialist then in exile in Germany, published an excellent English translation of the New Testament. Based on the proper authority, the Greek original, though with influence from Wiclif and from the Latin and German (Luther's)version,thishasbeendirectlyorindirectlythestartingpointforallsubsequentEnglishtranslationsexceptthose oftheCatholics. Ten years later Tyndale suffered martyrdom, but in 1535 Miles Coverdale, later bishop of Exeter, issued in Germany a translationofthewholeBibleinamoregraciousstylethanTyndale's,andtothisthekingandtheestablishedclergywere now ready to give license and favor. Still two years later appeared a version compounded of those of Tyndale and Coverdale and called, from the fictitious name of its editor, the 'Matthew' Bible. In 1539, under the direction of ArchbishopCranmer,Coverdaleissuedarevisededition,officiallyauthorizedforuseinchurches;itsversionofthePsalms stillstandsasthePsalteroftheEnglishChurch.In1560EnglishPuritanrefugeesatGenevaputforththe'GenevaBible,' especiallyaccurateasatranslation,whichlongcontinuedtheacceptedversionforprivateuseamongallpartiesandforall purposesamongthePuritans,inbothOldandNewEngland.Eightyearslater,underArchbishopParker,therewasissued inlargevolumeformandforuseinchurchesthe'Bishops'Bible,'sonamedbecausethemajorityofitsthirteeneditors werebishops.Thiscompletesthelistofimportanttranslationsdowntothoseof1611and1881,ofwhichweshallspeakin theproperplace.TheBookofCommonPrayer,nowusedintheEnglishChurchcoordinatelywithBibleandPsalter,took shapeoutofpreviousprimersofprivatedevotion,litanies,andhymns,mainlyastheworkofArchbishopCranmerduring thereignofEdwardVI. OftheinfluenceofthesetranslationsoftheBibleonEnglishliteratureitisimpossibletospeaktoostrongly.Theyrendered the wholenation familiar for centuries with oneofthe grandest and most varied of all collections of books, which was adoptedwithardentpatrioticenthusiasmasoneofthechiefnationalpossessions,andwhichhasservedasanunfailing storehouseofpoeticanddramaticallusionsforalllaterwriters.ModernEnglishliteratureasawholeispermeatedand enrichedtoanincalculabledegreewiththesubstanceandspiritoftheEnglishBible.

WyattandSurreyandthenewpoetry.
In the literature of fine art also the new beginning was made during the reign of Henry VIII. This was through the introductionbySirThomasWyattoftheItalianfashionoflyricpoetry.Wyatt,amanofgentlebirth,enteredCambridgeat theageoftwelveandreceivedhisdegreeofM.A.sevenyearslater.Hismaturelifewasthatofacourtiertowhomthe king'sfavorbroughthighappointments,withsuchvicissitudesoffortune,includingoccasionalimprisonments,asformed at that time a common part of the courtier's lot. Wyatt, however, was not a merely worldly person, but a Protestant seeminglyofhighandsomewhatseveremoralcharacter.Hediedin1542attheageofthirtynineofafevercaughtashe washastening,attheking'scommand,tomeetandwelcometheSpanishambassador. OnoneofhismissionstotheContinent,Wyatt,likeChaucer,hadvisitedItaly.ImpressedwiththebeautyofItalianverse and the contrasting rudeness of that ofcontemporaryEngland, he determined to remodel the latter in the style of the former.Hereabriefhistoricalretrospectisnecessary.TheItalianpoetryofthesixteenthcenturyhaditselfbeenoriginally an imitation, namely of the poetry of Provence in Southern France. There, in the twelfth century, under a delightful climateandinaregionofenchantingbeauty,hadarisenaluxuriouscivilizationwhosepoets,thetroubadours,manyof themmenofnoblebirth,hadcarriedtothefurthestextremethewomanworshipofmedievalchivalryandhadenshrined it in lyric poetry of superb and varied sweetness and beauty. In this highly conventionalized poetry the lover is forever sighingforhislady,acorrespondinglyobduratebeingwhosefavoristobewononlybyyearsofthemostunqualifiedand unreasoningdevotion.FromProvence,Italyhadtakenupthestyle,andamongtheotherformsforitsexpression,inthe twelfth and thirteenth centuries, had devised the poem of a single fourteenline stanza which we call the sonnet. The wholemovementhadfounditsgreatmasterinPetrarch,who,inhundredsofpoems,mostlysonnets,ofperfectbeauty, hadsungthepraisesandcrueltyofhisnearlyimaginaryLaura. ItwasthishighlyartificialbutverybeautifulpoeticfashionwhichWyattdeliberatelysetabouttointroduceintoEngland. Thenatureandsuccessofhisinnovationcanbesummarizedinafewdefinitestatements.
1.

ImitatingPetrarch,Wyattnearlylimitshimselfasregardssubstancetothetreatmentoftheartificiallovetheme, lamenting the unkindness of ladies who very probably never existed and whose favor in any case he probably regarded verylightly;yet even so, he often strikes a manly English note of independence,declaringthat if the ladycontinuesobstinatehewillnotdieforherlove. 2. HistoricallymuchthemostimportantfeatureofWyatt'sexperimentwastheintroductionofthesonnet,avery substantialserviceindeed;fornotonlydidthisform,likethelovetheme,becomebyfarthemostpopularone among English lyric poets of the next two generations, setting a fashion which was carried to an astonishing

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excess; but it is the only artificial form of foreign originwhichhas ever been really adopted andnaturalized in English, and it still remains the best instrument for the terse expression of a single poetic thought. Wyatt, it should be observed, generally departs from the Petrarchan rimescheme, on the whole unfortunately, by substituting a third quatrain for the first four lines of the sestet. That is, while Petrarch's rimearrangement is eitherabbaabbacdcdcdorabbaabbacdecdeWyatt'sisusuallyabbaabbacddcee. 3. InhisattemptedreformationofEnglishmetricalirregularityWyatt,inhissonnets,showsonlytheuncertainhand ofabeginner.Hegenerallysecuresanequalnumberofsyllablesineachline,butheoftenmerelycountsthemoff onhisfingers,wrenchingtheaccentsallawry,andoftenviolentlyforcingtherimesaswell.Inhissongs,however, whicharemuchmorenumerousthanthesonnets,heattainsdelightfulfluencyandmelody.His'MyLute,Awake,' and'ForgetNotYet'arestillcountedamongthenotableEnglishlyrics. 4. AparticularandcharacteristicpartoftheconventionalItalianlyricapparatuswhichWyatttransplantedwasthe 'conceit.' A conceit may be defined as an exaggerated figure of speech or play on words in which intellectual cleverness figures at least as largely as real emotion and which is often dragged out to extremely complicated lengthsofliteralapplication.AnexampleisWyatt'sdeclaration(afterPetrarch)thathislove,livinginhisheart, advancestohisfaceandthereencamps,displayinghisbanner(whichmerelymeansthattheloverblusheswith hisemotion).InintroducingtheconceitWyattfatheredthemostconspicuousofthesuperficialgeneralfeatures whichweretodominateEnglishpoetryforacenturytocome. 5. Stillanother,minor,innovationofWyattwastheintroductionintoEnglishverseoftheHoratian'satire'(moral poem,reflectingoncurrentfollies)intheformofthreemetricalletterstofriends.Inthesethemeteristheterza rimaofDante. Wyatt's workwas continued by his poetical disciple andsuccessor,Henry Howard,who, as son of the Duke ofNorfolk, heldthecourtesytitleofEarlofSurrey.AbrilliantthoughwilfulrepresentativeofTudorchivalry,anddistinguishedinwar, Surrey seems to have occupied at Court almost the same commanding position as Sir Philip Sidney in the following generation.Hiscareerwascutshortintragicallyironicalfashionattheageofthirtybytheplotsofhisenemiesandthe dyingbloodthirstinessofKingHenry,whichtogetherledtohisexecutiononatrumpedupchargeoftreason.Itwasonly oneofcountlessbrutalcourtcrimes,butitseemsthemorehatefulbecauseifthekinghaddiedasingledayearlierSurrey couldhavebeensaved. Surrey'sservicestopoetryweretwo:
1. 2.

HeimprovedontheversificationofWyatt'ssonnets,securingfluencyandsmoothness. InatranslationoftwobooksofVergil's'Aneid'heintroduced,fromtheItalian,pentameterblankverse,which was destined thenceforth to be the meter of English poetic drama and of much of the greatest English non dramatic poetry. Further, though his poems are less numerous than those of Wyatt, his range of subjects is somewhat broader, including some appreciative treatment of external Nature. He seems, however, somewhat lesssincerethanhisteacher.InhissonnetsheabandonedtheformfollowedbyWyattandadopted(stillfromthe Italian) the one which was subsequently used by Shakespeare, consisting of three independent quatrains followed,aswithWyatt,byacoupletwhichsumsupthethoughtwithepigrammaticforce,thus:ababcdcdef efgg.

WyattandSurreysetafashionatCourt;forsomeyearsitseemstohavebeenanalmostnecessaryaccomplishmentfor everyyoungnobletoturnofflovepoemsafterItalianandFrenchmodels;forFrancetoohadnowtakenupthefashion. ThesepoemsweregenerallyandnaturallyregardedasthepropertyoftheCourtandofthegentry,andcirculatedatfirst onlyinmanuscriptamongtheauthor'sfriends;butthegeneralpublicbecamecuriousaboutthem,andin1557oneofthe publishers of the day, Richard Tottel, securing a number of those of Wyatt, Surrey, and a few other noble or gentle authors,publishedtheminalittlevolume,whichisknownas 'Tottel's Miscellany.' Coming as it does in the year before the accession of Queen Elizabeth, at the end of the comparativelybarrenreignsofEdwardandMary,thisbookistakenbycommonconsentasmarkingthebeginningofthe literatureoftheElizabethanperiod.Itwastheprematurepredecessor,also,ofanumberofsuchanthologieswhichwere publishedduringthelatterhalfofElizabeth'sreign.

TheElizabethanPeriod
TheearlierhalfofElizabeth'sreign,also,thoughnotlackinginliteraryeffort,producednoworkofpermanentimportance. After the religious convulsions of half a century time was required for the development of the internal quiet and confidencefromwhichagreatliteraturecouldspring.Atlength,however,thehourgrewripeandtherecamethegreatest outburstofcreativeenergyinthewholehistoryofEnglishliterature.UnderElizabeth'swiseguidancetheprosperityand

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enthusiasm of the nation had risen to the highest pitch, and London in particular was overflowing with vigorous life. A special stimulus of the most intense kind came from the struggle with Spain. After a generation of halfpiratical depredations by the English seadogs against the Spanish treasure fleets and the Spanish settlements in America, King Philip, exasperated beyond all patience and urged on by a bigot's zeal for the Catholic Church, began deliberately to preparetheGreatArmada,whichwastocrushatoneblowtheinsolence,theindependence,andthereligionofEngland. Therefollowedseverallongyearsofbreathlesssuspense;thenin1588theArmadasailedandwasutterlyoverwhelmedin oneofthemostcompletedisastersoftheworld'shistory.ThereuponthereleasedenergyofEnglandbrokeoutexultantly into still more impetuous achievement in almost every line of activity. The great literary period is taken by common consenttobeginwiththepublicationofSpenser's'Shepherd'sCalendar'in1579,andtoendinsomesenseatthedeathof Elizabethin1603,thoughinthedrama,atleast,itreallycontinuesmanyyearslonger. SeveralgeneralcharacteristicsofElizabethanliteratureandwritersshouldbeindicatedattheoutset.
1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Theperiodhasthegreatvarietyofalmostunlimitedcreativeforce;itincludesworksofmanykindsinbothverse andprose,andrangesinspiritfromtheloftiestPlatonicidealismorthemostdelightfulromancetothelevelof veryrepulsiverealism. Itwasmainlydominated,however,bythespiritofromance. Itwasfullalsoofthespiritofdramaticaction,asbefittedanagewhoserestlessenterprisewaseagerlyextending itselftoeveryquarteroftheglobe. Instyleitoftenexhibitsromanticluxuriance,whichsometimestakestheformofelaborateaffectationsofwhich thefavorite'conceit'isonlythemostapparent. It was in part a period of experimentation, when the proper material and limits of literary forms were being determined,oftentimesbymeansoffalsestartsandgrandiosefailures.Inparticular,manyeffortsweremadeto giveprolongedpoeticaltreatmenttomanysubjectsessentiallyprosaic,forexampletosystemsoftheologicalor scientificthought,ortothegeographyofallEngland. ItcontinuedtobelargelyinfluencedbytheliteratureofItaly,andtoalessdegreebythoseofFranceandSpain. The literary spirit was allpervasive, and the authors were men (not yet women) of almost every class, from distinguishedcourtiers,likeRaleghandSidney,tothecompanyofhackwriters,whostarvedingarretsandhung abouttheoutskirtsofthebustlingtaverns.

Prosefiction
Theperiodsawthebeginning,amongotherthings,ofEnglishprosefictionofsomethinglikethelatermoderntype.First appeared a series of collections of short tales chiefly translated from Italian authors, to which tales the Italian name 'novella'(novel)wasapplied.Mostoftheseparatetalesarecrudeoramateurishandhaveonlyhistoricalinterest,though asaclasstheyfurnishedtheplotsformanyElizabethandramas,includingseveralofShakespeare's.Themostimportant collection was Painter's 'Palace of Pleasure,' in 1566. The earliest original, or partly original, English prose fictions to appearwerehandbooksofmoralsandmannersinstoryform,andherethebeginningwasmadebyJohnLyly,whoisalso ofsomeimportanceinthehistoryoftheElizabethandrama.In1578Lyly,attheageoftwentyfive,camefromOxfordto London,fulloftheenthusiasmofRenaissancelearning,andevidentlydeterminedtofixhimselfasanewanddazzlingstar intheliterarysky.Inthisambitionheachievedaremarkableandimmediatesuccess,bythepublicationofalittlebook entitled'EuphuesandHisAnatomieofWit.''Euphues'means'thewellbredman,'andthoughthereisaslightaction,the workismainlyaseriesofmoralizingdisquisitions(mostlyrearrangedfromSirThomasNorth'stranslationof'TheDialof Princes'oftheSpaniardGuevara)onlove,religion,andconduct.Mostinfluential,however,forthetimebeing,wasLyly's style,whichisthemostconspicuousEnglishexampleofthelaterRenaissancecraze,thenrampantthroughoutWestern Europe,forrefiningandbeautifyingtheartofproseexpressioninamincinglyaffectedfashion.Witty,clever,andsparkling atallcosts,Lylytakesespecialpainstobalancehissentencesandclausesantithetically,phraseagainstphraseandoften word against word, sometimes emphasizing the balance also by an exaggerated use of alliteration and assonance. A representativesentenceisthis:'Althoughtherebenonesoignorantthatdothnotknow,neitheranysoimpudentthatwill not confesse, friendship to be the jewell of humaine joye; yet whosoever shall see this amitie grounded upon a little affection,willsooneconjecturethatitshallbedissolveduponalightoccasion.'OthersofLyly'saffectationsarerhetorical questions,hostsofallusionstoclassicalhistory,andliterature,andanunfailingsuccessionofsimilesfromalltherecondite knowledge that he can command, especially from the fantastic collection of fables which, coming down through the MiddleAgesfromtheRomanwriterPliny,wentatthattimebythenameofnaturalhistoryandwhichwehavealready encountered in the medieval Bestiaries. Preposterous by any reasonable standard, Lyly's style, 'Euphuism,' precisely hit theCourttasteofhisageandbecameforadecadeitsmostapprovedconversationaldialect. Inliteraturetheimitationsof'Euphues'whichflourishedforawhilegavewaytoaseriesofromancesinauguratedbythe 'Arcadia'ofSirPhilipSidney.Sidney'sbrilliantpositionforafewyearsasthenoblestrepresentativeofchivalrousidealsin

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theintriguingCourtofElizabethisamatterofcommonfame,asishisdeathin1586attheageofthirtytwoduringthe siege of Zutphen in Holland. He wrote 'Arcadia' for the amusement of his sister, the Countess of Pembroke, during a period of enforced retirement beginning in 1580, but the book was not published until ten years later. It is a pastoral romance,inthegeneralstyleofItalianandSpanishromancesoftheearlierpartofthecentury.Thepastoralisthemost artificialliteraryforminmodernfiction.ItmaybesaidtohavebeguninthethirdcenturyB.C.withtheperfectlysincere poemsoftheGreekTheocritus,whogivesgenuineexpressiontothelifeofactualSicilianshepherds.Butwithsuccessive Latin, Medieval, and Renaissance writers in verse and prose the country characters and setting had become mere disguises, sometimes allegorical, for the expression of the very far from simple sentiments of the upper classes, and sometimes for their partly genuine longing, the outgrowth of sophisticated weariness and ennui, for rural naturalness. Sidney'sverycomplicatedtaleofadventuresinloveandwar,muchlongerthananyofitssuccessors,isbynomeansfree fromartificiality,butitfinelymirrorshisownknightlyspiritandremainsapermanentEnglishclassic.Amonghisfollowers weresomeofthebetterhackwritersofthetime,whowerealsoamongtheminordramatistsandpoets,especiallyRobert GreeneandThomasLodge.Lodge's'Rosalynde,'alsomuchinfluencedbyLyly,isinitselfaprettystoryandisnoteworthy astheoriginalofShakespeare's'AsYouLikeIt.' Lastly,intheconcludingdecadeofthesixteenthcentury,cameaseriesofrealisticstoriesdepictingchiefly,inmoreorless farcical spirit, the life of the poorer classes. They belonged mostly to that class of realistic fiction which is called picaresque,fromtheSpanishword'picaro,'arogue,becauseitbeganinSpainwiththe'LazarillodeTormes'ofDiegode Mendoza, in 1553, and because its heroes are knavish servingboys or similar characters whose unprincipled tricks and exploitsformedthesubstanceofthestories.InElizabethanEnglanditproducednothingofindividualnote.

EdmundSpenser,15521599.
ThefirstreallycommandingfigureintheElizabethanperiod,andoneofthechiefofallEnglishpoets,isEdmundSpenser. [Footnote:Hisnameshouldneverbespelledwithac.]BorninLondonin1552,thesonofaclothmaker,Spenserpast fromthenewlyestablishedMerchantTaylors'schooltoPembrokeHall,Cambridge,asasizar,orpoorstudent,andduring thecustomarysevenyearsofresidencetookthedegreesofB.A.and,in1576,ofM.A.AtCambridgeheassimilatedtwo ofthecontrollingforcesofhislife,themoderatePuritanismofhiscollegeandPlatonicidealism.Next,afterayearortwo with his kinspeople in Lancashire, in the North of England, he came to London, hoping through literature to win high political place, and attached himself to the household of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, Queen Elizabeth's worthless favorite.TogetherwithSidney,whowasLeicester'snephew,hewasforawhileamemberofalittlegroupofstudentswho called themselves 'The Areopagus' and who, like occasional other experimenters of the later Renaissance period, attempted to make over English versification by substituting for rime and accentual meter the Greek and Latin system based on exact quantity of syllables. Spenser, however, soon outgrew this folly and in 1579 published the collection of poems which, as we have already said, is commonly taken as marking the beginning of the great Elizabethan literary period,namely'TheShepherd'sCalendar.'Thisisaseriesofpastoralpieces(eclogues,Spensercallsthem,bytheclassical name) twelve in number, artificially assigned one to each month in the year. The subjects are variousthe conventionalizedloveofthepoetforacertainRosalind;currentreligiouscontroversiesinallegory;moralquestions;the stateofpoetryinEngland;andthepraisesofQueenElizabeth,whosealmostincrediblevanityexactedthemostfulsome flatteryfromeverywriterwhohopedtowinanameathercourt.Thesignificanceof'TheShepherd'sCalendar'liespartly initsgenuinefeelingforexternalNature,whichcontrastsstronglywiththehollowconventionalphrasesofthepoetryof thepreviousdecade,andespeciallyinthevigor,theoriginality,and,insomeoftheeclogues,thebeauty,ofthelanguage andofthevariedverse.Itwasatonceevidentthatherearealpoethadappeared.Aninterestinginnovation,diversely judgedatthetimeandsince,wasSpenser'sdeliberateemploymentofrusticandarchaicwords,especiallyoftheNorthern dialect, whichhe introduced partly because of their appropriateness to the imaginary characters, partly for the sake of freshnessofexpression.They,likeotherfeaturesofthework,pointforwardto'TheFaerieQueene.' IntheuncertaintiesofcourtintrigueliterarysuccessdidnotgainforSpenserthepoliticalrewardswhichhewasseeking, andhewasobligedtocontenthimself,thenextyear,withanappointment,whichheviewedassubstantiallyasentenceof exile, as secretary to Lord Grey, the governor of Ireland. In Ireland, therefore, the remaining twenty years of Spenser's shortlifewereforthemostpartspent,amiddistressingscenesofEnglishoppressionandchronicinsurrectionamongthe nativeIrish.AftervariousactivitiesduringseveralyearsSpensersecuredapermanenthomeinKilcolman,afortifiedtower and estate in the southern part of the island, where the romantic scenery furnished fit environment for a poet's imagination. And Spenser, able all his life to take refuge in his art from the crass realities of life, now produced many poems, some of them short, but among the others the immortal 'Faerie Queene.' The first three books of this, his crowning achievement, Spenser, under enthusiastic encouragement from Ralegh, brought to London and published in 1590.ThededicationistoQueenElizabeth,towhom,indeed,asitsheroine,thepoempaysperhapsthemostsplendid compliment ever offered to any human being in verse. She responded with an uncertain pension of L50 (equivalent to perhaps$1500atthepresenttime),butnotwiththegiftofpoliticalprefermentwhichwasstillSpenser'shope;andin somebitternessofspiritheretiredtoIreland,whereinsatiricalpoemsheproceededtoattackthevanityoftheworldand

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theficklenessofmen.Hiscourtshipand,in1594,hismarriageproducedhissonnetsequence,called'Amoretti'(Italianfor 'Lovepoems'), and his 'Epithalamium,' the most magnificent of marriage hymns in English and probably in world literature;thoughhis'Prothalamium,'inhonorofthemarriageoftwonoblesisters,isanearrivaltoit. Spenser, a zealous Protestant as well as a finespirited idealist, was in entire sympathy with Lord Grey's policy of stern repression of the Catholic Irish, to whom, therefore, he must have appeared merely as one of the hated crew of their pitilesstyrants.In1598hewasappointedsheriffofthecountyofCork;butarebellionwhichbrokeoutprovedtoostrong forhim,andheandhisfamilybarelyescapedfromthesackanddestructionofhistower.Hewassentwithdespatchesto theEnglishCourtanddiedinLondoninJanuary,1599,nodoubtinpartasaresultofthehardshipsthathehadsuffered. HewasburiedinWestminsterAbbey. Spenser's 'Faerie Queene' is not only one of the longest but one of the greatest of English poems; it is also very characteristicallyElizabethan.Todealwithsodelicateathingbythemethodofmechanicalanalysisseemsscarcelyless thanprofanation,butaccuratecriticismcanproceedinnootherway. 1. Sources and Plan. Few poems more clearly illustrate the variety of influences from which most great literary works result. In many respects the most direct source was the body of Italian romances of chivalry, especially the 'Orlando Furioso' ofAriosto, which was written in the early partof the sixteenth century. These romances, in turn, combine the personagesofthemedievalFrenchepicsofCharlemagnewithsomethingofthespiritofArthurianromanceandwitha Renaissance atmosphere of magic and of rich fantastic beauty. Spenser borrows and absorbs all these things and moreoverheimitatesAriostoclosely,oftenmerelytranslatingwholepassagesfromhiswork.ButthisuseoftheItalian romances,further,carrieswithitalargeemploymentofcharacters,incidents,andimageryfromclassicalmythologyand literature,amongotherthingstheelaboratedsimilesoftheclassicalepics.Spenserhimselfisdirectlyinfluenced,also,by the medieval romances. Most important of all,all theseelements are shaped to thepurpose of the poem by Spenser's highmoralaim,whichinturnspringslargelyfromhisPlatonicidealism. WhattheplanofthepoemisSpenserexplainsinaprefatorylettertoSirWalterRalegh.Thewholeisavastepicallegory, aiming,inthefirstplace,toportraythevirtueswhichmakeupthecharacterofaperfectknight;anidealembodiment, seenthroughRenaissanceconceptions,ofthebestinthechivalroussystemwhichinSpenser'stimehadpassedaway,but towhichsomechoicespiritsstilllookedbackwithregretfuladmiration.AsSpenserintended,twelvemoralvirtuesofthe individual character, such as Holiness and Temperance, were to be presented, each personified in the hero of one of twelve Books; and the crowning virtue, which Spenser, in Renaissance terms, called Magnificence, and which may be interpreted as Magnanimity, was to figure as Prince (King) Arthur, nominally the central hero of the whole poem, appearing and disappearing at frequent intervals. Spenser states in his prefatory letter that if he shall carry this first projected labor to a successful end he may continue it in still twelve other Books, similarly allegorizing twelve political virtues.Theallegoricalform,weshouldhardlyneedtobereminded,isanotherheritagefrommedievalliterature,butthe effort to shape a perfect character, completely equipped to serve the State, was characteristically of the Platonizing Renaissance. That the reader may never be in danger of forgetting his moral aim, Spenser fills the poem with moral observations,frequentlysettingthemasguidesatthebeginningofthecantos. 2.TheAllegory.LackofUnity.Socomplexandvastaplancouldscarcelyhavebeenworkedoutbyanyhumangeniusina perfectandclearunity,andbesidesthis,Spenser,withallhishighendowments,wasdecidedlyweakinconstructiveskill. The allegory, at the outset, even in Spenser's own statement, is confused and hazy. For beyond the primary moral interpretation,Spenserappliesitinvarioussecondaryorparallelways.Inthewidestsense,theentirestrugglebetween thegoodandevilcharactersistobetakenasfiguringforththewarfarebothintheindividualsoulandintheworldatlarge betweenRighteousnessandSin;andinsomewhatnarrowersenses,betweenProtestantismandCatholicism,andbetween EnglandandSpain.Insomeplaces,also,itrepresentsothereventsandaspectsofEuropeanpolitics.Manyofthesingle persons of the story, entering into each of these overlapping interpretations, bear double or triple roles. Gloriana, the FairyQueen,isabstractlyGlory,buthumanlysheisQueenElizabeth;andfromotherpointsofviewElizabethisidentified withseveralofthelesserheroines.SolikewisethewitchDuessaisbothPapalFalsehoodandMaryQueenofScots;Prince ArthurbothMagnificenceand(withsorryinappropriateness)theEarlofLeicester;andothersofthecharactersstandwith moreorlessconsistencyforsuchactualpersonsasPhilipIIofSpain,HenryIVofFrance,andSpenser'schief,LordGrey.In fact,inRenaissancespirit,andfollowingSidney's'DefenseofPoesie,'Spenserattemptstoharmonizehistory,philosophy, ethics, and politics, subordinating them allto theartofpoetry. The plan is grand but impracticable, and exceptfor the originalmoralinterpretation,towhichintheearlierbookstheincidentsareskilfullyadapted,itisfruitlessasonereadsto undertaketofollowtheallegories.Manyreadersareable,nodoubt,merelytodisregardthem,butthereareothers,like Lowell,towhomthemoral,'whentheycomesuddenlyuponit,givesashockofunpleasantsurprise,aswhenineating strawberriesone'steethencountergrit.'

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Thesamelackofunitypervadestheexternalstory.ThefirstBookbeginsabruptly,inthemiddle;andforclearness'sake Spenserhadbeenobligedtoexplaininhisprefatoryletterthattherealcommencementmustbesupposedtobeascene like those of Arthurian romance, at the court and annual feast of the Fairy Queen, where twelve adventures had been assignedtoasmanyknights.SpenserstrangelyplannedtonarratethisbeginningofthewholeinhisfinalBook,butevenif it had been properly placedat the outset it would haveserved only as a loose enveloping actionfor a series of stories essentially as distinct as those in Malory. More serious, perhaps, is the lack of unity within the single books. Spenser's geniuswasneverforstronglycondensednarrative,andfollowinghisItalianoriginals,thoughwithlessfirmness,hewove his story as a tangled web of intermingled adventures, with almost endless elaboration and digression. Incident after incidentisbrokenoffandlaterresumedandepisodeafterepisodeisintroduced,untilthereaderalmostabandonsany efforttotracethemaindesign.Apartoftheconfusionisduetothemechanicalplan.EachBookconsistsoftwelvecantos (offromfortytoninetystanzaseach)andoftentimesSpenserhasdifficultyinfillingoutthescheme.Noone,certainly,can regret that he actually completed only a quarter of his projected work. In the six existing Books he has given almost exhaustiveexpressiontoarichlycreativeimagination,andadditionalprolongationwouldhavedonelittlebuttorepeat. Stillfurther,thecharacteristicRenaissancelackofcertaintyastothepropermaterialsforpoetryissometimesresponsible for a rudely inharmonious element in the otherwise delightful romantic atmosphere. For a single illustration, the descriptionoftheHouseofAlmainBookII,CantoNine,isatediouslyliteralmedievalallegoryoftheSoulandBody;and occasionalrealisticdetailshereandthereinthepoematlargearemerelyrepellenttomoremoderntaste. 3.TheLackofDramaticReality.Aromanticallegorylike'TheFaerieQueene'doesnotaimatintenselifelikenessacertain remotenessfromtheactualisoneofitschiefattractions.ButsometimesinSpenser'spoemthereaderfeelstoowidea divorcefromreality.Partofthisfaultisascribabletotheuseofmagic,towhichthereisrepeatedbutinconsistentresort, especially,asinthemedievalromances,fortheprotectionofthegoodcharacters.Oftentimes,indeed,bythepersistent loadingofthediceagainstthevillainsandscapegoats,thereader'ssympathyishalfarousedintheirbehalf.Thusinthe fight of the Red Cross Knight with his special enemy, the dragon, where, of course, the Knight must be victorious, it is evidentthatwithouttheauthor'shelpthedragonisincomparablythestronger.Once,swoopingdownontheKnight,he seizeshiminhistalons(whoseleasttouchwaselsewheresaidtobefatal)andbearshimaloftintotheair.Thevalorofthe Knightcompelshimtorelaxhishold,butinsteadofmerelydroppingtheKnighttocertaindeath,hecarefullyfliesbackto earth and sets him down in safety. More definite regard to the actual laws of life would have given the poem greater firmnesswithoutthesacrificeofanyofitscharm. 4.TheRomanticBeauty.GeneralAtmosphereandDescription.Criticalsincerityhasrequiredustodwellthuslongonthe defects of the poem; but once recognized we should dismiss them altogether from mind and turn attention to the far moreimportantbeauties.Thegreatqualitiesof'TheFaerieQueene'aresuggestedbythetitle,'ThePoets'Poet,'which CharlesLamb,withhappyinspiration,appliedtoSpenser.MostofallareweindebtedtoSpenser'shighidealism.Nopoem in the world is nobler than 'The Faerie Queene' in atmosphere and entire effect. Spenser himself is always the perfect gentlemanofhisownimagination,andinhiscompanywearesecurefromtheintrusionofanythingmorallybaseormean. But in him, also, moral beauty is in full harmony with the beauty of art and the senses. Spenser was a Puritan, but a PuritanoftheearlierEnglishRenaissance,towhomthefoesofrighteousnesswerealsothefoesofexternalloveliness.Of thethreefierceSaracenbrotherknightswhorepeatedlyappearintheserviceofEvil,twoareSansloy,theenemyoflaw, andSansfoy,theenemyofreligion,butthethirdisSansjoy,enemyofpleasure.Andofexternalbeautytherehasnever beenamoregiftedloverthanSpenser.Weoftenfeel,withLowell,that'heisthepuresenseofthebeautifulincarnated.' The poem is a romantically luxuriant wilderness of dreamily or languorously delightful visions, often rich with all the harmonies ofform and motion andcolorand sound. AsLowell says, 'The true use of Spenser is asa galleryof pictures whichwevisitasthemoodtakesus,andwherewespendanhourortwo,longenoughtosweetenourperceptions,notso long as to cloy them.' His landscapes, to speak of one particular feature, are usually of a rather vague, often of a vast nature, as suits the unreality of his poetic world, and usually, since Spenser was not a minute observer, follow the conventionsofRenaissanceliterature.Theyarecommonlygreatplains,wideandgloomyforests(wherethetreesofmany climates often grow together in impossible harmony), cool cavesin general, lonely, quiet, or soothing scenes, but all unquestionableportionsofadelightfulfairyland.Tohim,itshouldbeadded,astomostmenbeforemodernSciencehad subduedtheworldtohumanuses,thesublimeaspectsofNatureweremainlydreadful;theocean,forexample,seemed tohimaraging'wasteofwaters,wideanddeep,'amysteriousandinsatiatedevourerofthelivesofmen. To the beauty of Spenser's imagination, ideal and sensuous, corresponds his magnificent command of rhythm and of sound.Asaverbalmelodist,especiallyamelodistofsweetnessandofstatelygrace,andasaharmonistofprolongedand complexcadences,heisunsurpassable.Buthehasfullcommandofhisrhythmaccordingtothesubject,andcanrange fromthemostdelicatesuggestionofairybeautytotheroarofthetempestorthestridentenergyofbattle.Invocabulary and phraseology his fluency appears inexhaustible. Here, as in 'The Shepherd's Calendar,' he deliberately introduces, especiallyfromChaucer,obsoletewordsandforms,suchastheinflectionalendinginenwhichdistinctlycontributetohis

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romantic effect. His constant use of alliteration is very skilful; thefrequency of the alliteration on w is conspicuous but apparentlyaccidental. 5. The Spenserian Stanza. For the external medium of all this beauty Spenser, modifying the ottava rima of Ariosto (a stanza which rimes abababcc), invented the stanza which bears his own name and which is the only artificial stanza of Englishoriginthathaseverpassedintocurrency.[Footnote:Notethatthisisnotinconsistentwithwhatissaidabove,of thesonnet.]TherimeschemeisababbcbccandinthelastlinetheiambicpentametergivesplacetoanAlexandrine(an iambichexameter).Whetherornotanystanzaformisaswelladaptedasblankverseortherimedcoupletforprolonged narrativeisaninterestingquestion,buttherecanbenodoubtthatSpenser'sstanza,firmlyunified,inspiteofitslength, byitscentralcoupletandbythefinalityofthelastline,isadiscoveryofgenius,andthattheAlexandrine,'foreverfeeling for the next stanza,' does much to bind the stanzas together. It has been adopted in no small number of the greatest subsequentEnglishpoems,includingsuchvariousonesasBurns''Cotter'sSaturdayNight,'Byron's'ChildeHarold,'Keats' 'EveofSt.Agnes,'andShelley's'Adonais.' Ingeneralstyleandspirit,itshouldbeadded,Spenserhasbeenoneofthemostpowerfulinfluencesonallsucceeding Englishromanticpoetry.TwofurthersentencesofLowellwellsummarizehiswholegeneralachievement: 'Hisgreatmeritisintheidealtreatmentwithwhichheglorifiedcommonthingsandgildedthemwitharayofenthusiasm. HeisastandingprotestagainstthetyrannyoftheCommonplace,andsowstheseedsofanoblediscontentwithprosaic viewsoflifeandthedullusestowhichitmaybeput.'

Elizabethanlyricpoetry
'TheFaerieQueene'istheonlylongElizabethanpoemoftheveryhighestrank,butSpenser,aswehaveseen,isalmost equallyconspicuousasalyricpoet.InthatrespecthewasoneamongathrongofmelodistswhomadetheElizabethanage inmanyrespectsthegreatestlyricperiodinthehistoryofEnglishorperhapsofanyliterature.Stillgrander,tobesure,by thenatureofthetwoforms,wastheElizabethanachievementinthedrama,whichweshallconsiderinthenextchapter; butthelyricshavetheadvantageinsheerdelightfulnessand,ofcourse,inrapidanddirectappeal. ThezestforlyricpoetrysomewhatartificiallyinauguratedatCourtbyWyattandSurreyseemstohavelargelysubsided, like any other fad, after some years, but it vigorously revived, in much more genuine fashion, with the taste for other imaginativeformsofliterature,inthelasttwodecadesofElizabeth'sreign.Itrevived,too,notonlyamongthecourtiers butamongallclasses;innootherformofliteraturewasthediversityofauthorssomarked;almosteverywriterofthe periodwhowasnotpurelyamanofproseseemstohavebeengiftedwiththelyricpower. ThequalitieswhichespeciallydistinguishtheElizabethanlyricsarefluency,sweetness,melody,andanenthusiasticjoyin life,allspontaneous,direct,andexquisite.Unitingthegenuinenessofthepopularballadwiththefinersenseofconscious artisticpoetry,thesepoemspossessacharmdifferent,thoughinanonlyhalfdefinableway,fromthatofanyotherlyrics. In subjects they display the usual lyric variety. There are songs of delight in Nature; a multitude of love poems of all moods;manypastorals,inwhich,generally,thepastoralconventionssitlightlyonthegenuinepoeticalfeeling;occasional patrioticoutbursts;andsomereflectiveandreligiouspoems.Instanzastructurethenumberofformsisunusuallygreat, butinmostcasesstanzasareinternallyvariedandhavealargeadmixtureofshort,ringingormusing,lines.Thelyricswere publishedsometimesincollectionsbysingleauthors,sometimesintheseriesofanthologieswhichsucceededtoTottel's 'Miscellany.'Someoftheseanthologieswerebooksofsongswiththeaccompanyingmusic;formusic,broughtwithallthe otherculturalinfluencesfromItalyandFrance,wasnowenthusiasticallycultivated,andthesoftmelodyofmanyofthe bestElizabethanlyricsisthatofaccomplishedcomposers.Manyofthelyrics,again,areincludedassongsinthedramasof thetime;andShakespeare'scomediesshowhimnearlyaspreeminentamongthelyricpoetsasamongtheplaywrights. Someofthefinestofthelyricsareanonymous.Amongthebestoftheknownpoetsarethese:GeorgeGascoigne(about 15301577),acourtierandsoldier,whobridgesthegapbetweenSurreyandSidney;SirEdwardDyer(about15451607),a scholarandstatesman,authorofoneperfectlyric,'Mymindtomeakingdomis';JohnLyly(15531606),theEuphuistand dramatist;NicholasBreton(about1545toabout1626),aprolificwriterinverseandproseandoneofthemostsuccessful poets of the pastoral style; Robert Southwell (about 15621595), a Jesuit intriguer of ardent piety, finally imprisoned, tortured,andexecutedasatraitor;GeorgePeele(1558toabout1598),thedramatist;ThomasLodge(about15581625), poet, novelist, and physician; Christopher Marlowe (15641593), the dramatist; Thomas Nash (15671601), one of the mostprolificElizabethanhackwriters;SamuelDaniel(15621619),scholarandcritic,memberinhislateryearsoftheroyal householdofJamesI;BarnabeBarnes(about15691609);RichardBarnfield(15741627);SirWalterRalegh(15521618), courtier,statesman,explorer,andscholar;JoshuaSylvester(15631618),linguistandmerchant,knownforhistranslation of the long religious poems of the Frenchman Du Bartas, through which he exercised an influence on Milton; Francis

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Davison(about1575toabout1619),sonofacounsellorofQueenElizabeth,alawyer;andThomasDekker(about1570to about1640),ane'erdoweeldramatistandhackwriterofirrepressibleanddelightfulgoodspirits.

Thesonnets
Inthelastdecade,especially,ofthecentury,nootherlyricformcomparedinpopularitywiththesonnet.HereEngland wasstillfollowinginthefootstepsofItalyandFrance;ithasbeenestimatedthatinthecourseofthecenturyoverthree hundredthousandsonnetswerewritteninWesternEurope.InEnglandaselsewheremostofthesepoemswereinevitably ofmediocrequalityandimitativeinsubstance,ringingthechangeswithwearisomeiterationonaminimumofideas,often withthemostextravagantuseofconceits.Petrarch'sexamplewasstillcommonlyfollowed;thesonnetsweregenerally composedinsequences(cycles)ofahundredormore,addressedtothepoet'smoreorlessimaginarycruellady,though the note of manly independence introduced by Wyatt is frequent. First of the important English sequences is the 'Astrophel and Stella' of Sir Philip Sidney, written about 1580, published in 1591. 'Astrophel' is a fanciful halfGreek anagramforthepoet'sownname,andStella(Star)designatesLadyPenelopeDevereux,whoataboutthistimemarried LordRich.ThesequencemayveryreasonablybeinterpretedasanexpressionofPlatonicidealism,thoughitissometimes takeninasenselessconsistentwithSidney'shighreputation.OfSpenser's'Amoretti'wehavealreadyspoken.Byfarthe finestofallthesonnetsarethebestones(aconsiderablepart)ofShakespeare'sonehundredandfiftyfour,whichwere notpublisheduntil1609butmayhavebeenmostlywrittenbefore1600.Theirinterpretationhaslongbeenhotlydebated. Itiscertain,however,thattheydonotformaconnectedsequence.Someofthemareoccupiedwithurgingayouthof high rank, Shakespeare's patron, who may have been either the Earl of Southampton or William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke,tomarryandperpetuatehisrace;othershintthestory,realorimaginary,ofShakespeare'sinfatuationfora 'darklady,'leadingtobitterdisillusion;andstillothersseemtobeoccasionalexpressionsofdevotiontootherfriendsof one or the other sex. Here as elsewhere Shakespeare's genius, at its best, is supreme over all rivals; the first recorded criticismspeaksofthe'sugaredsweetness'ofhissonnets;buthisgeniusisnotalwaysatitsbest.

JohnDonneandthebeginningofthe'metaphysical'poetry
Thelastdecadeofthesixteenthcenturypresentsalso,inthepoemsofJohnDonne,anewandverystrangestyleofverse. Donne,bornin1573,possessedoneofthekeenestandmostpowerfulintellectsofthetime,buthisearlymanhoodwas largelywastedindissipation,thoughhestudiedtheologyandlawandseemstohaveseenmilitaryservice.Itwasduring thisperiodthathewrotehislovepoems.Then,whilelivingwithhiswifeandchildreninuncertaindependenceonnoble patrons, he turned to religious poetry. At last he entered the Church, became famous as one of the most eloquent preachersofthetime,andthroughthefavorofKingJameswasrapidlypromoteduntilhewasmadeDeanofSt.Paul's Cathedral. He died in 1631 after having furnished a striking instance of the fantastic morbidness of the period (post Elizabethan)byhavinghispicturepaintedashestoodwrappedinhisshroudonafuneralurn. ThedistinguishinggeneralcharacteristicofDonne'spoetryistheremarkablecombinationofanaggressiveintellectuality with the lyric form and spirit. Whether true poetry or mere intellectual cleverness is the predominant element may reasonablybequestioned;butonmanyreadersDonne'sverseexercisesauniqueattraction.Itsdefinitepeculiaritiesare outstanding: 1. By a process of extreme exaggeration and minute elaboration Donne carries the Elizabethan conceits almost to the farthest possible limit, achieving what Samuel Johnson two centuries later described as 'enormous and disgusting hyperboles.' 2. In so doing he makes relentless use of the intellect and of verbally precise but actually preposterouslogic,strikingoutastonishinglybrilliantbututterlyfantasticflashesofwit.3.Hedrawsthematerialofhis figures of speech from highly unpoetical sourcespartly from the activities of everyday life, but especially from all the sciences and schoolknowledge of the time. The material is abstract, but Donne gives it full poetic concrete picturesqueness.Thushespeaksofonespiritovertakinganotheratdeathasonebulletshotoutofagunmayovertake another which has lesser velocity but was earlier discharged. It was because of these last two characteristics that Dr. Johnson applied to Donne and his followers the rather clumsy name of 'Metaphysical' (Philosophical) poets. 'Fantastic' wouldhavebeenabetterword.4.Invigorousreactionagainstthesometimesnervelessmelodyofmostcontemporary poets Donne often makes his verse as ruggedly condensed (often as obscure) and as harsh as possible. Its wrenched accentsandslurredsyllablessometimesappearabsolutelyunmetrical,butitseemsthatDonnegenerallyfollowedsubtle rhythmical ideas of his own. He adds to the appearance of irregularity by experimenting with a large number of lyric stanzaformsadifferentform,infact,fornearlyeverypoem.5.Inhislovepoems,whilehissentimentisoftenPetrarchan, heoftenemphasizesalsotheEnglishnoteofindependence,takingasafavoritethemetheincredibleficklenessofwoman. InspiritDonnebelongsmuchlesstoElizabethanpoetrythantothefollowingperiod,inwhichnearlyhalfhislifefell.Ofhis greatinfluenceonthepoetryofthatperiodweshallspeakintheproperplace.

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Theinfluenceofclassicalcomedyandtragedy
InChapterIVweleftthedramaatthatpoint,towardthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,whentheMysteryPlayshad largely declined and Moralities and InterludeFarces, themselves decadent, were sharing in rather confused rivalry that degreeofpopularinterestwhichremainedunabsorbedbythereligious,political,andsocialferment.Therewasstilltobe aperiodofthirtyorfortyyearsbeforethefloweringofthegreatElizabethandrama,buttheyweretobeyearsofnew,if uncertain,beginnings. The first new formative force was the influence of the classical drama, for which, with other things classical, the Renaissance had aroused enthusiasm. This force operated mainly not through writers for popular audiences, like the authorsofmostMoralitiesandInterludes,butthroughmenoftheschoolsandtheuniversities,writingforperformances intheirowncirclesorinthatoftheCourt.Ithadnowbecomeanotuncommonthingforboysatthelargeschoolstoactin regulardramaticfashion,atfirstinLatin,afterwardinEnglishtranslation,someoftheplaysoftheLatincomedianswhich had long formed a part of the schoolcurriculum.Shortly after the middle of thecentury,probably, the headmaster of WestministerSchool,NicholasUdall,tookthefurtherstepofwritingforhisboysontheclassicalmodelanoriginalfarce comedy, the amusing 'Ralph Roister Doister.' This play is so close a copy of Plautus' 'Miles Gloriosus' and Terence's 'Eunuchus'thatthereislittlethatisreallyEnglishaboutit;amuchlargerelementoflocalrealismofthetraditionalEnglish sort, in a classical framework, was presented in the coarse but really skillful 'Gammer Gurton's Needle,' which was probablywrittenataboutthesametime,apparentlybytheCambridgestudentWilliamStevenson. Meanwhile students at the universities, also, had been acting Plautus and Terence, and further, had been writing and actingLatintragedies,aswellascomedies,oftheirowncomposition.Theirchiefmodelsfortragedyweretheplaysofthe firstcentury Roman Seneca, who may or may not have been identical with the philosopher who was the tutor of the EmperorNero.Boththroughtheseuniversityimitationsanddirectly,Seneca'sveryfaultyplayscontinuedformanyyears toexerciseagreatinfluenceonEnglishtragedy.FallingfarshortofthenoblespiritofGreektragedy,whichtheyinturn attempttocopy,Seneca'splaysdoobserveitsmechanicalconventions,especiallytheunitiesofActionandTime,theuse of the chorus to comment on the action, the avoidance of violent action and deaths on the stage, and the use of messengerstoreportsuchevents.Forproperdramaticactiontheylargelysubstituterantingmoralizingdeclamation,with crudelyexaggeratedpassion,andtheyexhibitagreatveinofmelodramatichorror,forinstanceinthefrequentuseofthe motiveofimplacablerevengeformurderandofaghostwhoincitestoit.IntheearlyElizabethanperiod,however,anage when life itself was dramatically intense and tragic, when everything classic was looked on with reverence, and when standardsoftastewereunformed,itwasnaturalenoughthatsuchplaysshouldpassformasterpieces. A direct imitation of Seneca, famous as the first tragedy in English on classical lines, was the 'Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex,'ofThomasNortonandThomasSackville,actedin1562.Itsstory,likethoseofsomeofShakespeare'splayslater, goesbackultimatelytotheaccountofoneoftheearlyreignsinGeoffreyofMonmouth's'History.''Gorboduc'outdoesits Senecanmodelsintediousmoralizing,andispainfullywoodeninallrespects;butithasrealimportancenotonlybecause it is the first regular English tragedy, but because it was the first play to use the iambic pentameter blank verse which Surrey had introduced to English poetry and which was destined to be the verseform of really great English tragedy. When they wrote the play Norton and Sackville were law students at the Inner Temple, and from other law students during the following years came other plays, which were generally acted at festival seasons, such, as Christmas, at the lawyers' colleges, or before the Queen, though the common people were also admitted among the audience. Unlike 'Gorboduc,'theseotheruniversityplayswerenotonlyforthemostpartcrudeandcoarseinthesamemannerasearlier Englishplays,butinaccordancealsowiththenativeEnglishtraditionandinviolentdefianceoftheclassicalprincipleof Unity, they generally combined tragical classical stories with realistic scenes of English comedy (somewhat later with Italianstories).Nevertheless,andthisisthemainthing,themorethoughtfulmembersoftheCourtandUniversitycircles, werenowlearningfromthestudyofclassicalplaysasenseforformandthefundamentaldistinctionbetweentragedyand comedy.

Thechroniclehistoryplay
Abouttwentyyearsbeforetheendofthecenturytherebegantoappear,atfirstattheCourtandtheUniversities,lateron the popular stage, a form of play which was to hold, along with tragedy and comedy, an important place in the great decadesthatweretofollow,namelytheChronicleHistoryPlay.Thisformofplaygenerallypresentedthechiefeventsin the whole ora part of the reign of someEnglish king. It was largely aproduct of the pride whichwas being awakened amongthepeopleinthegreatnessofEnglandunderElizabeth,andoftheconsequentdesiretoknowsomethingofthe pasthistoryofthecountry,anditreceivedagreatimpulsefromtheenthusiasmarousedbythestrugglewithSpainand the defeat of the Armada. It was not, however, altogether a new creation, for its method was similar to that of the university plays which dealt with monarchs of classical history. It partly inherited from them the formless mixture of

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farcicalhumorwithhistoricalorsupposedlyhistoricalfactwhichitsharedwithotherplaysofthetime,andsometimes alsoanunusuallyrecklessdisregardofunityofaction,time,andplace.Sinceitsmainseriouspurpose,whenithadone, wastoconveyinformation,theotherchiefdramaticprinciples,suchascarefulpresentationofafewmaincharactersand ofauniversallysignificanthumanstruggle,werealsogenerallydisregarded.ItwasonlyinthehandsofShakespearethat the species was to be moulded into true dramatic form and to attain real greatness; and after a quarter century of popularityitwastobereabsorbedintotragedy,ofwhichinfactitwasalwaysonlyaspecialvariety.

JohnLyly
ThefirstElizabethandramatistofpermanentindividualimportanceisthecomedianJohnLyly,ofwhoseearlysuccessat Courtwiththeartificialromance'Euphues'wehavealreadyspoken.From'Euphues'Lylyturnedtothestillmorepromising workofwritingcomediesfortheCourtentertainmentswithwhichQueenElizabethwasextremelylavish.Thecharacterof Lyly'splayswaslargelydeterminedbythelightandspectacularnatureoftheseentertainments,andfurtherbythefact that on most occasions the players at Court were boys. These were primarily the 'children [choirboys] of the Queen's Chapel,' who for some generations had been sought out from all parts of England for their good voices and were very carefullytrainedforsingingandfordramaticperformances.ThechoirboysofSt.Paul'sCathedral,similarlytrained,also oftenactedbeforetheQueen.Manyoftheplaysgivenbytheseboyswereoftheordinarysorts,butitisevidentthatthey wouldbemostsuccessfulindaintycomediesespeciallyadaptedtotheirboyishcapacity.SuchcomediesLylyproceededto write,inprose.ThesubjectsarefromclassicalmythologyorhistoryorEnglishfolklore,intowhichLylysometimesweaves anallegoricalpresentationofcourtintrigue.Theplotsareveryslight,andthoughthestructureisdecidedlybetterthanin mostpreviousplays,thehumoroussubactionssometimeshavelittleconnectionwiththemainaction.Characterizationis stillrudimentary,andaltogethertheplayspresentnotsomuchapictureofrealityas'afaintmoonlightreflectionoflife.' None the less the best of them, such as 'Alexander and Campaspe,' are delightful in their sparkling delicacy, which is produced partly by the carefullywrought style, similar to that of 'Euphues,' but less artificial, and is enhanced by the charming lyrics which are scattered through them. For all this the elaborate scenery and costuming of the Court entertainmentsprovidedaveryharmoniousbackground. These plays were to exert a strong influence on Shakespeare's early comedies, probably suggesting to him: the use of proseforcomedy;thevalueofsnappyandwittydialog;refinement,aswellasaffectation,ofstyle;lyricatmosphere;the charactersandtoneofhighcomedy,contrastingsofavorablywiththeusualcoarsefarceoftheperiod;andfurthersuch detailsastheemploymentofimpudentboypagesasasourceofamusement.

Peele,Greene,AndKyd
OfthemostimportantearlycontemporariesofShakespearewehavealreadymentionedtwoasnoteworthyinotherfields ofliterature.GeorgePeele'smasquelike'ArraignmentofParis'helpstoshowhimasmorealyricpoetthanadramatist. Robert Greene's plays, especially 'Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay,' reveal, like his novels, some real, though not very elaborate,power of characterization. They are especially important indeveloping the theme of romantic love with real finenessoffeelingandthushelpingtopreparethewayforShakespeareinaveryimportantparticular.Inmarkedcontrast to these men is Thomas Kyd, who about the year 1590 attained a meteoric reputation with crude 'tragedies of blood,' specializeddescendants of Senecan tragedy, one of which mayhavebeen the earlyplay on Hamlet which Shakespeare usedasthegroundworkforhismasterpiece.

ChristopherMarlowe,15641593
PeeleandGreenewereUniversitymenwhowrotepartlyforCourtoracademicaudiences,partlyforthepopularstage. ThedistinctionbetweenthetwosortsofdramawasstillfurtherbrokendownintheworkofChristopherMarlowe,apoet of real genius, decidedly the chief dramatist among Shakespeare's early contemporaries, and the one from whom Shakespearelearnedthemost. Marlowe wasborn in 1564 (the sameyear as Shakespeare), the son of a shoemakerat Canterbury. Takinghis master's degree after seven years at Cambridge, in 1587, he followed the other 'university wits' to London. There, probably the sameyearandthenext,heastonishedthepublicwiththetwopartsof'TamburlainetheGreat,'adramatizationofthe stupendous career of the bloodthirsty Mongol fourteenthcentury conqueror. These plays, in spite of faults now conspicuousenough,aresplendidlyimaginativeandpoetic,andwerebyfarthemostpowerfulthathadyetbeenwritten inEngland.Marlowefollowedthemwith'TheTragicalHistoryofDr.Faustus,'atreatmentofthemedievalstorywhichtwo hundred years later was to serve Goethe for his masterpiece; with 'The Jew of Malta,' which was to give Shakespeare suggestions for 'The Merchant of Venice'; and with 'Edward the Second,' the first really artistic Chronicle History play.

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Among the literary adventurers ofthe age who led wildlives in the London tavernsMarlowe is said tohave attaineda conspicuous reputation for violence and irreligion. He was killed in 1593 in a reckless and foolish brawl, before he had reachedtheageofthirty. IfMarlowe'slifewasunworthy,thefaultmustbelaidratheratthedoorofcircumstancesthanofhisowngenuinenature. Hisplaysshowhimtohavebeenanardentidealistandarepresentativeofmanyofthequalitiesthatmadethegreatness oftheRenaissance.TheRenaissancelearning,theapparentlyboundlessvistaswhichithadopenedtothehumanspirit, andtheconsciousnessofhisownpower,evidentlyintoxicatedMarlowewithavastambitiontoachieveresultswhichin hisyouthfulinexperiencehecouldscarcelyevenpicturetohimself.Hisspirit,crampedandoutragedbytheimpassable limitationsofhumanlifeandbytheconventionsofsociety,beatrecklesslyagainstthemwithanimpatiencefruitlessbut partly grand. This is the underlying spirit of almost all his plays, struggling in them for expression. The Prolog to 'Tamburlaine' makes pretentious announcement that the author will discard the usual buffoonery of the popular stage andwillsetanewstandardoftragicmajesty: Fromjiggingveinsofrhymingmotherwits, Andsuchconceitsasclownagekeepsinpay, We'llleadyoutothestatelytentofwar, WhereyoushallheartheScythianTamburlaine Threateningtheworldwithhighastoundingterms, Andscourgingkingdomswithhisconqueringsword. TamburlainehimselfasMarlowepresentshimisatitanic,almostsuperhuman,figurewhobysheercourageandpitiless unbending will raises himself from shepherd to general and then emperor of countless peoples, and sweeps like a whirlwind over the stage of the world, carrying everywhere overwhelming slaughter and desolation. His speeches are outburstsofincrediblearrogance,equallypowerfulandbombastic.Indeedhisblasphemousboastsofsuperioritytothe gods seem almost justified by his apparently irresistible success. But at the end he learns that the laws of life are inexorable even for him; all his indignant rage cannot redeem his son from cowardice, or save his wife from death, or delayhisownend.Ashasbeensaid, [Footnote: Professor Barrett Wendell, 'William Shakespeare,' p. 36.] 'Tamburlaine' expresses with 'a profound, lasting, noble sense and in grandly symbolic terms, the eternal tragedy inherent in the conflict between human aspiration and humanpower.' Forseveralotherreasons'Tamburlaine'isofhighimportance.Itgivesrepeatedandsplendidexpressiontothepassionate hauntingRenaissancezestforthebeautiful.Itisrichwithextravagantsensuousdescriptions,notableamongthosewhich aboundgorgeouslyinallElizabethanpoetry.ButfinestofallisthedescriptionofbeautybyitseffectswhichMarloweputs intothemouthofFaustusatthesightofHelenofTroy: Wasthisthefacethatlaunchedathousandships AndburntthetoplesstowersofIlium? MuchofMarlowe'sstrength,again,liesinhispowerfulandbeautifuluseofblankverse.Firstamongthedramatistsofthe popularstagehediscardedrime,andtakingandvitalizingthestiffpentameterlineof 'Gorboduc,'gaveitanimmediateandlastingvoguefortragedyandhighcomedy.Marlowe,virtuallyabeginner,couldnot beexpectedtocarryblankversetothatperfectionwhichhissuccessmadepossibleforShakespeare;hedidnotaltogether escapemonotonyandcommonplaceness;buthegainedahighdegreeofflexibilityandbeautybyavoidingaregularlyend stopped arrangement, by taking pains to secure variety of pause and accent, and by giving his language poetic condensation and suggestiveness. His workmanship thoroughly justifies the characterization 'Marlowe's mighty line,' whichBenJonsoninhistributetoShakespearebestowedonitlongafterMarlowe'sdeath. Thegreatestsignificanceof'Tamburlaine,'lastly,liesinthefactthatitdefinitelyestablishedtragedyasadistinctformon theEnglishpopularstage,andinvesteditwithproperdignity. TheseareMarlowe'sgreatachievementsbothin'Tamburlaine'andinhislatermorerestrainedplays.Hislimitationsmust alsobesuggested.LikeotherElizabethanshedidnotfullyunderstandthedistinctionbetweendramaandotherliterary forms; 'Tamburlaine' isnot so much a regularly constructed tragedy, with a struggle betweennearly equalpersons and forces,artisticallycomplicatedandresolved,asanepicpoem,asuccessionofadventuresinwar(andlove).Again,inspite oftheprologin'Tamburlaine,'Marlowe,inalmostallhisplays,andfollowingtheElizabethancustom,doesattemptscenes

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ofhumor,butheattainsonlytothecoarseandbrutalhorseplayatwhichtheEnglishaudienceshadlaughedforcenturies intheMysteryplaysandtheInterludes.Elizabethanalso(andbeforethatmedieval)isthelackofhistoricalperspective whichgivestoMongolshepherdsthemannersandspeechofGreekclassicalantiquityasMarlowehadlearnedtoknowit attheuniversity.Moreseriousisthelackofmatureskillincharacterization.Tamburlainethemanisanexaggeratedtype; mostofthemenabouthimarehisfaintshadows,andthosewhoareintendedtobecomicarepreposterous.Thewomen, thoughtheyhavesomedifferentiatingtouches,arecertainlynotmoredramaticallyandvitallyimagined.Inhislaterplays Marlowe makes gains in this respect, but he never arrives at full easy mastery and trenchantly convincing lifelikeness either in characterization, in presentation of action, or in fine poetic finish. It has often been remarked that at the age when Marlowe died Shakespeare had produced not one of the great plays on which his reputation rests; but Shakespeare's genius came to maturity more surely, as well as more slowly, and there is no basis for the inference sometimes drawn that if Marlowe had lived he would ever have equalled or even approached Shakespere's supreme achievement.

Theatricalconditionsandthetheaterbuildings
Before we pass to Shakespeare we must briefly consider those external facts which conditioned the form of the Elizabethanplaysandexplainmanyofthosethingsinthemwhichatthepresenttimeappearperplexing. TIMONOFATHENS,v,4.OUTERSCENE. Trumpetssound.EnterAlcibiadeswithhisPowersbeforeAthens. "Alc.SoundtothisCoward,andlasciviousTowne,Ourterribleapproach." Soundsaparly.TheSenatorsappearsupontheWals.

AnElizabethanstage
The medieval religious drama had been written and acted in many towns throughout the country, and was a far less importantfeatureinthelifeofLondonthanofmanyotherplaces.Butasthecapitalbecamemoreandmorethecenterof nationallife,thedrama,withotherformsofliterature,wasmorelargelyappropriatedbyit;theElizabethandramaofthe greatperiodwasaltogetherwritteninLondonandbelongeddistinctlytoit.Untilwellintotheseventeenthcentury,tobe sure,theLondoncompaniesmadefrequenttoursthroughthecountry,butthatwaschieflywhentheprevalenceofthe plague had necessitated the closing of the London theaters or when for other reasons acting there had become temporarilyunprofitable. The companies themselves had now assumed a regular organization. They retained a traceof theirorigininthateachwasundertheprotectionofsomeinfluentialnobleandwascalled,forexample,'LordLeicester's Servants,' or 'The Lord Admiral's Servants.' But this connection was for the most part nominalthe companies were virtually very much like the stockcompanies of the nineteenth century. By the beginning of the great period the membershipofeachtroupewasmadeupofatleastthreeclassesofpersons.Atthebottomofthescaleweretheboy apprentices who were employed, as Shakespeare is said to have been at first, in miscellaneous menial capacities. Next camethepaidactors;andlastlytheshareholders,generallyalsoactors,someorallofwhomwerethegeneralmanagers. The writers of plays were sometimes members of the companies, as in Shakespeare's case; sometimes, however, they wereindependent. UntilnearthemiddleofElizabeth'sreigntherewerenospecialtheaterbuildings,buttheplayers,inLondonorelsewhere, actedwherevertheycouldfindanavailableplaceinopensquares,largehalls,or,especially,inthequadrangularopen inner yards of inns. As the profession became better organized and as the plays gained in quality, such makeshift accommodationsbecamemoreandmoreunsatisfactory;buttherewerespecialdifficultiesinthewayofsecuringbetter ones in London. For the population and magistrates of London were prevailingly Puritan, and the great body of the Puritans,thenasalways,werestronglyopposedtothetheaterasafrivolousandirreligiousthinganattitudeforwhich thelivesoftheplayersandthecharacterofmanyplaysafforded,thenasalmostalways,onlytoomuchreason.Thecity wasveryjealousofitsprerogatives;sothatinspiteofQueenElizabeth'sstrongpatronageofthedrama,throughouther whole reign no public theater buildings were allowed within the limits of the city corporation. But these limits were narrow,andin1576JamesBurbageinauguratedanewerabyerecting'TheTheater'justtothenorthofthe'city,'onlya fewminutes'walkfromthecenterofpopulation.Hisexamplewassoonfollowedbyothermanagers,thoughthefavorite place for the theaters soon came to be the 'Bankside,' the region in Southwark just across the Thames from the 'city' whereChaucer'sTabardInnhadstoodandwherepitsforbearbaitingandcockfightinghadlongflourished. ThestructureoftheElizabethantheaterwasnaturallyimitatedfromitschiefpredecessor,theinnyard.There,underthe opensky,oppositethestreetentrance,theplayershadbeenaccustomedtosetuptheirstage.Aboutit,onthreesides, theordinarypartoftheaudiencehadstoodduringtheperformance,whiletheinnguestsandpersonsabletopayafixed

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pricehadsatintheopengallerieswhichlinedthebuildingandranallaroundtheyard.Inthetheaters,therefore,atfirst generallysquarebuiltoroctagonal,thestageprojectedfromtherearwallwelltowardthecenterofanunroofedpit(the presentday'orchestra'),where,stillonthreesidesofthestage,thecommonpeople,admittedforsixpenceorless,stood andjostledeachother,eithergoinghomewhenitrainedorstayingandgettingwetasthedegreeoftheirinterestinthe play might determine. The enveloping building proper was occupied with tiers of galleries, generally two or three in number, provided with seats; and here, of course, sat the people of means, the women avoiding embarrassment and annoyanceonlybybeingalwaysmasked.Behindtheunprotectedfrontpartofthestagethemiddlepartwascoveredbya leantoroofslopingdownfromtherearwallofthebuildingandsupportedbytwopillarsstandingonthestage.Thisroof concealedaloft,fromwhichgodsandgoddessesoranyappropriatepropertiescouldbeletdownbymechanicaldevices. Stillfartherback,underthegalleries,wasthe'rearstage,'whichcouldbeusedtorepresentinnerrooms;andthatpartof thelowergalleryimmediatelyaboveitwasgenerallyappropriatedasapartofthestage,representingsuchplacesascity wallsorthesecondstoriesofhouses.Themusicians'placewasalsojustbesideinthegallery. Thestage,therefore,wasa'platformstage,'seenbytheaudiencefromalmostallsides,not,asinourowntime,a'picture stage,'withitsscenesviewedthroughasinglelargeframe.Thisarrangementmadeimpossibleanyfrontcurtain,thougha curtainwasgenerallyhungbeforetherearstage,fromthefloorofthegallery.Hencethechangesbetweenscenesmust generallybemadeinfullviewoftheaudience,andinsteadofendingthesceneswithstrikingsituationsthedramatists mustarrangeforawithdrawaloftheactors,onlyavoidingifpossibletheeffectofamereanticlimax.Deadbodiesmust either get up and walk away in plain sight or be carried off, either by stage hands, or, as part of the action, by other characters in the play. This latter device was sometimes adopted at considerable violence to probability, as when Shakespeare makes Falstaff bear away Hotspur, and Hamlet, Polonius. Likewise, while the medieval habit of elaborate costumingwascontinued,therewaseveryreasonforadheringtothemedievalsimplicityofscenery.Asinglepottedtree mightsymbolizeaforest,andhousesandcaverns,withagreatdealelse,mightbelefttotheimaginationoftheaudience. In no respect, indeed, was realism of setting an important concern of either dramatist or audience; in many cases, evidently, neither of them cared to think of a scene as located in any precise spot; hence the anxious effort of Shakespeare's editors on this point is beside the mark. This nonchalance made for easy transition from one place to another, and the whole simplicity of staging had the important advantage of allowing the audience to center their attention on the play rather than on the accompaniments. On the rearstage, however, behind the curtain, more elaboratescenerymightbeplaced,andElizabethanplays,likethoseofourownday,seemsometimestohave'alternation scenes,'intendedtobeactedinfront,whilethenextbackgroundwasbeingpreparedbehindthebalconycurtain.Thelack ofelaboratesettingsalsofacilitatedrapidityofaction,andtheplays,beginningatthreeintheafternoon,wereordinarily over by the dinnerhour of five. Less satisfactory was the entire absence of womenactors, who did not appear on the publicstageuntilaftertheRestorationof1660.Theinadequacyoftheboyswhotookthepartofthewomencharactersis alludedtobyShakespeareandmusthavebeenasourceoffrequentirritationtoanydramatistwhowasattemptingto presentasubtleorcomplexheroine. Lastlymaybementionedthepicturesquebutveryobjectionablecustomoftheyoungdandieswhoinsistedoncarrying theirchairsontothesidesofthestageitself,wheretheynotonlymadethemselvesconspicuousobjectsofattentionbut seriouslycrowdedtheactorsandrudelyabusedthemiftheplaywasnottotheirliking.Itshouldbeaddedthatfromthe latterpartofElizabeth'sreignthereexistedwithinthecityitselfcertain'private'theaters,usedbytheboys'companies andothers,whosestructurewasmorelikethatofthetheatersofourowntimeandwhereplaysweregivenbyartificial light.

Shakespeare,15641616
WilliamShakespeare,byuniversalconsentthegreatestauthorofEngland,ifnotoftheworld,occupieschronologicallya central position in the Elizabethan drama. He was born in 1564 in the goodsized village of StratfordonAvon in Warwickshire, near the middle of England, where the level but beautiful country furnished full external stimulus for a poet's eye and heart. His father, John Shakespeare, who was a general dealer in agricultural products and other commodities, was one of the chief citizens of the village, and during his son's childhood was chosen an alderman and shortlyaftermayor,asweshouldcallit.Butby1577hisprosperitydeclined,apparentlythroughhisownshiftlessness,and formanyyearshewasharassedwithlegaldifficulties.Inthevillage'grammar'schoolWilliamShakespearehadacquired therudimentsofbookknowledge,consistinglargelyofLatin,buthischiefeducationwasfromNatureandexperience.As hisfather'stroublesthickenedhewasverylikelyremovedfromschool,butattheageofeighteen,undercircumstances not altogether creditable to himself, he married Anne Hathaway, a woman eight years his senior, who lived in the neighboring village of Shottery. The suggestion that the marriage proved positively unhappy is supported by no real evidence,butwhatlittleisknownofShakespeare'slaterlifeimpliesthatitwasnotexceptionallycongenial.Twogirlsand aboywerebornfromit.

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Inhisearlymanhood,apparentlybetween1586and1588,ShakespeareleftStratfordtoseekhisfortuneinLondon.Asto thecircumstances,thereisreasonableplausibilityinthelatertraditionthathehadjoinedinpoachingraidsonthedeer park of Sir Thomas Lucy, a neighboring country gentleman, and found it desirable to get beyond the bounds of that gentleman's authority. It is also likely enough that Shakespeare had been fascinated by the performances of traveling dramatic companies at Stratford and by the Earl of Leicester's costly entertainment of Queen Elizabeth in 1575 at the castleofKenilworth,notmanymilesaway.Atanyrate,inLondonheevidentlysoonsecuredmechanicalemploymentina theatricalcompany,presumablytheonethenknownasLordLeicester'scompany,withwhich,inthatcase,hewasalways thereafterconnected.Hisenergyandinterestmustsoonhavewonhimtheopportunitytoshowhisskillasactorandalso reviserandcollaboratorinplaywriting,thenasindependentauthor;andafterthefirstfewyearsofslowprogresshisrise was rapid. Hebecame one of the leadingmembers, later one ofthe chief shareholders, of the company,and evidently enjoyeda substantial reputation as aplaywright and a good, thoughnot a great,actor. This wasboth at Court(where, however,actorshadnosocialstanding)andintheLondondramaticcircle.Ofhispersonallifeonlythemostfragmentary recordhasbeenpreserved,throughoccasionalmentionsinmiscellaneousdocuments,butitisevidentthathisrichnature waspartlyappreciatedandthoroughlylovedbyhisassociates.Hisbusinesstalentwasmarkedandbeforetheendofhis dramatic career he seems to have been receiving as manager, shareholder, playwright and actor, a yearly income equivalentto$25,000inmoneyofthepresenttime.Heearlybegantodevoteattentiontopayingthedebtsofhisfather, wholiveduntil1601,andrestoringthefortunesofhisfamilyinStratford.Thedeathofhisonlyson,Hamnet,in1596,must have been a severe blow to him, but he obtained from the Heralds' College the grant of a family coat of arms, which securedthepositionofthefamilyasgentlefolks;in1597hepurchasedNewPlace,thelargesthouseinStratford;andlater onheacquiredotherlargepropertyrightsthere.HowoftenhemayhavevisitedStratfordinthetwentyfiveyearsofhis career in London we have no information; but however enjoyable London life and the society of the writers at the 'Mermaid' Tavern may have been to him, he probably always looked forward to ending his life as the chief country gentlemanofhisnativevillage.Thitherheretiredabout1610or1612,andtherehediedprematurelyin1616,justashe wascompletinghisfiftysecondyear. Shakespeare'sdramaticcareerfallsnaturallyintofoursuccessivedivisionsofincreasingmaturity.Tobesure,nodefinite recordoftheorderofhisplayshascomedowntous,anditcanscarcelybesaidthatwecertainlyknowtheexactdateofa singleoneofthem;buttheevidenceofthetitlepagedatesofsuchofthemaswerehastilypublishedduringhislifetime, ofallusionstotheminotherwritingsofthetime,andotherscatteringfactsofonesortoranother,joinedwiththemore importantinternalevidenceofcomparativematurityofmindandartwhichshows'Macbeth'and'TheWinter'sTale,'for example, vastly superior to 'Love's Labour's Lost'all this evidence together enables us to arrange the plays in a chronological order which is certainly approximately correct. The first of the four periods thus disclosed is that of experimentandpreparation,fromabout1588toabout1593,whenShakespearetriedhishandatvirtuallyeverycurrent kindofdramaticwork.Itsmostimportantproductis'RichardIII,'amelodramaticchroniclehistoryplay,largelyimitativeof Marloweandyetshowingstrikingpower.AttheendofthisperiodShakespeareissuedtworatherlongnarrativepoemson classicalsubjects,'VenusandAdonis,'and'TheRapeofLucrece,'dedicatingthembothtotheyoungEarlofSouthampton, whothusappearsashispatron.BothdisplaygreatfluencyinthemostluxuriantandsensuousRenaissancemanner,and thoughtheyappeallittletothetasteofthepresentday'VenusandAdonis,'inparticular,seemstohavebecomeatonce the most popular poem of its own time. Shakespeare himself regarded them very seriously, publishing them with care, thoughhe,likemostElizabethandramatists,neverthoughtitworthwhiletoputhisplaysintoprintexcepttosafeguard thepropertyrightsofhiscompanyinthem.Probablyatabouttheendofhisfirstperiod,also,hebeganthecomposition ofhissonnets,ofwhichwehavealreadyspoken. ThesecondperiodofShakespeare'swork,extendingfromabout1594toabout1601,isoccupiedchieflywithchronicle history plays and happy comedies. The chroniclehistoryplays begin (probably) withthe subtile and fascinating,though notyetabsolutelymasterfulstudyofcontrastingcharactersin'RichardII';continuethroughthetwopartsof'HenryIV,' where the realistic comedy action of Falstaff and his group makes history familiarly vivid; and end with the epic glorificationofatypicalEnglishherokingin'HenryV.'Thecomediesincludethecharminglyfantastic'MidsummerNight's Dream'; 'The Merchant of Venice,' where a story of tragic sternness is strikingly contrasted with the most poetical idealizing romance and yet is harmoniously blended into it; 'Much Ado About Nothing,' a magnificent example of high comedyofcharacterandwit;'AsYouLikeIt,'thesupremedelightfulachievementofElizabethanandallEnglishpastoral romance;and'TwelfthNight,'whereagaincharmingromanticsentimentismadebelievablebycombinationwithastory ofcomicrealism.Evenintheone,unique,tragedyoftheperiod,'RomeoandJuliet,'themainimpressionisnotthatofthe predestined tragedy, but that of ideal youthful love, too gloriously radiant to be viewed with sorrow even in its fatal outcome. The third period, extending from about 1601 to about 1609, includes Shakespeare's great tragedies and certain cynical plays,whichformalclassificationmisnamescomedies.IntheseplaysasagroupShakespearesetshimselftograpplewith thedeepestanddarkestproblemsofhumancharacterandlife;butitisonlyveryuncertaininferencethathewashimself passingatthistimethroughaperiodofbitternessanddisillusion.

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'Julius Casar' presents the material failure of an unpractical idealist (Brutus); 'Hamlet' the struggle of a perplexed and dividedsoul;'Othello'theruinofanoblelifebyanevilonethroughtheterriblepowerofjealousy;'KingLear'unnatural ingratitudeworkingitshatefulwillandyetthwartedattheendbyitsownexcessandbyfaithfullove;and 'Macbeth'thedestructionofalargenaturebymaterialambition.Withoutdoubtthisisthegreatestcontinuousgroupof playseverwroughtoutbyahumanmind,andtheyarefollowedby'AntonyandCleopatra,'whichmagnificentlyportrays theemptinessofasensualpassionagainstthebackgroundofadecayingcivilization. Shakespearedidnotsolvetheinsolubleproblemsoflife,buthavingpresentedthemaspowerfully,perhaps,asispossible forhumanintelligence,heturnedinhislastperiod,ofonlytwoorthreeyears,totheexpressionoftheserenephilosophy of life in which he himself must have now taken refuge. The noble and beautiful romancecomedies, 'Cymbeline,' 'The Winter's Tale,' and'The Tempest,' suggestthat men do best to forgetwhat is painful andcenter their attentionon the pleasing and encouraging things in a world where there is at least an inexhaustible store of beauty and goodness and delight. Shakespeare may now well have felt, as his retirement to Stratford suggests, that in his nearly forty plays he had fully expressedhimselfandhadearnedtherighttoalongandpeacefuloldage.Thelatter,aswehaveseen,wasdeniedhim; but seven years after his death two of his fellowmanagers assured the preservation of the plays whose unique importancehehimselfdidnotsuspectbycollectingtheminthefirstfolioeditionofhiscompletedramaticworks. Shakespeare'sgreatnessrestsonsupremeachievementtheresultofthehighestgeniusmaturedbyexperienceandby carefulexperimentandlaborinallphasesoftheworkofapoeticdramatist.Thesurpassingcharmofhisrenderingofthe romanticbeautyandjoyoflifeandtheprofundityofhispresentationofitstragicsidewehavealreadysuggested.Equally sureandcomprehensiveishisportrayalofcharacters.Withthecertaintyofabsolutemasteryhecausesmenandwomen toliveforus,avastrepresentativegroup,inalltheactualvarietyofageandstation,perfectlyrealizedinallthesubtile diversities and inconsistencies of protean human nature. Not less notable than his strong men are his delightful young heroines,romanticElizabethanheroines,tobesure,withanunconventionality,manyofthem,whichdoesnotbelongto suchwomeninthemorerestrictedworldofreality,butpureembodimentsofthefinestwomanlydelicacy,keenness,and vivacity.Shakespeare,itistrue,wasapracticaldramatist.Hisbackgroundcharactersareoftenpresentintheplaysnotin ordertobeentirelyrealbutinordertofurnishamusement;andeveninthecaseofthechiefones,justasinthetreatment of incidents, he is always perfectly ready to sacrifice literal truth to dramatic effect. But these things are only the corollariesofallsuccessfulplaywritingandofallart. To Shakespeare's mastery of poetic expression similarly strong superlatives must be applied. For his form he perfected Marlowe'sblankverse,developingittothefarthestpossiblelimitsoffluency,variety,andmelody;thoughheretainedthe rimingcoupletforoccasionaluse(partlyforthesakeofvariety)andfrequentlymadeusealsoofprose,bothforthesame reasonandinrealisticorcommonplacescenes.Asregardsthespiritofpoetry,itscarcelyneedbesaidthatnowhereelse in literature is there a like storehouse of the most delightful and the greatest ideas phrased with the utmost power of condensedexpressionandfigurativebeauty.Indramaticstructurehisgreatnessisonthewholelessconspicuous.Writing forsuccessontheElizabethanstage,heseldomattemptedtoreduceitsromanticlicensestotheperfectionofanabsolute standard. 'Romeo and Juliet, 'Hamlet,' and indeed most of his plays, contain unnecessary scenes, interesting to the Elizabethans,whichSophoclesaswellasRacinewouldhaveprunedaway.YetwhenShakespearechooses,asin'Othello,' to develop a play with the sternest and most rapid directness, he proves essentially the equal even of the most rigid technician. Shakespeare,indeed,althoughasBenJonsonsaid,'hewasnotforanagebutforalltime,'wasineveryrespectathorough Elizabethan also, and does not escape the superficial Elizabethan faults. Chief of these, perhaps, is his fondness for 'conceits,'withwhichhemakeshisplays,especiallysomeoftheearlierones,sparkle,brilliantly,butofteninappropriately. In his prose style, again, except in the talk of commonplace persons, he never outgrew, or wished to outgrow, a large measureofElizabethanselfconsciouselegance.ScarcelyafaultishisotherElizabethanhabitofseldom,perhapsnever, inventingthewholeofhisstories,butdrawingtheoutlinesofthemfrompreviousworksEnglishchronicles,poems,or plays, Italian 'novels,' or the biographies of Plutarch. But in the majority ofcases these sources provided him only with bareorevencrudesketches,andperhapsnothingfurnishesclearerproofofhisgeniusthanthewayinwhichhehasseen the human significance in stories baldly and wretchedly told, where the figures are merely wooden types, and by the power of imagination has transformed them into the greatest literary masterpieces, profound revelations of the underlyingforcesoflife. Shakespeare, like every other great man,has beenthe object of muchunintelligent,and misdirected adulation, but his greatness,sofarfromsufferingdiminution,growsmoreapparentwiththepassageoftimeandtheincreaseofstudy.

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[Note:ThetheorypersistentlyadvocatedduringthelasthalfcenturythatShakespeare'sworkswerereallywrittennotby himselfbutbyFrancisBaconorsomeotherpersoncannevergaincredencewithanycompetentjudge.Ourknowledgeof Shakespeare'slife,slightasitis,isreallyatleastasgreatasthatwhichhasbeenpreservedofalmostanydramatistofthe period; for dramatists were not then looked on as persons of permanent importance. There is really much direct contemporarydocumentaryevidence,aswehavealreadyindicated,ofShakespeare'sauthorshipoftheplaysandpoems. No theory, further, could be more preposterous, to any one really acquainted with literature, than the idea that the imaginativepoetryofShakespearewasproducedbytheessentiallyscientificandprosaicmindofFrancisBacon.Astothe ciphersystemssupposedtorevealhiddenmessagesintheplays:First,nopoetbendinghisenergiestothecompositionof such masterpieces as Shakespeare's could possibly concern himself at the same time with weaving into them a complicatedandtriflingcryptogram.Second,theciphersystemsareabsolutelyarbitraryandunscientific,appliedtoany writingswhatevercanbemadeto'prove'anythingthatonelikes,andindeedhavebeendiscreditedinthehandsoftheir owninventorsbybeingmadeto'prove'fartoomuch.Third,ithasbeendemonstratedmorethanoncethattheverbal coincidencesonwhichtheciphersystemsrestarenomorenumerousthanthelawofmathematicalprobabilitiesrequires. Asidefromactuallyviciouspursuits,therecanbenomoremelancholywasteoftimethantheefforttodemonstratethat Shakespeareisnottherealauthorofhisreputedworks.]

Nationallifefrom1603to1660
Wehavealreadyobservedthat,asShakespeare'scareersuggests,therewasnoabruptchangeineitherlifeorliteratureat thedeathofQueenElizabethin1603;andinfacttheElizabethanperiodofliteratureisoftenmadetoincludethereignof JamesI,16031625(theJacobeanperiod[Footnote:'Jaco'bus'istheLatinformof'James.']),oreven,especiallyinthecase of the drama, that of Charles I, 16251649 (the Carolean period). Certainly the drama of all three reigns forms a continuously developing whole, and should be discussed as such. None the less the spirit of the first half of the seventeenthcenturycamegraduallytobewidelydifferentfromthatoftheprecedingfiftyyears,andbeforegoingonto Shakespeare'ssuccessorswemuststoptoindicatebrieflywhereinthedifferenceconsistsandforthispurposetospeakof thedeterminingeventsoftheperiod.BeforetheendofElizabeth'sreign,indeed,therehadbeenaperceptiblechange;as thequeengrewoldandmorosethenationallifeseemedalsotoloseitsyouthandfreshness.Hersuccessoranddistant cousin,JamesofScotland(JamesIofEngland),wasabigotedpedant,andunderhisruletheperennialCourtcorruption, striking in, became foul and noisome. The national Church, instead of protesting, steadily identified itself more closely withtheCourtparty,anditsrulingofficials,onthewhole,grewmoreandmoreworldlyandintolerant.Littlebylittlethe nationfounditselfdividedintotwogreatfactions;ontheonehandtheCavaliers,thepartyoftheCourt,thenobles,and theChurch,whocontinuedtobelargelydominatedbytheRenaissancezestforbeautyand,especially,pleasure;andon the other hand the Puritans, comprising the bulk of the middle classes, controlled by the religious principles of the Reformation, often, in their opposition to Cavalier frivolity, stern and narrow, and more and more inclined to separate themselvesfromtheEnglishChurchindenominationsoftheirown.Thebreachsteadilywideneduntilin1642,underthe arbitraryruleofCharlesI,theCivilWarbrokeout.InthreeyearsthePuritanParliamentwasvictorious,andin1649the extrememinorityofthePuritans,supportedbythearmy,tooktheunprecedentedstepofputtingKingCharlestodeath, anddeclaredEnglandaCommonwealth.ButinfouryearsmoretheParliamentarygovernment,bigotedandinefficient, made itself impossible, and then for five years, until his death, Oliver Cromwell strongly ruled England as Protector. Anotheryearandahalfofchaosconfirmedthenationinanaturalreaction,andin1660theunworthyStuartracewas restored in the person of the base and frivolous Charles II. The general influence of the forces which produced these events shows clearly in the changing tone of the drama, the work of those dramatists who were Shakespeare's later contemporariesandsuccessors.

BenJonson
The second place among the Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists is universally assigned, on the whole justly, to Ben Jonson, who both in temperament and in artistic theories and practice presents a complete contrast to Shakespeare. Jonson, the posthumous son of an impoverished gentlemanclergyman, was born in London in 1573. At Westminster Schoolhereceivedapermanentbenttowardclassicalstudiesfromtheheadmaster,WilliamCamden,whowasoneofthe greatestscholarsofthetime.Forcedintotheuncongenialtradeofhisstepfather,amasterbricklayer,hesoondesertedit toenlistamongtheEnglishsoldierswhowerehelpingtheDutchtofighttheirSpanishoppressors.Hereheexhibitedsome ofhisdominatingtraitsbychallengingachampionfromtheotherarmyandkillinghiminclassicalfashioninsinglecombat betweenthelines.ByabouttheageoftwentyhewasbackinLondonandmarriedtoawifewhomhelaterdescribedas being'virtuousbutashrew,'andwhoatonetimefounditmoreagreeabletoliveapartfromhim.Hebecameanactor(at whichprofessionhefailed)andawriterofplays.About1598hedisplayedhisdistinguishingrealisticstyleinthecomedy 'Every Man in His Humour,' which was acted by Shakespeare's company, it is said through Shakespeare's friendly influence.At about the same time the burly Jonson killed another actor in aduel and escapedcapital punishment only through'benefitofclergy'(theexemptionstillallowedtoeducatedmen).

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TheplayswhichJonsonproducedduringthefollowingyearswerechieflysatiricalattacksonotherdramatists,especially Marston and Dekker, who retorted in kind. Thus there developed a fierce actors' quarrel, referred to in Shakespeare's 'Hamlet,' in which the 'children's' companies had some active but now uncertain part. Before it was over most of the dramatistshadtakensidesagainstJonson,whosearrogantandviolentselfassertivenessputhimatodds,soonerorlater, withnearlyeveryonewithwhomhehadmuchtodo.In1603hemadepeace,onlytobecomeinvolvedinother,stillmore, serious difficulties. Shortly after the accession of King James, Jonson, Chapman, and Marston brought out a comedy, 'Eastward Hoe,' in which they offended the king by satirical flings at the needy Scotsmen to whom James was freely awardingCourtpositions.Theywereimprisonedandforawhile,accordingtothebarbarousprocedureofthetime,were indangeroflosingtheirearsandnoses.Atabanquetcelebratingtheirrelease,Jonsonreports,his'oldmother'produced apaperofpoisonwhich,ifnecessary,shehadintendedtoadministertohimtosavehimfromthisdisgrace,andofwhich, shesaid,toshowthatshewas'nochurl,'shewouldherselffirsthavedrunk. Justbeforethisincident,in1603,Jonsonhadturnedtotragedyandwritten'Sejanus,'whichmarksthebeginningofhis most important decade. He followed up 'Sejanus' after several years with the less excellent 'Catiline,' but his most significant dramatic works, on the whole, are his four great satirical comedies. 'Volpone, or the Fox,' assails gross vice; 'Epicoene,theSilentWoman,'ridiculesvarioussortsofabsurdpersons;'TheAlchemist'castigatesquackeryanditsfoolish encouragers;and'BartholomewFair'isacoarsebutoverwhelmingbroadsideatPuritanhypocrisy.Strangeasitseemsin theauthorofthesemasterpiecesoffrankrealism,Jonsonatthesametimewasshowinghimselfthemostgiftedwriterof the Court masks, which now, arrived at the last period of their evolution, were reaching the extreme of spectacular elaborateness.EarlyinJames'reign,therefore,JonsonwasmadeCourtPoet,andduringthenextthirtyyearsheproduced about forty masks, devoting to them much attention and care, and quarreling violently with Inigo Jones, the Court architect,whocontrivedthestagesettings.DuringthisperiodJonsonwasunderthepatronageofvariousnobles,andhe alsoreignedasdictatorattheclubofliterarymenwhichSirWalterRaleighhadfoundedattheMermaidTavern(socalled, like other inns, from its sign). A wellknown poetical letter of the dramatist Francis Beaumont to Jonson celebrates the club meetings; and equallywell known isa descriptiongiven in the next generation from hearsayand inferenceby the antiquary Thomas Fuller: 'Many were the witcombats betwixt Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, which two I behold like a SpanishgreatgalleonandanEnglishmanofwar:MasterJonson,liketheformer,wasbuiltfarhigherinlearning;solid,but slowinhisperformances;Shakespere,withtheEnglishmanofwar,lesserinbulk,butlighterinsailing,couldturnwithall tides,tackaboutandtakeadvantageofallwinds,bythequicknessofhiswitandinvention.' The last dozen years of Jonson's life were unhappy. Though he had a pension from the Court, he was sometimes in financialstraits;andforatimehelosthispositionasCourtPoet.Heresumedthewritingofregularplays,buthisstyleno longerpleasedthepublic;andheoftensufferedmuchfromsickness.NeverthelessattheDevilTavernhecollectedabout him a circle of younger admirers, some of them among the oncoming poets, who were proud to be known as 'Sons of Ben,'andwholargelyacceptedasauthoritativehisopinionsonliterarymatters.Thushislife,whichendedin1637,didnot altogethergooutingloom.Ontheplainstonewhichalone,foralongtime,markedhisgraveinWestminsterAbbeyan unknownadmirerinscribedthefamousepitaph,'OrareBenJonson.' AsamanJonson,pugnacious,capricious,illmannered,sometimessurly,intemperateindrinkandinotherrespects,isan object for only very qualified admiration; and as a writer he cannot properly be said to possess that indefinable thing, genius,whichisessentialtothetruestgreatness.Butbothasmanandaswriterhemanifestedgreatforce;andinboth dramaandpoetryhestandsforseveraldistinctliteraryprinciplesandattainmentshighlyimportantbothinthemselves andfortheirsubsequentinfluence. 1.Mostconspicuousinhisdramasishisrealism,often,aswehavesaid,extremelycoarse,andadirectreflectionofhis intellect,whichwasasstronglymasculineashisbodyandaltogetherlacking,wheretheregulardramawasconcerned,in fineness of sentiment or poetic feeling. He early assumed an attitude of pronounced opposition to the Elizabethan romantic plays, which seemed to him not only lawless in artistic structure but unreal and trifling in atmosphere and substance. (That he was not, however, as has sometimes been said, personally hostile to Shakespeare is clear, among otherthings,fromhispoetictributesinthefolioeditionofShakespeareandfromhisdirectstatementelsewherethathe loved Shakespeare almost to idolatry.) Jonson's purpose was to present life as he believed it to be; he was thoroughly acquaintedwithitsworserside;andherefusedtoconcealanythingthatappearedtohimsignificant.Hisplays,therefore, haveverymuchthatisflatlyoffensivetothetastewhichseeksinliterature,prevailingly,foridealismandbeauty;butthey are,nevertheless,generallyspeaking,powerfulportrayalsofactuallife. 2.Jonson'spurpose,however,wasneverunworthy;rather,itwasdistinctlytoupholdmorality.Hisfrankestplays,aswe have indicated, are attacks on vice and folly, and sometimes, it is said, had important reformatory influence on contemporarymanners.Heheld,indeed,thatinthedrama,evenincomedy,thefunctionofteachingwasasimportantas that ofgivingpleasure. Hisattitude toward his audiences was that ofa learned schoolmaster, whose ideas theyshould acceptwithdeferentialrespect;andwhentheydidnotapprovehisplayshewasoutspokeninindignantcontempt.

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3. Jonson's selfsatisfaction and his critical sense of intellectual superiority to the generality of mankind produce also a markedanddisagreeablelackofsympathyinhisportrayalofbothlifeandcharacter.Theworldofhisdramasismostly madeupofknaves,scoundrels,hypocrites,fools,anddupes;anditincludesamongitsreallyimportantcharactersvery fewexcellentmenandnotasinglereallygoodwoman.Jonsonviewedhisfellowmen,inthemass,withcompletescorn, whichitwasoneofhismoralandartisticprinciplesnottodisguise.Hischaracteristiccomediesallbelong,further,tothe particulartypewhichhehimselforiginated,namely,the'ComedyofHumors.' [Footnote:Themeaningofthis,termcanbeunderstoodonlybysomeexplanationofthehistoryoftheword'Humor.'In thefirstplacethiswastheLatinnamefor'liquid.'Accordingtomedievalphysiologytherewerefourchiefliquidsinthe humanbody,namelyblood,phlegm,bile,andblackbile,andanexcessofanyofthemproducedanunduepredominance of the corresponding quality; thus, an excess of phlegm made a person phlegmatic, or dull; or an excess of black bile, melancholy. In the Elizabethan idiom, therefore, 'humor' came to mean a mood, and then any exaggerated quality or markedpeculiarityinaperson.] Aimingintheseplaystoflailthefolliesofhistime,hemakeshischiefcharacters,inspiteofhisrealisticpurpose,extreme anddistorted 'humors,'each,inspiteofindividualtraits,theembodimentofsomeoneabstractvicecowardice,sensualism,hypocrisy, orwhatnot.Toooften,also,theunrealityisincreasedbecauseJonsontakesthecharactersfromthestockfiguresofLatin comedyratherthanfromgenuineEnglishlife. 4. In opposition to the free Elizabethan romantic structure, Jonson stood for and deliberately intended to revive the classical style; though with characteristic good sense he declared that not all the classical practices were applicable to English plays. He generally observed unity not only of action but also of time (a single day) and place, sometimes with seriousresultantlossofprobability.Inhistragedies,'Sejanus'and'Catiline,'heexcludedcomicmaterial;forthemostpart hekeptscenesofdeathandviolenceoffthestage;andheverycarefullyandslowlyconstructedplayswhichhavenothing, indeed,ofthepoeticgreatnessofSophoclesorEuripides(ratheraJonsonesebroadsolidity)butwhichmovesteadilyto theirclimaxesandthenontothecatastrophesinthecompactclassicalmanner.Hecarriedhisscholarship,however,to thepointofpedantry,notonlyintheillustrativeextractsfromLatinauthorswithwhichintheprintededitionhefilledthe lowerhalfofhispages,butintheplaysthemselvesinthescrupulousexactitudeofhisrenderingofthedetailsofRoman life.TheplaysreconstructtheancientworldwithmuchmoreminuteaccuracythandoShakespeare's;thestudentshould considerforhimselfwhethertheysucceedbetterinreproducingitshumanreality,makingitalivingpartofthereader's mentalandspiritualpossessions. 5. Jonson's style in his plays, especially the blank verse of his tragedies, exhibits the same general characteristics. It is strong, compact, and sometimes powerful, but it entirely lacks imaginative poetic beautyit is really only rhythmical prose,thoughsometimessuffusedwithpassion. 6. The surprising skill which Jonson, author of such plays, showed in devising the court masks, daintily unsubstantial creationsofmoralallegory,classicalmyth,andTeutonicfolklore,isrenderedlesssurprising,perhaps,bythelackinthe masksofanyverygreatlyricquality.Thereisnolyricqualityatallinthegreaterpartofhisnondramaticverse,though thereisanoccasionaldelightfulexception,asinthefamous'Drinktomeonlywiththineeyes.'Butofhisnondramatic verseweshallspeakinthenextchapter. 7. Last, and not least: Jonson's revolt from romanticism to classicism initiated, chiefly in nondramatic verse, the movement for restraint and regularity, which, making slow headway during the next half century, was to issue in the triumphantpseudoclassicismofthegenerationsofDrydenandPope.Thus,notableinhimself,hewassignificantalsoas oneofthemovingforcesofagreatliteraryrevolution.

Theotherdramatists
Fromthemanyotherdramatistsofthishighlydramaticperiod,someofwhomintheirowndayenjoyedareputationfully equaltothatofShakespeareandJonson,wemaymerelyselectafewforbriefmention.Fornotonlydoestheirlightnow palehopelesslyinthepresenceofShakespeare,butinmanycasestheirviolationsoftasteandmoralrestraintpassthe limits of presentday tolerance. Most of them, like Shakespeare, produced both comedies and tragedies, prevailingly romanticbutwith elements of realism; most of them wrote more often incollaboration thandid Shakespeare;they all shared the Elizabethan vigorously creative interest in life; but none of them attained either Shakespeare's wisdom, his power,orhismasteryofpoeticbeauty.OneofthemostlearnedofthegroupwasGeorgeChapman,whoseversehasa Jonsonian solidity not unaccompanied with Jonsonian ponderousness. He won fame also in nondramatic poetry,

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especiallybyvigorousbutratherclumsyversetranslationsofthe'Iliad'and'Odyssey,'Anotherhighlyindividualfigureis that of Thomas Dekker, who seems to have been one of the completest embodiments of irrepressible Elizabethan cheerfulness, though this was joined in him with an irresponsibility which kept him commonly floundering in debt or confined in debtor's prison. His 'Shoemaker's Holiday' (1600), still occasionally chosen by amateur companies for reproduction,givesaroughandreadybut(apartfromitscoarseness)charmingromanticizedpictureofthelifeofLondon apprenticesandwholeheartedcitizens.ThomasHeywood,asortofjournalistbeforethedaysofnewspapers,produced anenormousamountofworkinvariousliteraryforms;inthedramaheclaimedtohavehad'anentirehand,oratleasta mainefinger'innolessthantwohundredandtwentyplays.Inevitably,therefore,heiscarelessandslipshod,butsomeof his portrayals of sturdy English men and women and of romantic adventure (as in 'The Fair Maid of the West') are of refreshing naturalness and breeziness. Thomas Middleton, also a very prolific writer, often deals, like Jonson and Heywood,withsordidmaterial.JohnMarston,aswell,hastoolittledelicacyorreserve;healsowrotecatchascatchcan nondramaticsatires. The sanity ofShakespeare'splays, continuingand indeed increasing toward the endof hiscareer,disguises formodern studentsthetendencytodeclineinthedramawhichsetinataboutthetimeofKingJames'accession.Notlaterthanthe end of the first decade of the century the dramatists as a class exhibit not only a decrease of originality in plot and characterization,butalsoaloweringofmoraltone,whichresultslargelyfromthecloseridentificationofthedramawith theCourtparty.Thereisalackofseriousnessofpurpose,anincreasingtendencytoreturn,inmoremorbidspirit,tothe sensationalism of the 1580's, andan anxious straining to attract andplease the audiences by almost any means.These tendenciesappearintheplaysofFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,whosereputationsareindissolublylinkedtogether inoneofthemostfamousliterarypartnershipsofalltime.Beaumont,however,wasshortlived,andmuchthegreater partofthefiftyandmoreplaysultimatelypublishedundertheirjointnamesreallybelongtoFletcheraloneortoFletcher and other collaborators. The scholarship of our day agrees with the opinion of their contemporaries in assigning to Beaumont the greater share of judgment and intellectual power and to Fletcher the greater share of spontaneity and fancy.Fletcher'sstyleisveryindividual.Itispeculiarlysweet;butitsunmistakablemarkishisconstanttendencytobreak downtheblankverselinebytheuseofextrasyllables,bothwithinthelineandattheend.Thelyricswhichhescatters throughhisplaysarebeautifullysmoothandmusical.TheplaysofBeaumontandFletcher,asagroup,aresentimentally romantic,ofteninanextravagantdegree,thoughtheircharmoftenconcealstheextravaganceaswellasthelackoftrue characterization.Theyarenotableoftenfortheirportrayaloftheloyaldevotionofbothmenandwomentoking,lover,or friend. One of the best of them is 'Philaster, or Love Lies Bleeding,' while Fletcher's 'Faithful Shepherdess' is the most pleasingexampleinEnglishoftheartificialpastoraldramaintheItalianandSpanishstyle. The Elizabethan tendency to sensational horror finds its greatest artistic expression in two plays of John Webster, 'The WhiteDevil,orVittoriaCorombona,'and'TheDuchessofMalfi.'HerethecorruptandbrutallifeoftheItaliannobilityof theRenaissanceispresentedwithterriblefrankness,butwithanoverwhelmingsenseforpassion,tragedy,andpathos. ThemostmovingpathospermeatessomeoftheplaysofJohnFord(ofthetimeofCharlesI),forexample,'TheBroken Heart'; but they are abnormal and unhealthy. Philip Massinger, a pupil and collaborator of Fletcher, was of thoughtful spirit,andapparentlyasinceremoralistatheart,inspiteofmuchconcessioninhisplaystothecontrarydemandsofthe time. His famous comedy, 'A New Way to Pay Old Debts,' a satire on greed and cruelty, is one of the few plays of the period,asidefromShakespeare's,whicharestilloccasionallyacted.ThelastdramatistofthewholegreatlinewasJames Shirley,whosurvivedtheCommonwealthandtheRestorationanddiedofexposureattheFireofLondonin1666.Inhis romanticcomediesandcomediesofmannersShirleyvividlyreflectsthethoughtlesslifeoftheCourtofCharlesIandofthe welltodo contemporary London citizens and shows how surprisingly far that life had progressed toward the reckless frivolityandabandonmentwhichaftertheintervalofPuritanruleweretorunriotintheRestorationperiod. ThegreatElizabethandramaticimpulsehadthusbecomedeeplydegenerate,andnothingcouldbemorefittingthanthat itshouldbebroughttoadefiniteend.Whenthewarbrokeoutin1642oneofthefirstactsofParliament,nowatlastfree to work its will on the enemies of Puritanism, was to decree that 'whereas public sports do not well agree with public calamities,norpublicstageplayswiththeseasonsofhumiliation,'alldramaticperformancesshouldcease.Thislaw,fatal, of course, to the writing as well as the acting of plays, was enforced with only slightly relaxing rigor until very shortly beforetheRestorationofCharlesIIin1660.DoubtlesstothePuritansitseemedthattheirlongfightagainstthetheater hadendedinpermanenttriumph;butthiswasonlyoneofmanyrespectsinwhichthePuritansweretolearnthathuman naturecannotbeforcedintopermanentconformitywithanyrigidlyoverseverestandard,onhoweverhighidealsitmay bebased. SUMMARY. Thechiefdramatistsofthewholesixtyyearsofthegreatperiodmaybeconvenientlygroupedasfollows:I.Shakespeare's early contemporaries, about 1580 to about 1593: Lyly, Peele, Greene, Kyd, Marlowe. II. Shakespeare. III. Shakespeare's

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latercontemporaries,underElizabethandJamesI:Jonson,Chapman,Dekker,Heywood,Middleton,Marston,Beaumont andFletcher,Webster.IV.Thelastgroup,underJamesIandCharlesI,to1642:Ford,Massinger,andShirley.

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TheSeventeenthCentury,16031660.ProseAndPoetry
Thefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcenturyasawhole,comparedwiththeElizabethanage,wasaperiodofrelaxingvigor. TheRenaissanceenthusiasmhadspentitself,andinplaceofthedangerandglorywhichhadlongunitedthenationthere followedincreasingdissensioninreligionandpoliticsanduncertaintyastothefutureofEnglandand,indeed,astothe wholepurposeoflife.Throughincreasedexperiencemenwerecertainlywiserandmoresophisticatedthanbefore,but theywerealsomoreselfconsciousandsadderormorepensive.Theoutputofliteraturedidnotdiminish,butitspread itself over wider fields, in general fields of somewhat recondite scholarship rather than of creation. Nevertheless this period includes in prose one writer greater than any prose writer of the previous century, namely Francis Bacon, and, further,thebookwhichunquestionablyoccupiesthehighestplaceinEnglishliterature,thatistheKingJamesversionof the Bible; and in poetry it includes one of the very greatest figures, John Milton, together with a varied and highly interestingassemblageoflesserlyrists.

FrancisBacon,ViscountSt.Albans,15611626.3
Francis Bacon, intellectually one of the most eminent Englishmen of all times, and chief formulator of the methods of modern science, was born in 1561 (three years before Shakespeare), the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon,Lord Keeper of the GreatSealunderQueenElizabethandoneofhermosttrustedearlieradvisers.Theboy'sprecocityledthequeentocall himher'littleLordKeeper.'Attheageoftwelvehe,likeWyatt,wassenttoCambridge,wherehischiefimpressionwasof disgust at the unfruitful scholastic application of Aristotle's ideas, still supreme in spite of a century of Renaissance enlightenment. A very much more satisfactory three years' residence in France in the household of the English ambassadorwasterminatedin1579(theyearofSpenser's'Shepherd'sCalendar')bythedeathofSirNicholas.Baconwas nowreadytoenteronthegreatcareerforwhichhistalentsfittedhim,buthisunclebymarriage,LordBurghley,though allpowerfulwiththequeen,systematicallythwartedhisprogress,fromjealousconsciousnessofhissuperioritytohisown son.Baconthereforestudiedlaw,andwassoonchosenamemberofParliament,wherehequicklybecamealeader.He continued,however,throughouthislifetodevotemuchofhistimetostudyandscholarlyscientificwriting. On the interpretation of Bacon's public actions depends the answer to the complex and muchdebated question of his character.Themostreasonableconclusionsseemtobe:thatBaconwassincerelydevotedtothepublicgoodandinhis earlierlifewassometimesreadytoriskhisowninterestsinitsbehalf;thathehadaperfectlycleartheoreticalinsightinto theprinciplesofmoralconduct;thathelackedthemoralforceofcharactertoliveonthelevelofhisconvictions,sothat afterthefirst,atleast,hispersonalambitionwasoftenstrongerthanhisconscience;thathebelievedthatpublicsuccess couldbegainedonlybyconformitytothelowstandardsoftheage;thathefellintothefatalerrorofsupposingthathis own preeminent endowments and the services which they might enable him to render justified him in the use of unworthymeans;thathissenseofrealasdistinguishedfromapparentpersonaldignitywasdistressinglyinadequate;and that, in general, like many men of great intellect, he was deficient in greatness of character, emotion, fine feeling, sympathy, and even in comprehension of the highest spiritual principles. He certainly shared to the full in the usual courtier'sambitionforgreatplaceandwealth,andintheworldling'sinclinationtoostentatiousdisplay. HavingoffendedQueenElizabethbyhisboldnessinsuccessfullyopposinganencroachmentontherightsoftheHouseof Commons,BaconconnectedhimselfwiththeEarlofEssexandreceivedfromhimmanyfavors;butwhenEssexattempted atreasonableinsurrectionin1601,Bacon,asoneoftheQueen'slawyers,displayedagainsthimasubservientzealwhich ontheoreticalgroundsofpatriotismmightappearpraiseworthy,butwhichinviewofhispersonalobligationswasgrossly indecent. For the worldly prosperity which he sought, however, Bacon was obliged to wait until the accession of King James,afterwhichhisrisewasrapid.TheKingappreciatedhisabilityandoftenconsultedhim,andhefrequentlygavethe wisest advice, whose acceptance might perhaps have averted the worst national disasters of the next fifty years. The advicewasabovethecourageofboththeKingandtheage;butBaconwasadvancedthroughvariouslegaloffices,untilin 1613hewasmadeAttorneyGeneralandin1618(twoyearsafterShakespeare'sdeath)LordHighChancellorofEngland, atthesametimebeingraisedtothepeerageasBaronVerulam.Duringallthisperiod,inspiteofhisbetterknowledge,he truckledwithsorryservilitytotheKingandhisunworthyfavoritesandlenthimselfasanagentintheirmostarbitraryacts. Retributionovertookhimin1621,withinafewdaysafterhiselevationtothedignityofViscountSt.Albans.TheHouseof Commons,balkedinanattackontheKingandtheDukeofBuckingham,suddenlyturnedonBaconandimpeachedhimfor having received bribes in connection with his legal decisions as Lord Chancellor. Bacon admitted the taking of presents (against which in one of his essays he had directly cautioned judges), and threw himself on the mercy of the House of Lords, with whom the sentence lay. He appears to have been sincere in protesting later that the presents had not influencedhisdecisionsandthathewasthejustestjudgewhomEnglandhadhadforfiftyyears;itseemsthatthegivingof

3:Macaulay'swellknownessayonBaconismarredbyMacaulay'sbesettingfaultsofsuperficialityanddogmatismandisbestleftunread.

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presents by the parties to a suit was a customary abuse. But he had technically laid himself open to the malice of his enemiesandwascondemnedtoveryheavypenalties,ofwhichtwowereenforced,namely,perpetualincapacitationfrom holdingpublicoffice,andbanishmentfromCourt.Evenafterthishecontinued,withanastonishinglackofgoodtaste,to liveextravagantlyandbeyondhismeans(againindisregardofhisownprecepts),sothatPrinceCharlesobservedthathe 'scornedtogooutinasnuff.'Hediedin1626fromacoldcaughtintheprosecutionofhisscientificresearches,namelyin anexperimentonthepowerofsnowtopreservemeat. Bacon's splendid mind and unique intellectual vision produced, perhaps inevitably, considering his public activity, only fragmentaryconcreteachievements.Theonlyoneofhisbooksstillcommonlyreadistheseriesof'Essays,'whichconsist of brief and comparatively informal jottings on various subjects. In their earliest form, in 1597, the essays were ten in number,butbyadditionsfromtimetotimetheyhadincreasedatlastin1625tofiftyeight.Theydealwithagreatvariety of topics, whatever Bacon happened to be interested in, from friendship to the arrangement of a house, and in their condensationtheyaremorelikebaresynopsesthancompletediscussions.Buttheircomprehensivenessofview,sureness of ideas and phrasing, suggestiveness, and apt illustrations reveal the pregnancy and practical force of Bacon's thought (though, on the other hand, he is not altogether free from the superstitions of his time and after the lapse of three hundredyears sometimes seems commonplace). The whole general tone oftheessays, also, shows the man,keen and worldly,notatallapoetoridealist.Howtosucceedandmakethemostofprosperitymightbecalledthepervadingtheme oftheessays,andsubjectswhichinthemselvessuggestspiritualtreatmentareactuallyconsideredinaccordancewitha coldlyintellectualcalculationofworldlyadvantage. Theessaysarescarcelylessnotableforstylethanforideas.WithcharacteristicintellectualindependenceBaconstrikes outforhimselfanextremelyterseandclearmannerofexpression,doubtlessinfluencedbysuchLatinauthorsasTacitus, whichstandsinmarkedcontrasttotheformlessdiffusenessorartificialelaboratenessofmostElizabethanandJacobean prose.Hisunitofstructureisalwaysashortclause.Thesentencesaresometimesshort,sometimesconsistofanumberof connectedclauses;buttheyarealwaysessentiallylooseratherthanperiodic;sothatthethoughtisperfectlysimpleand its movement clear and systematic. The very numerous allusions to classical history and life are not the result of affectation,butmerelyindicatethenaturalfurnishingofthemindoftheeducatedRenaissancegentleman.Theessays,it shouldbeadded,wereevidentlysuggestedandmoreorlessinfluencedbythoseofthegreatFrenchthinker,Montaigne, an earlier contemporary ofBacon. The hold of medievalscholarly tradition, it is further interestingto note, was still so strongthatinordertoinsuretheirpermanentpreservationBacontranslatedthemintoLatinhetookforgrantedthatthe Englishinwhichhefirstcomposedthemandinwhichtheywillalwaysbeknownwasonlyatemporaryvulgartongue. ButBacon'smostimportantwork,aswehavealreadyimplied,wasnotinthefieldofpureliteraturebutinthegeneral advancementofknowledge,particularlyknowledgeofnaturalscience;andofthisgreatservicewemustspeakbriefly.His avowaltoBurghley,madeasearlyas1592,isfamous:'Ihavetakenallknowledgetobemyprovince.'Brieflystated,his purposes,constitutinganabsorbingandnobleambition,weretosurveyallthelearningofhistime,inalllinesofthought, naturalscience,morals,politics,andtherest,tooverthrowthecurrentmethodofapriorideduction,deductionresting, moreover, on very insufficient and longantiquated bases of observation, and to substitute for it as the method of the future,unlimitedfreshobservationandexperimentandinductivereasoning.Thisenormoustaskwastobemappedout anditsresultssummarizedinaLatinworkcalled'MagnaInstauratioScientiarum'(TheGreatRenewalofKnowledge);but partsofthissurveywerenecessarilytobeleftforposteritytoformulate,andoftherestBaconactuallycomposedonlya fraction.WhatmaybecalledthefirstpartappearedoriginallyinEnglishin1605andisknownbytheabbreviatedtitle, 'The Advancement of Learning'; the expanded Latin form has the title, 'De Augmentis Scientiarum.' Its exhaustive enumerationofthebranchesofthoughtandknowledge,whathasbeenaccomplishedineachandwhatmaybehopedfor itinthefuture,isthoroughlyfascinating,thoughevenhereBaconwasnotcapableofpassionateenthusiasm.However, thesecondpartofthework,'NovumOrganum'(TheNewMethod),writteninLatinandpublishedin1620,isthemost important. Most interesting here, perhaps, is the classification (contrasting with Plato's doctrine of divinely perfect controllingideas)ofthe'idols'(phantoms)whichmisleadthehumanmind.OftheseBaconfindsfoursorts:idolsofthe tribe,whichareinherentinhumannature;idolsofthecave,theerrorsoftheindividual;idolsofthemarketplace,dueto mistakenrelianceonwords;andidolsofthetheater(thatis,oftheschools),resultingfromfalsereasoning. In the details of all his scholarly work Bacon's knowledge and point of view were inevitably imperfect. Even in natural sciencehewasnotaltogetherabreastofhistimeherefusedtoacceptHarvey'sdiscoveryofthemannerofthecirculation of the blood and the Copernican system of astronomy. Neither was he, as is sometimes supposed, the inventor of the inductivemethodofobservationandreasoning,whichinsomedegreeisfundamentalinallstudy.Buthedid,muchmore fully and clearly than any one before him, demonstrate the importance and possibilities of that method; modern experimentalscienceandthoughthaveproceededdirectlyinthepathwhichhepointedout;andheisfullyentitledtothe greathonorofbeingcalledtheirfather,whichcertainlyplaceshimhighamongthegreatfiguresinthehistoryofhuman thought.

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TheKingJamesBible,1611
ItwasduringthereignofJamesIthatthelongseriesofsixteenthcenturytranslationsoftheBiblereacheditsculmination in what we have already called the greatest of all English books (or rather, collections of books), the King James ('Authorized')version.In1604anecclesiasticalconferenceacceptedasuggestion,approvedbytheking,thatanewand more accurate rendering of the Bible should be made. The work was entrusted to a body of about fifty scholars, who divided themselves into six groups, among which the various books of the Bible were apportioned. The resulting translation,proceedingwiththeinevitableslowness,wascompletedin1611,andthenratherrapidlysupersededallother Englishversionsforbothpublicandprivateuse.ThisKingJamesBibleisuniversallyacceptedasthechiefmasterpieceof Englishprosestyle.Thetranslatorsfollowedpreviousversionssofaraspossible,checkingthembycomparisonwiththe original Hebrew and Greek, so that while attaining the greater correctness at which they aimed they preserved the accumulated stylistic excellences of three generations of their predecessors; and their language, properly varying according to the nature of the different books, possesses an imaginative grandeur and rhythm not unworthyand no higherpraisecouldbeawardedofthethemeswhichitexpresses.Thestillmoreaccuratescholarshipofalatercentury demandedtheRevisedVersionof1881,butthesuperiorliteraryqualityoftheKingJamesversionremainsundisputed.Its style,bythenatureofthecase,wassomewhatarchaicfromtheoutset,andofcoursehasbecomemuchmoresowiththe passageoftime.ThisentailsthepracticaldisadvantageofmakingtheBibleevents,characters,andideasseemlessreal andliving;butontheotherhandithelpsinestimablytocreatethefinerimaginativeatmospherewhichissoessentialfor thegenuinereligiousspirit.

Minorprosewriters
AmongtheproseauthorsoftheperiodwhoholdanassuredsecondarypositioninthehistoryofEnglishliteraturethreeor fourmaybementioned:RobertBurton,Oxfordscholar,minister,andrecluse,whose'AnatomyofMelancholy'(1621),a vast and quaint compendium of information both scientific and literary, has largely influenced numerous later writers; JeremyTaylor,royalistclergymanandbishop,oneofthemosteloquentandspiritualofEnglishpreachers,authorof'Holy Living'(1650)and'HolyDying'(1651);IzaakWalton,Londontradesmanandstudent,bestknownforhis'CompleatAngler' (1653), but author also of charming brief lives of Donne, George Herbert, and others of his contemporaries; and Sir Thomas Browne, a scholarly physician of Norwich, who elaborated a fastidiously poetic Latinized prose style for his pensivelydelightful'ReligioMedici'(APhysician'sReligion1643)andotherworks.

Lyricpoetry
Apart from the drama and the King James Bible, the most enduring literary achievement of the period was in poetry. Miltondistinctly, after Shakespeare, thegreatest writer of thecenturymust receive separateconsideration;themore purelylyricpoetsmaybegroupedtogether. TheabsenceofanysharplineofseparationbetweentheliteratureofthereignofElizabethandofthoseofJamesIand CharlesIisnolessmarkedinthecaseofthelyricpoetrythanofthedrama.Someofthepoetswhomwehavealready discussedinChapterVcontinuedwritinguntiltheseconddecadeoftheseventeenthcentury,orlater,andsomeofthose whomweshallherenamehadcommencedtheircareerwellbefore1600.Justasinthedrama,therefore,somethingof the Elizabethan spirit remains in the lyric poetry; yet here also before many years there is a perceptible change; the Elizabethanspontaneousjoyousnesslargelyvanishesandisreplacedbymoreselfconsciousartistryorthought. TheElizabethannoteisperhapsmostunmodifiedincertainanonymoussongsandotherpoemsoftheearlyyearsofJames I,suchastheexquisite'Weepyounomore,sadfountains.'ItisclearalsointhecharmingsongsofThomasCampion,a physicianwhocomposedbothwordsandmusicforseveralsongbooks,andinMichaelDrayton,avoluminouspoetand dramatistwhoisknowntomostreadersonlyforhisfinelyruggedpatrioticballadonthebattleofAgincourt.SirHenry Wotton, [Footnote: The first o is pronounced as in note. ] statesman and Provost (head) of Eton School, displays the Elizabethanidealismin'TheCharacterofaHappyLife'andinhisstanzasinpraiseofElizabeth,daughterofKingJames, wife of the illstarred ElectorPalatine and King of Bohemia, and ancestress of the present English royal family. The Elizabethan spirit is present but mingled with seventeenth century melancholy in the sonnets and other poems of the Scotch gentleman William Drummond of Hawthornden (the name of his estate near Edinburgh), who in quiet lifelong retirementlamentedtheuntimelydeathoftheladytowhomhehadbeenbetrothedormeditatedonheavenlythings. InDrummondappearstheinfluenceofSpenser,whichwasstrongonmanypoetsoftheperiod,especiallyonsome,like WilliamBrowne,whocontinuedthepastoralform.Anotherofthemainforces,inlyricpoetryasinthedrama,wasthe beginning of the revival of the classical spirit, and in lyric poetry also this was largely due to Ben Jonson. As we have

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alreadysaid,thegreaterpartofJonson'snondramaticpoetry,likehisdramas,expresseschieflythedownrightstrengthof hismindandcharacter.Itisterseandunadorned,dealingoftenwithcommonplacethingsinthemanneroftheEpistles andSatiresofHorace,anditgenerallyhasmoreofthequalityofintellectualprosethanofrealemotionalpoetry.Avery favorablerepresentativeofitistheadmirable,eulogyonShakespeareincludedinthefirstfolioeditionofShakespeare's works. In a few instances, however, Jonson strikes the true lyric note delightfully. Every one knows and sings his two stanzas 'To Celia''Drink to me only with thine eyes,' which would still be famous without the exquisitely appropriate musicthathascomedowntousfromJonson'sowntime,andwhicharenolessbeautifulbecausetheyconsistlargelyof ideasculledfromtheGreekphilosopherTheophrastus.Inallhispoems,however,Jonsonaimsconsistentlyattheclassical virtuesofclearness,brevity,proportion,finish,andeliminationofallexcess. TheselatterqualitiesappearalsointhelyricswhichaboundintheplaysofJohnFletcher,andyetitcannotbesaidthat Fletcher'ssweetmelodyismoreclassicalthanElizabethan.Hisotherdistinctivequalityisthetoneofsomewhatartificial courtlinesswhichwassoontomarkthelyricsoftheotherpoetsoftheCavalierparty.AnavoweddiscipleofJonsonand hisclassicismandagreaterpoetthanFletcherisRobertHerrick,who,indeed,afterShakespeareandMilton,isthefinest lyricpoetofthesetwocenturies. Herrick, the nephewof a wealthy goldsmith, seems, after a lategraduation from Cambridge, tohave spent some years abouttheCourtandinthebandofJonson's'sons.'EnteringtheChurchwhenhewasnearlyforty,hereceivedthesmall countryparishofDeanPriorinthesouthwest(Devonshire),whichheheldfornearlytwentyyears,until1647,whenhe wasdispossessedbythevictoriousPuritans.AftertheRestorationhewasreinstated,andhecontinuedtoholdtheplace untilhisdeathinoldagein1674.Hepublishedhispoems(alllyrics)in1648inacollectionwhichhecalled 'Hesperides and Noble Numbers.' The 'Hesperides' (named from the golden apples of the classical Garden of the Daughters of the Sun) are twelve hundred little secular pieces, the 'Noble Numbers' a much less extensive series of religiouslyrics.Bothsortsarewritteninagreatvarietyofstanzaforms,allequallyskilfulandmusical.Fewofthepoems extendbeyondfifteenortwentylinesinlength,andmanyaremereepigramsoffourlinesoreventwo.Thechiefsecular subjects are: Herrick's devotion to various ladies, Julia, Anthea, Perilla, and sundry more, all presumably more or less imaginary;thejoyanduncertaintyoflife;thecharmingbeautyofNature;countrylife,folklore,andfestivals;andsimilar lightorfamiliarthemes.Herrick'scharacteristicquality,sofarasitcanbedescribed,isablendofElizabethanjoyousness withclassicalperfectionoffinish.Thefinish,however,reallytheresultofpainstakinglabor,suchasHerrickhadobserved inhisuncle'sshopandasJonsonhadenjoined,isperfectlyunobtrusive;soapparentlynaturalarethepoemsthatthey seemtheirrepressibleunmeditatedoutpouringsofhappyandidlemoments.IncarefreelyriccharmHerrickcancertainly neverbesurpassed;heiscertainlyoneofthemostcaptivatingofallthepoetsoftheworld.Someofthe'NobleNumbers' arealmostaspleasingasthe'Hesperides,'butnotbecauseofrealreligioussignificance.Forofanythingthatcanbecalled spiritualreligionHerrickwasabsolutelyincapable;hisnaturewasfartoodeficientindepth.Hehimselfandhisphilosophy of life were purely Epicurean, Hedonistic, or pagan, in the sense in which we use those terms today. His forever controllingsentimentisthattowhichhegivesperfectexpressioninhisbestknownsong,'Gatheryerosebuds,'namely theHoratian'Carpediem''Snatchallpossiblepleasurefromtherapidlyfleetinghoursandfromthisgloriouslydelightful world.'Heissaidtohaveperformedhisreligiousdutieswithregularity;thoughsometimesinanoutburstofdisgustatthe stupidityofhisrusticparishionershewouldthrowhissermonintheirfacesandrushoutofthechurch.Puthisreligionis altogether conventional. He thanks God for material blessings, prays for their continuance, and as the conclusion of everything,incompensationforaformallyorthodoxlife,orrathercreed,expectswhenhediestobeadmittedtoHeaven. Thesimplenaivetewithwhichheexpressesthisskindeepandprimitivefaithis,indeed,oneofthechiefsourcesofcharm inthe'NobleNumbers.' Herrickbelongsinparttoagroupofpoetswho,beingattachedtotheCourt,anddevotingsome,atleast,oftheirverses to conventional lovemaking, are called the Cavalier Poets. Among the others Thomas Carew follows the classical principles of Jonson in lyrics which are facile, smooth, and sometimes a little frigid. Sir John Suckling, a handsome and capriciousrepresentativeofalltheextravagancesoftheCourtset,withwhomhewasenormouslypopular,tossedoffwith affectedcarelessnessamassofslovenlylyricsofwhichafewaudaciouslyimpudentonesareworthytosurvive.Fromthe equally chaotic product of Colonel Richard Lovelace stand out the two wellknown bits of noble idealism, 'To Lucasta, Going to the Wars,' and 'To Althea, from Prison.' George Wither (15881667), a much older man than Suckling and Lovelace,maybementionedwiththemasthewriterinhisyouthoflightheartedlovepoems.ButintheCivilWarhetook thesideofParliamentandunderCromwellherosetotherankofmajorgeneral.Inhislaterlifehewroteagreatquantity ofPuritanreligiousverse,largelyprosyinspiteofhisfluency. The last important group among these lyrists is that of the more distinctly religious poets. The chief of these, George Herbert (15931633), the subject of one of the most delightful of the short biographies of Izaak Walton, belonged to a distinguished family of the Welsh Border, one branch of which held the earldom of Pembroke, so that the poet was related to the young noble who may have been Shakespeare's patron. He was also younger brother of Lord Edward

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HerbertofCherbury,aninveterateduellistandthefatherofEnglishDeism.[Footnote:Seebelow,p.212.]Destinedbyhis mothertopeacefulpursuits,hewaveredfromtheoutsetbetweentwoforces,religiousdevotionandapassionforworldly comfortanddistinction.Foralongperiodthelatterhadtheupperhand,andhislifehasbeendescribedbyhisbesteditor, ProfessorGeorgeHerbertPalmer,astwentysevenyearsofvacillationandthreeofconsecratedservice.AppointedPublic Orator,orshowman,ofhisuniversity,Cambridge,hespentsomeyearsinenjoyingthesomewhattriflingeleganciesoflife andintrucklingtothegreat.Then,onthedeathofhispatrons,hepassedthroughaperiodofintensecrisisfromwhichhe emergedwhollyspiritualized.ThethreeremainingyearsofhislifehespentinthelittlecountryparishofBemerton,just outsideofSalisbury,asaferventHighChurchminister,orashepreferredtonamehimself,priest,inthestrictestdevotion to his professional duties and to the practices of an ascetic piety which to the usual American mind must seem about equallyadmirableandconventional.Hisreligiouspoems,publishedafterhisdeathinavolumecalled'TheTemple,'show mainly two things, first his intense and beautiful consecration to his personal God and Saviour, which, in its earnest sincerity, renders him distinctly the most representative poet of the Church of England, and second the influence of Donne, who was a close friend of his mother. The titles of most of the poems, often consisting of a single word, are commonly fantastic and symbolicalfor example, 'The Collar,' meaning the yoke of submission to God; and his use of conceits,thoughnotsopervasiveaswithDonne,isequallycontorted.Toapresentdayreadertheapparentaffectations mayseematfirsttothrowdoubtonHerbert'sgenuineness;butinrealityhewasaimingtodedicatetoreligiouspurposes whatappearedtohimthehigheststyleofpoetry.Withoutquestionheis,inatrueifspecialsense,areallygreatpoet. The second of these religious poets, Richard Crashaw, [Footnote: The first vowel is pronounced as in the noun crash.] whose life (16121649) was not quite so short as Herbert's, combined an ascetic devotion with a glowingly sensuous esthetic nature that seems rather Spanish than English. Born into an extreme Protestant family, but outraged by the wanton iconoclasm of the triumphant Puritans, and deprived by them of his fellowship, at Cambridge, he became a Catholic and died a canon in the church of the miracleworking Lady (Virgin Mary) of Loretto in Italy. His most characteristicpoetryismarkedbyextravagantconceitsandbyecstaticoutburstsofemotionthathavebeencalledmore ardentthananythingelseinEnglish;thoughhesometimeswritesalsoinaveinofcalmandlimpidbeauty.Hewasapoetic discipleofHerbert,asheavowedbyhumblyentitlinghisvolume'StepstotheTemple.' The life of Henry Vaughan [Footnote: The second a is not now sounded.] (16211695) stands in contrast to those of HerbertandCrashawbothbyitslengthandbyitsquietness.VaughanhimselfemphasizedhisWelshracebydesignating himself'TheSilurist'(nativeofSouthWales).AfteranincompleteuniversitycourseatJesusCollege(theWelshcollege), Oxford,andsomeapparentlyidleyearsinLondonamongJonson'sdisciples,perhapsalsoafterservingthekinginthewar, hesettleddowninhisnativemountainstotheselfdenyinglifeofacountryphysician.Hisimportantpoemsweremostly published at this time, in 1650 and 1655, in the collection which he named 'Silex Scintillans' (The Flaming Flint), a title explainedbythefrontispiece,whichrepresentsaflintyheartglowingunderthelightningstrokeofGod'scall.Vaughan's chieftraitsareaveryfineandcalmphilosophicreligiousspiritandacarefullyobservantloveofexternalNature,inwhich heseesmysticrevelationsofGod.InbothrespectsheiscloselyakintothelaterandgreaterWordsworth,andhis'Retreat' hasthesamethemeasWordsworth'sfamous'OdeonIntimationsofImmortality,'theideanamelythatchildrenhavea greaterspiritualsensitivenessthanolderpersons,becausetheyhavecometoearthdirectlyfromaformerlifeinHeaven. The contrast between the chief Anglican and Catholic religious poets of this period has been thus expressed by a discerningcritic:'Herrick'sreligiousemotionsareonlyasripplesonashallowlakewhencomparedtothecrestedwavesof Crashaw,thestormtidesofHerbert,andthedeepseastirringsofVaughan.' WemaygiveafurtherwordofmentiontothevoluminousFrancisQuarles,whoinhisowndayandlongafterenjoyed enormouspopularity,especiallyamongmembersoftheChurchofEnglandandespeciallyforhis'Emblems,'abookofa sortcommoninEuropeforacenturybeforehistime,inwhichfantasticwoodcuts,likeVaughan's'SilexScintillans,'were illustratedwithshortpoemsofreligiousemotion,chieflydominatedbyfear.ButQuarlessurvivesonlyasaninteresting curiosity. Threeotherpoetswhoselivesbelongtothemiddleofthecenturymaybesaidtocompletethisentirelyricgroup.Andrew Marvell,averymoderatePuritan,joinedwithMiltoninhisofficeofLatinSecretaryunderCromwell,wrotemuchpoetryof varioussorts,someofitintheElizabethanoctosyllabiccouplet.HevoicesagenuineloveofNature,likeWitheroftenin thepastoral form; buthis bestknown poem is the 'HoratianOde upon Cromwell'sReturn from Ireland,'containing the famouseulogyofKingCharles'bearingathisexecution.AbrahamCowley,ayouthfulprodigyandalwaysconspicuousfor intellectual power, was secretary to Queen Henrietta Maria after her flight to France and later was a royalist spy in England.Hismostconspicuouspoemsarehissocalled'PindaricOdes,'inwhichhesupposedthathewasimitatingthe structure of the Greek Pindar but really originated the pseudoPindaric Ode, a poem in irregular, noncorrespondent stanzas. He is the last important representative of the 'Metaphysical' style. In his own day he was acclaimed as the greatestpoetofalltime,butasisusualinsuchcaseshisreputationveryrapidlywaned.EdmundWaller(16061687),a verywealthygentlemaninpubliclifewhoplayedaflatlydiscreditablepartintheCivilWar,ismostimportantforhisshare

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inshapingtherimingpentametercoupletintothesmoothpseudoclassicalformrenderedfamousbyDrydenandPope; buthisonlynotablesinglepoemsaretwoCavalierlovelyricsinstanzas,'OnaGirdle'and'Go,LovelyRose.'

JohnMilton,16081674
Conspicuous above all his contemporaries as the representative poet of Puritanism, and, by almost equally general consent,distinctlythegreatestofEnglishpoetsexceptShakespeare,standsJohnMilton.Hislifefallsnaturallyintothree periods:1.Youthandpreparation,16081639,whenhewrotehisshorterpoems.2.Publiclife,16391660,whenhewrote, or at least published, in poetry, only a few sonnets. 3. Later years, 16601674, of outer defeat, but of chief poetic achievement,theperiodof'ParadiseLost,''ParadiseRegained,'and'SamsonAgonistes.' MiltonwasborninLondoninDecember,1608.Hisfatherwasaprosperousscrivener,orlawyerofthehumblersort,anda Puritan, but broadminded, and his children were brought up in the love of music, beauty, and learning. At the age of twelvethefuturepoetwassenttoSt.Paul'sSchool,andhetellsusthatfromthistimeonhisdevotiontostudyseldom allowed him to leave his books earlier than midnight. At sixteen, in 1625, he entered Cambridge, where he remained duringthesevenyearsrequiredfortheM.A.degree,andwherehewasknownas'theladyofChrist's'[College],perhaps forhisbeauty,ofwhichallhislifehecontinuedproud,perhapsforhismoralscrupulousness.Miltonwasnever,however, a conventional prig, and a quarrel with a selfimportant tutor led at one time to his informal suspension from the University.Hisnature,indeed,hadmanyelementsquiteinconsistentwiththeusualvaguepopularconceptionofhim.He was always not only inflexible in his devotion to principle, butpartly, no doubt, from consciousness of his intellectual superiorityhaughtyaswellasreserved,selfconfident,andlittlerespectfulofopinionsandfeelingsthatclashedwithhis own.Neverthelessinhisyouthhehadplentyofanimalspiritsandalwaysforhisfriendswarmhumansympathies. To his college years belong two important poems. His Christmas hymn, the 'Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity,' shows the influence of his early poetical master, Spenser, and of contemporary pastoral poets, though it also contains someconceitstrulypoeticconceits,however,notexercisesinintellectualclevernesslikemanyofthoseofDonneandhis followers. With whatever qualifications, it is certainly one of the great English lyrics, and its union of Renaissance sensuousness with grandeur of conception and sureness of expression foretell clearly enough at twenty the poet of 'Paradise Lost.' The sonnet onhis twentythirdbirthday,further, is known to almostevery readerof poetry as the best shortexpressioninliteratureofthededicationofone'slifeandpowerstoGod. Miltonhadplannedtoentertheministry,butthegrowingpredominanceoftheHighChurchpartymadethisimpossible forhim,andonleavingtheUniversityin1632heretiredtothecountryestatewhichhisparentsnowoccupiedatHorton, twentymileswestofLondon.Here,fornearlysixyears,amidsurroundingswhichnourishedhispoet'sloveforNature,he devotedhistimechieflytofurthermasteryofthewholerangeofapprovedliterature,Greek,Latin,French,Italian,and English.Hispoemsoftheseyearsalsoarefew,buttheytooareoftheveryhighestquality. 'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso' are idealized visions, in the tripping Elizabethan octosyllabic couplet, of the pleasures of suburbanlifeviewedinmoodsrespectivelyoflightheartedhappinessandofreflection. 'Comus,'thelastoftheElizabethanandJacobeanmasks,combinesanexquisitepoeticbeautyandarealdramaticaction moresubstantialthanthatofanyothermaskwithaseriousmoraltheme(thesecurityofVirtue)inafashionthatrenders itunique.'Lycidas'isoneofthesupremeEnglishelegies;thoughthegriefwhichhelpstocreateitspowersprangmore fromtherecentdeathofthepoet'smotherthanfromthatofthenominalsubject,hiscollegeacquaintance,EdwardKing, andthoughinthehandsofalesserartistthesolemndenunciationofthefalseleadersoftheEnglishChurchmightnot havebeenwroughtintosofineaharmonywiththepastoralform. Milton'sfirstperiodendswithanexperiencedesignedtocompletehispreparationforhiscareer,afifteenmonths'tourin FranceandItaly,wherethehighestliterarycirclesreceivedhimcordially.Fromthistriphereturnedin1639,soonerthan hehadplanned,because,hesaid,thepublictroublesathome,foreshadowingtheapproachingwar,seemedtohimacall toservice;thoughinfactsometimeintervenedbeforehisentranceonpubliclife. Thetwentyyearswhichfollow,thesecondperiodofMilton'scareer,developedandmodifiedhisnatureandideasinan unusualdegreeandfashion.Outwardlytheoccupationswhichtheybroughthimappearchieflyasanunfortunatewasteof hisgreatpoeticpowers.Thesixteensonnetswhichbelonghereshowhownoblythisformcouldbeadaptedtothevaried expressionofthemostseriousthought,butotherwiseMiltonabandonedpoetry,atleastthepublicationofit,forprose, andforprosewhichwasmostlyephemeral.TakinguphisresidenceinLondon,forsometimehecarriedonasmallprivate schoolinhisownhouse,wherehemuchoverworkedhisboysinthemistakenefforttoraisetheirintellectualambitionsto thelevelofhisown.Naturallyunwillingtoconfinehimselftoaprivatesphere,hesoonengagedinaprosecontroversy

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supportingthePuritanviewagainsttheEpiscopalformofchurchgovernment,thatisagainsttheofficeofbishops.There shortlyfollowedthemostregrettableincidentinhiswholecareer,whichpatheticallyillustratesalsothelackofasenseof humorwhichwasperhapshisgreatestdefect.Attheageofthirtyfour,andapparentlyatfirstsight,hesuddenlymarried MaryPowell,theseventeenyearolddaughterofaroyalistcountrygentlemanwithwhomhisfamilyhadlongmaintained somebusinessandsocialrelations.EvidentlythisdaughteroftheCavaliersmetarudedisillusionmentinMilton'sPuritan householdandinhisOldTestamenttheoryofwoman'sinferiorityandofawife'sdutyofstrictsubjectiontoherhusband; afewweeksafterthemarriageshefledtoherfamilyandrefusedtoreturn.Thereupon,withcharacteristicegoism,Milton putforthaseriesofpamphletsondivorce,arguing,contrarytoEnglishlaw,andwithgreatscandaltothepublic,thatmere incompatibility of temper was adequate ground for separation. He even proceeded so far as to make proposals of marriage to another woman. But after two years and the ruin of the royalist cause his wife made unconditional submission, which Milton accepted, and he also received and supported her whole family in his house. Meanwhile his divorce pamphlets had led to the best of his prose writings. He had published the pamphlets without the license of Parliament,thenrequiredforallbooks,andasuitwasbegunagainsthim.Herepliedwith'Areopagitica,'an,eloquentand nobleargumentagainstthelicensingsystemandinfavoroffreedomofpublicationwithinthewidestpossiblelimits.(The nameisanallusiontothecondemnationoftheworksofProtagorasbytheAthenianAreopagus.)Inthestressofpublic affairstheattackonhimwasdropped,butthebookremains,adeathlesspleaforindividualliberty. NowatlastMiltonwasdrawnintoactivepubliclife.TheexecutionoftheKingbytheextremePuritanminorityexcitedan outburstofindignationnotonlyinEnglandbutthroughoutEurope.Milton,risingtotheoccasion,defendedtheactina pamphlet,therebybeginningapapercontroversy,chieflywiththeDutchscholarSalmasius,whichlastedforseveralyears. By 1652 it had resulted in the loss of Milton's eyesight, previously overstrained by his studiesa sacrifice in which he gloriedbutwhichloversofpoetrymustalwaysregret,especiallysincethecontroversylargelyconsisted,accordingtothe customofthetime,inadisgustingexchangeofpersonalscurrilities.Milton'schampionshipoftheexistinggovernment, however,togetherwithhisscholarship,hadatoncesecuredforhimthepositionofLatinsecretary,orconductorofthe diplomatic correspondence of the State with foreign countries. He held this office, after the loss of his eyesight, with Marvellasacolleague,underbothParliamentandCromwell,butitisanerrortosupposethatheexertedanyinfluencein themanagementofaffairsorthathewasonfamiliartermswiththeProtector.AttheRestorationhenecessarilylostboth thepositionandaconsiderablepartofhisproperty,andforawhilehewentintohiding;butthroughtheeffortsofMarvell andothershewasfinallyincludedinthegeneralamnesty. IntheremainingfourteenyearswhichmakethethirdperiodofhislifeMiltonstandsoutforsubsequentagesasanoble figure.Hisveryobstinacyandegoismnowenabledhim,blind,comparativelypoor,andtherepresentativeofalostcause, to maintain his proud and patient dignity in the midst of the triumph of all that was most hateful to him, and, as he believed, to God. His isolation, indeed, was in many respects extreme, though now as always he found the few sympatheticfriendsonwhomhisnaturewasquitedependent.Hisreligiousbeliefshadbecomewhatwouldatpresentbe calledUnitarian,andhedidnotassociatewithanyoftheexistingdenominations;inprivatetheoryhehadevencometo believe in polygamy. At home he is said to have suffered from the coldness or more active antipathy of his three daughters,whichisnogreatcauseforwonderifwemustcreditthereportthathecompelledthemtoreadaloudtohimin foreignlanguagesofwhichhehadtaughtthemthepronunciationbutnotthemeaning.Theirmotherhaddiedsomeyears before,andhehadsoonlostthesecondwifewhoisthesubjectofoneofhisfinestsonnets.In1663,attheageoffifty four,hewasunitedinathirdmarriagetoElizabethMinshull,awomanoftwentyfour,whowastosurvivehimformore thanfiftyyears. Theimportantfactofthislastperiod,however,isthatMiltonnowhadtheleisuretowrite,ortocomplete,'ParadiseLost.' For a quarter of a century he had avowedly cherished the ambition to produce 'such a work as the world would not willinglyletdie'andhadhadinmind,amongothers,thestoryofMan'sFall.Outlinesforatreatmentofitnotinepicbutin dramaticformarepreservedinalistofahundredpossiblesubjectsforagreatworkwhichhedrewupasearlyas1640, andduringtheCommonwealthperiodheseemsnotonlytohavebeenslowlymaturingtheplanbuttohavecomposed partsoftheexistingpoem;neverthelesstheactualworkofcompositionbelongschieflytotheyearsfollowing1660.The story as told in Genesis had received much elaboration in Christian tradition from a very early period and Milton drew largelyfromthisgeneraltraditionandnodoubttosomeextentfromvariousprevioustreatmentsoftheBiblenarrativein several languages which he might naturally have read and kept in mind. But beyond the simple outline the poem, like everygreatwork,isessentiallytheproductofhisowngenius.Heaimed,specifically,toproduceaChristianepicwhich shouldrankwiththegreatepicsofantiquityandwiththoseoftheItalianRenaissance. Inthispurposehewasentirelysuccessful.Asawhole,bytheconsentofallcompetentjudges,'ParadiseLost'isworthyof itstheme,perhapsthegreatestthatthemindofmancanconceive,namely'tojustifythewaysofGod.'Ofcoursethere aredefects.Theseventeenthcenturytheology,likeeverysuccessivetheological,philosophical,andscientificsystem,has lostitsholdonlatergenerations,anditbecomesdullindeedinthelongexpositorypassagesofthepoem.Theattemptto expressspiritualideasthroughthemediumofthesecularepic,withitsbattlesandcouncilsandalltheformsofphysical

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life, is ofcourse rationallyparadoxical. Itwas early pointedout that in spite ofhimself Miltonhas in some sense made Satan the hero of the poema reader can scarcely fail to sympathize with the fallen archangel in his unconquerable PuritanlikeresistancetothearbitrarydecreesofMilton'sdespoticDeity.Further,Milton'spersonal,English,andPuritan prejudicessometimesintrudeinvariousways.Butallthesethingsareonthesurface.Insustainedimaginativegrandeurof conception,expression,andimagery'ParadiseLost'yieldstonohumanwork,andthemajesticandvariedmovementof the blank verse, here first employed in a really great nondramatic English poem, is as magnificent as anything else in literature.Itcannotbesaidthatthelaterbooksalwayssustainthegreatnessofthefirsttwo;buttheprofuselyscattered passagesofsensuousdescription,atleast,suchasthoseoftheGardenofEdenandofthebeautyofEve,areintheirown wayequallyfine.Statelyandmorefamiliarpassagesalikeshowthathowevermuchhisexperiencehaddonetoharden Milton's Puritanism, his youthful Renaissance love of beauty for beauty's sake had lost none of its strength, though of courseitcouldnolongerbeexpressedwithyouthfullightnessoffancyandmelody.Thepoemisamagnificentexampleof classicalart,inthebestGreekspirit,unitedwithglowingromanticfeeling.Lastly,thevalueofMilton'sscholarshipshould bynomeansbeoverlooked.Allhispoetry,fromthe'NativityOde'onward,islikearichmosaicofgemsborrowedfroma greatrangeofclassicalandmodernauthors,andin'ParadiseLost'theallusionstoliteratureandhistorygivehalfofthe romanticcharmandverymuchofthedignity.Thepoemcouldhavebeenwrittenonlybyonewhocombinedinaveryhigh degree intellectual power, poetic feeling, religious idealism, profound scholarship and knowledge of literature,and also experiencedknowledgeoftheactualworldofmen. 'ParadiseLost'waspublishedin1677.Itwasfollowedin1671by'ParadiseRegained,'onlyonethirdaslongandmuchless important; and by 'Samson Agonistes' (Samson in his Death Struggle). In the latter Milton puts the story of the fallen hero'slastdaysintothemajesticformofaGreekdrama,impartingtoitthepassionatebutloftyfeelingevokedbythe close similarity of Samson's situation to his own. This was his last work, and he died in 1674. Whatever his faults, the moral,intellectualandpoeticgreatnessofhisnaturesetshimapartasinasensethegrandestfigureinEnglishliterature.

JohnBunyan
SeventeenthcenturyPuritanismwastofindasupremespokesmaninprosefictionaswellasinpoetry;JohnMiltonand JohnBunyan,standingatwidelydifferentanglesofexperience,makeoneofthemostinterestingcomplementarypairsin allliterature.Bythemerechronologyofhisworks,Bunyanbelongsinournextperiod,butinhiscasemerechronology mustbedisregarded. Bunyanwasbornin1628atthevillageofElstow,justoutsideofBedford,incentralEngland.Afterveryslightschooling andsomepracticeathisfather'stradeoftinker,hewasin1644draftedfortwoyearsandahalfintogarrisonservicein theParliamentaryarmy.Releasedfromthisoccupation,hemarriedapoorbutexcellentwifeandworkedathistrade;but theimportantexperiencesofhislifewerethereligiousones.Endowedbynaturewithgreatmoralsensitiveness,hewas nevertheless a person of violent impulses and had early fallen into profanity and laxity of conduct, which he later described with great exaggeration as a condition of abandoned wickedness. But from childhood his abnormally active dramaticimaginationhadtormentedhimwithdreamsandfearsofdevilsandhellfire,andnowheenteredonalongand agonizing struggle between his religious instinct and his obstinate selfwill. He has told the whole story in his spiritual autobiography, 'Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners,' which is one of the notable religious books of the world. A readerofitmustbefilledaboutequallywithadmirationfortheforceofwillandperseverancethatenabledBunyanatlast towinhisbattle,andpityforthefantasticmorbidnessthatcreatedoutofnexttonothingmostofhiswellnighintolerable tortures.OneSunday,forexample,freshfromasermononSabbathobservance,hewasengagedinagameof'cat,'when hesuddenlyheardwithinhimselfthequestion,'Wiltthouleavethysinsandgotoheaven,orhavethysinsandgotohell?' Stupefied,helookeduptotheskyandseemedtheretoseetheLordJesusgazingathim'hotlydispleased'andthreatening punishment. Again, one of his favorite diversions was to watch bellmen ringing the chimes in the church steeples, and thoughhisPuritanconscienceinsistedthatthepleasurewas'vain,'stillhewouldnotforegoit.Suddenlyonedayashe wasindulginginitthethoughtoccurredtohimthatGodmightcauseoneofthebellstofallandkillhim,andhehastened toshieldhimselfbystandingunderabeam.But,hereflected,thebellmighteasilyreboundfromthewallandstrikehim; soheshiftedhispositiontothesteepledoor.Then'itcameintohishead,"Howifthesteepleitselfshouldfall?"'andwith thathefledalikefromthecontroversyandthedanger. Relief came when at the age of twentyfour he joined a nonsectarian church in Bedford (his own point of view being Baptist). A man of so energetic spirit could not long remain inactive, and within two years he was preaching in the surroundingvillages.AdisputewiththeFriendshadalreadyledtothebeginningofhiscontroversialwritingwhenin1660 the Restoration rendered preaching by persons outside the communion of the Church of England illegal, and he was arrested and imprisoned in Bedford jail. Consistently refusing to give the promise of submission and abstention from preaching which at any time would have secured his release, he continued in prison for twelve years, not suffering particulardiscomfortandworkingforthesupportofhisfamilybyfasteningtheendsontoshoestrings.Duringthistimehe

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wrote and published several of the most important of his sixty books and pamphlets. At last, in 1672, the authorities abandonedtheineffectiverequirementofconformity,andhewasreleasedandbecamepastorofhischurch.Threeyears later he was again imprisoned for six months, and it was at that time that he composed the first part of 'The Pilgrim's Progress,'whichwaspublishedin1678.Duringtheremainingtenyearsofhislifehisreputationandauthorityamongthe Dissentersalmostequalledhisearnestdevotionandkindness,andwonforhimfromhisopponentsthegoodnaturedly jocosetitleof'theBaptistbishop.'Hediedin1688. SeveralofBunyan'sbooksarestrong,butnoneoftheothersistobenamedtogetherwith'ThePilgrim'sProgress.'This hasbeentranslatedintonearlyorquiteahundredlanguagesanddialectsarecordneverapproachedbyanyotherbook of English authorship. The sources of its power are obvious. It is the intensely sincere presentation by a man of tremendous moral energy of what he believed to be the one subject of eternal and incalculable importance to every human being, the subject namely of personal salvation. Its language and style, further, are founded on the noble and simplemodeloftheEnglishBible,whichwasalmosttheonlybookthatBunyanknew,andwithwhichhiswholebeingwas saturated.Histriumphantandlovingjoyinhisreligionenableshimoftentoattainthepoeticbeautyandeloquenceofhis original;butbothbyinstinctandofsetpurposeherenderedhisownstyleevenmoresimpleanddirect,partlybytheuse ofhomelyvernacularexpressions.Whathehadsaidin'GraceAbounding'isequallytruehere:'Icouldhavesteppedintoa stylemuchhigher...butIdarenot.Goddidnotplayinconvincingofme...whereforeImaynotplayinmyrelatingof these experiences.' 'Pilgrim's Progress' is perfectly intelligible to any child, and further, it is highly dramatic and picturesque.Itis,tobesure,anallegory,butoneofthoseallegorieswhichseeminherentinthehumanmindandhence more natural than the mostdirectnarrative. For all men life is indeeda journey,and the Slough of Despond,Doubting Castle,VanityFair,andtheValleyofHumiliationareplaceswhereinonesenseoranothereveryhumansoulhasoften struggled and suffered; so that every reader goes hand in hand with Christian and his friends, fears for them in their dangersandrejoicesintheirescapes.Theincidents,however,haveallthefurtherfascinationofsupernaturalromance; andtheunionofthiselementwiththehomelysincerityofthestyleaccountsformuchofthepeculiarqualityofthebook. Universalinitsappeal,absolutelydirectandvividinmannersuchaworkmightwellbecome,asitspeedilydid,oneofthe mostfamousofworldclassics.Itisinterestingtolearn,therefore,thatBunyanhadexpecteditscirculationtobeconfined tothecommonpeople;theearlyeditionsareascheapaspossibleinpaper,printing,andillustrations. Criticism,nodoubt,easilydiscoversin'Pilgrim'sProgress'technicalfaults.Thestoryoftenlacksthefulldevelopmentand balance of incidents and narration which a trained literary artist would have given it; the allegory is inconsistent in a hundredwaysandplaces;thecharactersareonlytypes;andBunyan,alwaysmorepreacherthanartist,isdistinctlyunfair to the bad ones among them. But these things are unimportant. Every allegory is inconsistent, and Bunyan repeatedly takespainstoemphasizethatthisisadream;whilethesimplicityofcharactertreatmentincreasesthedirectnessofthe maineffect.Whenallissaid,thebookremainsthegreatestexampleinliteratureofwhatabsoluteearnestnessmaymake possible for a plain and untrained man. Nothing, of course, can alter the fundamental distinctions. 'Paradise Lost' is certainlygreaterthan'Pilgrim'sProgress,'becauseitistheworkofapoetandascholaraswellasareligiousenthusiast. But'Pilgrim'sProgress,'letitbesaidfrankly,willalwaysfindadozenreaderswhereMiltonhasonebychoice,andnoman can afford to think otherwise than respectfully of achievements which speak powerfully and nobly to the underlying instinctsandneedsofallmankind. The naturalness of the allegory, it may be added, renders the resemblance of 'Pilgrim's Progress' to many previous treatments of the same theme and to less closely parallel works like 'The Faerie Queene' probably accidental; in any significantsenseBunyanprobablyhadnoothersourcethantheBibleandhisownimagination.

TheTudorsandtheElizabethanAge
ThebeginningoftheTudordynastycoincidedwiththefirstdisseminationofprintedmatter.WilliamCaxton'spresswas establishedin1476,onlynineyearsbeforethebeginningofHenryVII'sreign.Caxton'sachievementencouragedwritingof allkindsandalsoinfluencedthestandardizationoftheEnglishlanguage.TheearlyTudorperiod,particularlythereignof HenryVIII,wasmarkedbyabreakwiththeRomanCatholicChurchandaweakeningoffeudalties,whichbroughtabouta vastincreaseinthepowerofthemonarchy. StrongerpoliticalrelationshipswiththeContinentwerealsodeveloped,increasingEngland'sexposuretoRenaissance culture.HumanismbecamethemostimportantforceinEnglishliteraryandintellectuallife,bothinitsnarrowsensethe studyandimitationoftheLatinclassicsandinitsbroadsensetheaffirmationofthesecular,inadditiontothe otherworldly,concernsofpeople.Theseforcesproducedduringthereign(15581603)ofElizabethIoneofthemost fruitfulerasinliteraryhistory.

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TheenergyofEngland'swritersmatchedthatofitsmarinersandmerchants.AccountsbymensuchasRichardHakluyt, SamuelPurchas,andSirWalterRaleighwereeagerlyread.TheactivitiesandliteratureoftheElizabethansreflectedanew nationalism,whichexpresseditselfalsointheworksofchroniclers(JohnStow,RaphaelHolinshed,andothers),historians, andtranslatorsandeveninpoliticalandreligioustracts.Amyriadofnewgenres,themes,andideaswereincorporated intoEnglishliterature.Italianpoeticforms,especiallythesonnet,becamemodelsforEnglishpoets. Sir Thomas Wyatt was the most successful sonneteer among early Tudor poets, and was, with Henry Howard, earl of Surrey,aseminalinfluence.Tottel'sMiscellany(1557)wasthefirstandmostpopularofmanycollectionsofexperimental poetry by different, often anonymous, hands. A common goal of these poets was to make English as flexible a poetic instrumentasItalian.AmongthemoreprominentofthisgroupwereThomasChurchyard,GeorgeGascoigne,andEdward deVere,earlofOxford.AnambitiousandinfluentialworkwasAMirrorforMagistrates(1559),ahistoricalversenarrative byseveralpoetsthatupdatedthemedievalviewofhistoryandthemoralstobedrawnfromit. ThepoetwhobestsynthesizedtheideasandtendenciesoftheEnglishRenaissancewasEdmundSpencer.Hisunfinished epic poem The FaerieQueen (1596) is a treasure house of romance,allegory, adventure, Neoplatonic ideas, patriotism, and Protestant morality, all presented in a variety of literary styles. The ideal English Renaissance man was Sir Philip Sidneyscholar, poet, critic, courtier, diplomat, and soldierwho died in battle at the age of 32. His best poetry is contained in the sonnet sequence Astrophel and Stella (1591) and his Defence of Poesie is among the most important worksofliterarycriticisminthetradition. Many others in a historical era when poetic talents were highly valued, were skilled poets. Important late Tudor sonneteers include Spenser and Shakespeare, Michael Drayton, Samuel Daniel, and Fulke Greville. More versatile even thanSidneywasSirWalterRaleighpoet,historian,courtier,explorer,andsoldierwhowrotestrong,sparepoetry. Early Tudor drama owed much to both medieval morality plays and classical models. Ralph Roister Doister (c.1545) by Nicholas Udall and Gammer Gurton's Needle (c.1552) are considered the first English comedies, combining elements of classicalRomancomedywithnativeburlesque.Duringthelate16thandearly17thcent.,dramaflourishedinEnglandas neverbeforeorsince.ItcameofagewiththeworkoftheUniversityWits,whosesophisticatedplayssetthecourseof RenaissancedramaandpavedthewayforShakespeare. TheWitsincludedJohnLyly,famedforthehighlyartificialandmuchimitatedproseworkEuphues(1578);RobertGreene, thefirsttowriteromanticcomedy;theversatileThomasLodgeandThomasNashe;ThomasKyd,whopopularizedneo Senecantragedy;andChristopherMarlowe,thegreatestdramatistofthegroup.Focusingonheroeswhoseverygreatness leads to their downfall, Marlowe wrote in blank verse with a rhetorical brilliance and eloquence superbly equal to the demands of high drama. William Shakespeare, of course, fulfilled the promise of the Elizabethan age. His history plays, comedies,andtragediessetastandardneveragainequaled,andheisuniversallyregardedasthegreatestdramatistand oneofthegreatestpoetsofalltime.

TheJacobeanEra,Cromwell,andtheRestoration
Elizabethan literature generally reflects the exuberant selfconfidence of a nation expanding its powers, increasing its wealth, and thus keeping at bay its serious social and religious problems. Disillusion and pessimism followed, however, during the unstable reign of James I (160325). The 17th century was to be a time of great upheavalrevolution and regicide, restoration of the monarchy, and, finally, the victory of Parliament, landed Protestantism, and the moneyed interests. Jacobean literaturebeginswith the drama, including some of Shakespeare's greatest, anddarkest,plays. The dominant literary figure of James's reign was Ben Jonson, whose varied and dramatic works followed classical models and were enrichedbyhisworldly,peculiarlyEnglishwit.Hissatiricdramas,notablythegreatVolpone(1606),alltakeacynicalview ofhumannature.AlsocynicalwerethehorrificrevengetragediesofJohnFord,ThomasMiddleton,CyrilTourneur,and JohnWebster(thebestpoetofthisgrimgenre).Noveltywasingreatdemand,andthepossibilitiesofplotandgenrewere exploitedalmosttoexhaustion.Still,manyexcellentplayswerewrittenbymensuchasGeorgeChapman,themastersof comedyThomasDekkerandPhilipMassinger,andtheteamofFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher.Dramacontinuedto flourishuntiltheclosingofthetheatersattheonsetoftheEnglishRevolutionin1642. TheforemostpoetsoftheJacobeanera,BenJonsonandJohnDonne,areregardedastheoriginatorsoftwodiversepoetic traditionsthe Cavalier and the metaphysical poets. Jonson and Donne shared not only a common fund of literary resources,butalsoadrynessofwitandprecisionofexpression.Donne'spoetryisdistinctiveforitspassionateintellection, Jonson'sforitsclassicismandurbaneguidanceofpassion.

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AlthoughGeorgeHerbertandDonneweretheprincipalmetaphysicalpoets,themeditativereligiouspoetsHenryVaughan andThomasTrahernewerealsoinfluencedbyDonne,aswereAbrahamCowleyandRichardCrashaw.Thegreatestofthe Cavalier poets was the sensuously lyrical Robert Herrick. Such other Cavaliers as Thomas Carew, Sir John Suckling, and RichardLovelacewerelyricistsintheelegantJonsoniantradition,thoughtheirlyricismturnedpoliticalduringtheEnglish Revolution.Althoughrankedwiththemetaphysicalpoets,thehighlyindividualAndrewMarvellpartookofthetraditions ofbothDonneandJonson. AmongtheleadingprosewritersoftheJacobeanperiodwerethetranslatorswhoproducedtheclassicKingJamesVersion oftheBible(1611)andthedivinesLancelotAndrewes,JeremyTaylor,andJohnDonne.TheworkofFrancisBaconhelped shape philosophical and scientific method. Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy (1621) offers a varied, virtually encyclopedicviewofthemoralandintellectualpreoccupationsofthe17thcent.LikeBurton,SirThomasBrownesought toreconcilethemysteriesofreligionwiththenewermysteriesofscience.IzaakWalton,authorofTheCompleatAngler (1653), produced a number of graceful biographies of prominent writers. Thomas Hobbes wrote the most influential politicaltreatiseoftheage,Leviathan(1651). TheJacobeanera'smostfieryandeloquentauthorofpoliticaltracts(manyindefenseofCromwell'sgovernment,ofwhich hewasamember)wasalsooneofthegreatestofallEnglishpoets,JohnMilton.HisParadiseLost(1667)isaChristianepic of encompassing scope. In Milton the literary and philosophical heritage of the Renaissance merged with Protestant politicalandmoralconviction. With the restoration of the English monarchy in the person of Charles II, literary tastes widened. The lifting of Puritan restrictionsandthereassemblingofthecourtledtoarelaxationofrestraints,bothmoralandstylistic,embodiedinsuch figuresastheEarlofRochester.RestorationcomedyrevealsboththeinfluenceofFrenchfarce(theEnglishcourtspentits exile in France) and of Jacobean comedy. It generously fed the public's appetite for broad satire, high style, and a licentiousnessthatjustifiedtheworstPuritanimaginings.SuchdramatistsasSirGeorgeEtherege,WilliamWycherley,and William Congreve created superbly polished high comedy. Sparkling but not quite so brilliant were the plays of George Farquhar,ThomasShadwell,andSirJohnVanbrugh. JohnDrudenbeganasaplaywrightbutbecametheforemostpoetandcriticofhistime.Hisgreatestworksaresatirical narrativepoems,notablyAbsalomandAchitophel(1681),inwhichprominentcontemporaryfiguresareunmistakablyand devastatinglyportrayed.AnothersatiricpoetoftheperiodwasSamuelButler,whoseHudibras(1663)satirizesPuritanism together with all the intellectual pretensions of the time. During the Restoration Puritanism or, more generally, the Dissenting tradition, remained vital. The most important Dissenting literary work was John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1675), an allegorical prose narrative that is considered a forerunner of the novel. Lively and illuminating glimpses of RestorationmannersandmoresareprovidedbythediariesofSamuelPepysandJohnEvelyn.

Thesixteenthcentury
LiteraryworksinsixteenthcenturyEnglandwererarelyifevercreatedinisolationfromothercurrentsinthesocialand cultural world. The boundaries that divided the texts we now regard as aesthetic from other texts were porous and constantly shifting. It is perfectly acceptable, of course, for the purposes of reading to redraw these boundaries more decisively,treatingRenaissancetextsasiftheywereislandsoftheautonomousliteraryimagination.Oneofthegreatest writers of the period, Sir Philip Sidney, defended poetry in just such terms; the poet, Sidney writes in The Defence of Poetry(NAEL8,1.95374),isnotconstrainedbynatureorhistorybutfreelyranges"onlywithinthezodiacofhisownwit." ButSidneyknewwell,andfrompainfulpersonalexperience,howmuchthisvisionofgoldenautonomywascontractedby thepressures,perils,andlongingsofthebrazenworld.Andonlyafewpagesafterheimaginesthepoetorbitingentirely withintheconstellationsofhisownintellect,headvancesaverydifferentvision,oneinwhichthepoet'swordsnotonly imitaterealitybutalsoactivelychangeit.

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Wehavenowayofknowingtowhatextent,ifatall,thisdreamofliterarypowerwaseverrealizedintheworld.Wedo know that many sixteenthcentury artists, such as Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare, brooded on the magical, transforming power of art. This power could be associated with civility and virtue, as Sidney claims,butitcouldalsohavethedemonicqualitiesmanifestedbythe"pleasingwords"ofSpenser'senchanter,Archimago (NAEL 8, 1.714902), or by the incantations of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus (NAEL 8, 1.10221057). It is significant that Marlowe'sgreatplaywaswrittenatatimeinwhichthepossibilityofsorcerywasnotmerelyatheatricalfantasybuta widelysharedfear,afearuponwhichthestatecouldactasthecaseofDoctorFianvividlyshowswithhorrendous ferocity. Marlowe was himself the object of suspicion and hostility, as indicated by the strange report filed by a secret agent,RichardBaines,professingtolistMarlowe'swildlyhereticalopinions,andbythegleeful(andfactuallyinaccurate) reportbythePuritanThomasBeardofMarlowe'sdeath. Marlowe'stragedyemergesnotonlyfromacultureinwhichbargainswiththedevilareimaginable asrealeventsbutalsofromaworldinwhichmanyofthemostfundamentalassumptionsabout spirituallifewerebeingcalledintoquestionbythemovementknownastheReformation.Catholic and Protestant voices struggled to articulate the precise beliefs and practices thought necessary for the soul's salvation. One key site of conflict was the Bible, with Catholic authorities trying unsuccessfully to stop the circulation of the unauthorized Protestant translation of Scripture by WilliamTyndale,atranslationinwhichdoctrinesandinstitutionalstructurescentraltotheRoman Catholic church were directly challenged. Those doctrines and structures, above all the interpretation of the central ritual of the eucharist, or Lord's Supper, were contested with murderous ferocity, as the fates of the Protestant martyr Anne Askew and the Catholic martyr RobertAskemakepainfullyclear.TheReformationiscloselylinkedtomanyofthetextsprintedin thesixteenthcenturysectionoftheNortonAnthology:Book1ofSpenser'sFaerieQueene(NAEL8, 1.719856),forexample,inwhichastaunchlyProtestantknightofHolinessstrugglesagainstthe satanicforcesofRomanCatholicism,ortheProtestantpropagandistFoxe'saccountofLadyJaneGrey'sexecution(NAEL8, 1.67475),ortheCatholicRobertSouthwell'smovingreligiouslyric,"ThewindowsontheReformationofferarevealing glimpseoftheinnerlivesofmenandwomeninBurningBabe"(NAEL8,1.64041). IftheseTudorEngland,thesubsectionentitled"TheWiderWorld"providesaglimpseofthehugeworldthatlaybeyond the boundaries of the kingdom, a world that the English were feverishly attempting to explore and exploit. Ruthless military expeditions and English settlers (including the poet Edmund Spenser) struggled to subdue and colonize nearby Ireland,butwithverylimitedsuccess.Fartherafield,merchantsfromcitiessuchasLondonandBristol establishedprofitabletradinglinkstomarketsinNorthAfrica,Turkey,andRussia.Anddaringseamen suchasDrakeandCavendishcommandedvoyagestostillmoredistantlands.Thetextscollectedhere, which supplement the selections from Ralegh's Discoverie of Guiana (NAEL 8, 1.92326) and Hariot's BriefandTrueReport(NAEL1.93843)intheNortonAnthology,arefascinating,disturbingrecordsof intense human curiosity, greed, fear, wonder, and intelligence. And lest we imagine that the English wereonlytheobserversoftheworldandnevertheobserved,"TheWiderWorld"includesasampleofaforeigntourist's description of London. The tourist, Thomas Platter, had the good sense to go to the theater and to see, as so many thousandsofvisitorstoEnglandhavedonesince,aplaybyShakespeare.

Theearlyseventeenthcentury
The earlier seventeenth century, and especially the period of the English Revolution (164060), was a time of intense ferment in all areas of life religion, science, politics, domestic relations, culture. That ferment was reflected in the literature of the era, which also registeredaheightenedfocusonandanalysisoftheselfandthe personal life. However, little of this seems in evidence in the elaborate frontispiece to Michael Drayton's long "chorographical" poem on the landscape, regions, and local historyofGreatBritain(1612),whichappearedinthefirstyears of the reign of the Stuart king James I (16031625). The frontispiece appears to represent a peaceful, prosperous, triumphant Britain, with England, Scotland,andWalesunited,patriarchyandmonarchyfirmlyestablished,andthenationservingas thegreatthemeforloftyliterarycelebration.Albion(theRomannameforBritain)isayoungandbeautifulvirginwearing ascloakamapfeaturingrivers,trees,mountains,churches,towns;shecarriesascepterandholdsacornucopia,symbolof plenty.Shipsonthehorizonsignifyexploration,trade,andgarneringtherichesofthesea.Inthefourcornersstandfour conquerorswhosedescendantsruledoverBritain:thelegendaryBrutus,JuliusCaesar,HengisttheSaxon,andtheNorman WilliamtheConqueror,"whoselineyetrules,"asDrayton'sintroductorypoemstates.

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Yetthisfrontispiecealsoregisterssomeofthetensions,conflicts,andredefinitionsevidentintheliteratureoftheperiod andexploredmoredirectlyinthetopicsandtextsinthisportionoftheNTOWebsite.ItisAlbionherself,notKingJames, whoisseatedinthecenterholdingtheemblemsofsovereignty;hermaleconquerorsstandtotheside,andtheirsmaller size and their number suggest something unstable in monarchy and patriarchy. Albion's robe with its multiplicity of regionalfeatures,aswellasthe"Poly"ofthetitle,suggestsforcespullingagainstnationalunity.Also,PolyOlbionhadno successors: instead ofacelebration of thenation in thevein of Spenser's FaerieQueene or PolyOlbion itself, the great seventeenthcenturyheroicpoem,ParadiseLost,treatstheFallofMananditstragicconsequences,"allourwoe." The first topic here, "Gender, Family, Household: SeventeenthCentury Norms and Controversies," provides important religious, legal, and domestic advice texts through which to explore cultural assumptions about gender roles and the patriarchalfamily.Italsoinvitesattentiontohowthoseassumptionsaremodifiedorchallengedinthepracticesofactual families and households; in tracts on transgressive subjects (crossdressing, women speaking in church, divorce); in women'stextsassertingwomen'sworth,talents,andrights;andespeciallyintheupheavalsoftheEnglishRevolution. "ParadiseLostinContext,"thesecondtopicforthisperiod,surroundsthatradicallyrevisionistepic with texts that invite readers to examine how it engages with the interpretative traditions surrounding the Genesis story, how it uses classical myth, how it challenges orthodox notions of Edenicinnocence,andhowitispositionedwithinbutalsoagainsttheepictraditionfromHomerto VirgiltoDuBartas.Theprotagonistsherearenotmartialheroesbutadomesticcouplewhomust, bothbeforeandaftertheirFall,dealwithquestionshotlycontestedintheseventeenthcenturybut alsoperennial:howtobuildagoodmaritalrelationship;howtothinkaboutscience,astronomy,and thenatureofthings;whatconstitutestyranny,servitude,andliberty;whathistoryteaches;howto meetthedailychallengesoflove,work,education,change,temptation,anddeceptiverhetoric;how toreconcilefreewillanddivineprovidence;andhowtounderstandandrespondtoGod'sways. The third topic, "Civil Wars of Ideas: SeventeenthCentury Politics, Religion, and Culture," provides an opportunity to explore,throughpoliticalandpolemicaltreatisesandstrikingimages,someoftheissuesandconflictsthatledtocivilwar and the overthrow of monarchical government (164260). These include royal absolutism vs. parliamentary or popular sovereignty, monarchy vs. republicanism, Puritanism vs. Anglicanism, church ritual and ornament vs. iconoclasm, tolerationvs.religiousuniformity,andcontroversiesovercourtmasquesandSundaysports.Theclimaxtoallthiswasthe highlydramatic trial and execution of KingCharles I (January1649), a cataclysmic event that sent shock wavesthrough courts, hierarchical institutions, and traditionalists everywhere; this event is presented here through contemporary accountsandgraphicimages.

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ElisabethI

TheEnglishElizabethanEraisoneofthemostfascinatingperiodsintheHistoryofEngland.TheElizabethanEraisnamed afterthegreatestQueensofEnglandQueenElizabethI.TheElizabethanEraisnotonlyfamousfortheVirginQueenbut alsofortheeraitselfGreatExplorers,suchasSirFrancisDrakeandWalterRaleigh.TheeraoftheveryfirstTheatresin EnglandWilliamShakespeare,theglobeTheatreandChristopherMarlowe!ThepeopleoftheeratheFamousFigures whofeaturedinthehistoryofthiserasuchastheQueen'sloveRobertDudley,thesinisterDr.JohnDee,theintriguesof thespymasterSirFrancisWalsinghamandtheQueen'schiefadvisorSirWilliamCecil(LordBurghley).ReligionPolitics ExecutionsCrimeandPunishmentallplayedtheirpartintheElizabethanera,andsodidthecommoners. TheCrimeandPunishmentathertimeisnotahappysubjectitwasaviolenttime.Crimesweremetwithviolent,cruel punishments.Manypunishmentsandexecutionswerewitnessedbymanyhundredsofpeople.TheLowerClassestreated sucheventsasexcitingdaysout.Evenroyaltyweresubjectedtothismostpublicformofpunishmentfortheircrimes.The execution of the tragic Anne Boleyn was restricted to the Upper Classes and Nobility and was witnessed by several hundredspectators! ThiserawassplitintotwoclassestheUpperClass,thenobilityandcourtiers,andeveryoneelse!Punishmentwouldvary according to class. The Upper class was well educated, wealthy and associated with Royalty and high members of the clergy. They would often become involved in Political intrigue and matters of Religion. The nobility could therefore becomeinvolvedincrimewhichwasnotsharedbyotherpeople.Justbeingaccusedofoneoftheseriouscrimescould wellresultintorture.ADefendant'schancesinreceivinganyacquittalincourtextremelyslim.Trialsweredesignedinthe favouroftheprosecutorsanddefendantsaccusedanyofthefollowingcrimeswerenotevenallowedlegalcounsel. The most common crimes of the Nobility included: High Treason; Blasphemy; Sedition; Spying; Rebellion; Murder; Witchcraft;Alchemy. Manycrimescommittedbycommonerswerethroughsheerdesperationandabjectpoverty.Themostcommoncrimes were:Theft;Cutpurses;Begging;Poaching;Adultery;Debtors;Forgers;Fraud;Dicecoggers. Theftforstealinganythingover5penceresultedinhangingaterriblepricetopayforpoorpeoplewhowerestarving. Even such small crimes such as stealing bird eggs could result in the death sentence. Punishment for poaching crimes differedaccordingtowhenthecrimewascommittedPoachingatnightresultedinthepunishmentbydeath,whereas poaching during the day time did not. Begging was a serious crime during the Elizabethan era. The Elizabethan governmentmadebeggingacrimeandthereforeillegaland'poorbeggars'Astheirpunishment'poorbeggars'wouldbe beaten until they reached the stones that marked the town parish boundary. The beatings given as punishment were bloodyandmercilessandthosewhowerecaughtcontinuallybeggingcouldbesenttoprisonandevenhangedastheir punishment. LifeinElizabethanEnglandwaschronicledbyanElizabethancalledWilliamHarrisonthisincludeddetailsofElizabethan crime and punishment. The most dreadful punishment of being Hung, Drawn and Quartered was described by William Harrisonas: "The greatest and most grievous punishment used in England for such as offend against the State is drawing from the prisontotheplaceofexecutionuponanhurdleorsled,wheretheyarehangedtilltheybehalfdead,andthentakendown, andquarteredalive;afterthat,theirmembersandbowelsarecutfromtheirbodies,andthrownintoafire,providednear handandwithintheirownsight,evenforthesamepurpose."

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Other punishment included execution by burning and beheading. Being burnt at the stake was a terrible death. Executionerssometimesshowedmercytotheirvictimsbyplacinggunpowderatthebaseofthestakewhichhelpedthe victimstoaswifter,andlesspainful,death.Theonlyotherrespitefromtheexcruciatingpainofbeingburnttodeathwas ifthevictimsdiedofsuffocationthroughsmokeinhalationandlackofoxygen. The punishment of Death by the axe was a terrifying prospect. The Elizabethan executioners often took several blows beforetheheadwasfinallysevered.ThepunishmentofdeathbyExecutionwereheldinpublicandwitnessedbymany people.Followingtheexecutiontheseveredheadwasheldupbythehairbytheexecutioner,notasmanypeoplethinkto showthecrowdthehead,butinfacttoshowtheheadthecrowdandtoit'sownbody!Consciousnessremainsforatleast eight seconds after beheading, until lack of oxygen causes unconsciousness, and eventually death. The punishment by beheadingthereforeevencontinuedafter'death'.TheHeadsofElizabethantraitorswereplacedonstakesanddisplayed inpublicplacessuchasLondonBridge. Punishmentforcommoners,thelowerclass,duringtheElizabethanperiodincludedthefollowing:Hanging;Burning;The Pillory and the Stocks; Whipping;Branding;Pressing; Ducking stools; The Wheel; Boiling in oil water or lead (usually reserved for poisoners); Starvation in a public place; Cutting off various items of the anatomy hands, ears etc; The Gossip'sBridleortheBrank;TheDrunkardsCloak MinorcrimeandpunishmentinsmallElizabethantownsweredealtwithbytheJusticeofthePeace.Manycrimesduring theElizabethanerawereduetoacrimecommittedandthelawbrokenduetothedesperateactsofthepoor.Everytown parishwasresponsibleforthepoorandunemployedwithinthatparish.TheJusticeofthePeaceforeachtownparishwas allowedtocollectataxfromthosewhoownedlandinthetown.ThiswascalledthePoorRatewhichwasusedtohelpthe poorduringtheElizabethanperiod. EVEN TRAVEL AND ACTING IN ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND WAS A CRIME WITHOUT A LICENCE! PeopledidnottravelaroundalotduringtheTudorandElizabethanera.TravellingduringtheElizabethaneracouldbe dangerous,moneywasnecessaryandalicense,obtainedfromtheBailiffintheGuildHall,wasrequiredbyanyonewho neededtotravelaroundEnglanditwasacrimetotravelwithoutalicence.Thislawensuredthatthespreadofdisease, especially the plague, was contained as much as possible and that the poor and the homeless did not travel from one village to another village an Elizabethan ploy to lower the crime and punishment levels in England. Strangers were treatedwithsuspicionandriskedbeingaccusedofcrimesandsufferedtheappropriatepunishment.

ThegreatElizabethanAgeofExploration
ItwasatfirstdominatedbythePortugueseandtheSpanish.TheGoldenAgeofExplorationalsosawtheemergenceof EnglishexplorerssuchasSirFrancisDrake(15421596),SirWalterRaleigh(15541618),SirHumphreyGilbert(15391583), Sir John Hawkins (15321595), Sir Richard Grenville (15411591) and Sir Martin Frobisher (15351594). A biography, timeline,facts,picturesandinformationhasbeenincludedaboutthemostfamousExplorersandtheirexplorationsthat madesuchmomentousvoyagesduringtheAgeofExploration,manyincludingScientificcuriosity,bredoftheRenaissance spirit of free inquiry, the crusading spirit in which Europeans thrilled at the thought of spreading Christianity among heathenpeoples.Andtheopportunitiestoacquirewealth,fameandpower.Sowehavethescientificimprovementsin NavigationduringthisAgeofExploration. TheElizabethanTimessawtheemergenceofthebravestandskilfulEnglishseamenwhorevelledintheRenaissanceAge ofExploration!NewdiscoveriescouldbringuntoldrichesintermsofgoldandsilverandspicestheElizabethanexplorers weresearchingforadventure,gloryandwealth.TheGreatestEnglishExplorerswereSirFrancisDrake,SirWalterRaleigh ,SirHumphreyGilbert,SirJohnHawkins,SirRichardGrenvilleandSirMartinFrobisher.Thisfacthappensbetween1000 1500 (this early Explorers Timeline provides a 'backdrop' to the achievements and voyages of discovery by the RenaissanceandElizabethanExplorersuntiltheTimelinecovering15001600. TheRenaissancesawthesuccessoftheSpanishexplorersinacquiringmonopoliesonmuchoftheEasternspicetradeand theirexpeditionstotheNewWorldbroughtgreatwealthandpowertoSpainduringtheAgeofExploration.Rodrigode Bastidas, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Juan Diaz de Solis, Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, Hernan Cortes and Francisco PizarrowerethegreatestSpanishExplorersinthegreatAgeofExploration. TheemergenceofsomeFamousPiratesandtheGoldenAgeofPirates,thelucrativeslavetrade,spicetradeandthespoils ofgoldandsilverencouragedtheactivitiesofPirates.ManyexplorerssuchasSirFrancisDrakeandSirMartinFrobisher werereferredtoaspirates,therealPiratesoftheCaribbean!

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Inthisperiod,theageoftheRenaissance,ofnewideasandnewthinking,wehavetheintroductionoftheprintingpress, oneofthegreatesttoolsinincreasingknowledgeandlearning,wasresponsiblefortheinterestinthedifferentsciences and inventions and the supernatural! The new ideas, information and increased knowledge aboutscience, technology andastrologyledtoarenewedinterestinthesupernaturalincludingwitches,witchcraftandghostswhichledtobeliefin superstitionsandthesupernatural.Factsaboutallofthesesubjectsareincludedintheplayswrittenatthattime.

TheElizabethanTheatre
Thehistoryofthetheaterisfascinating.HowplayswerefirstproducedintheyardsofinnstheInnyards.Theveryfirst theater and the development of the amphitheatre! The Elizabethan Entrepreneurs (the men with the ideas and the money!).Thebuilding,designandconstructionofaLondonElizabethanTheatre.Theplays,theplaywrights,thepolitics andthepropagandaallplayanimportantpartinthehistoryoftheElizabethanTheatre.Itwasaboomingbusiness.People loved the Theatre! The plays and theatres were as popular as the movies and cinemas of the early 20th century. Vast amountsofmoneycouldbemade!Theinnkeepersincreasedtheirprofitsbyallowingplaystobeshownontemporary stageserectedintheyardsoftheirinns(innyards).Soonpurposebuiltplayhousesandgreatopentheatreswerebeing constructed.Thegreatsuccessofthetheatreandwhatledtoitsdownfall.TheHistoryoftheElizabethantheatretheInn Yards,theAmphitheatresandthePlayhouses ItpresentsalloftheimporteddatesandeventsinthehistoryoftheElizabethanTheatreinalogicalorder.Thetheatrewas anexpandingindustryduringthisera.ManytheatressprangupinandaroundtheCityofLondon.Theexcitement,money andfameluredElizabethantheatreentrepreneursandactorsintoworkinginthefamousTheatre.Wecanmentionthe Globe Theatre, Newington Butts, the Curtain Elizabethan Theatre, the Rose Theatre, the Swan Theatre, the Fortune ElizabethanTheatre,theBoarsHead,theBearGarden,theBullRingandtheHopeElizabethanTheatre. DuringElizabetahnerawesawagreatflourishingofliterature,especiallyinthefieldofdrama.TheItalianRenaissancehad rediscovered the ancient Greek and Roman theatre, and this was instrumental in the development of the new drama, whichwasthenbeginningtoevolveapartfromtheoldmysteryandmiracleplaysoftheMiddleAges. ElizabethanActorsweretreatedwithasmuchsuspicionasbeggars.Anyonewhoneededtotraveltoearntheirliving,such as actors, were treated with suspicion and could therefore be expected to be accused of crimes. An actors standing in Elizabethan England was only slightly higher than a beggar, vagabond or a thief. When plays started to become more popularrichnobles,orhighrankingcourtiersoftheland,actedastheirsponsors.Itwassoondecreedthatlicensesshould begrantedtolegitimisecertainActingTroupes.Thisraisedtheactorsstatussomewhatandleadtofeweraccusationsof crimes.AlicensealsohadtobegrantedbyTownCouncillorswhenatroupeofactorscametotown.Manyactorsreceived punishmentsforrealandsometimesimaginarycrimeswhichincludedthepunishmentofbrandingwithredhotirons.The roleofwomenwereplayedbymen,asitwasnotproperforawomantoact.

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WilliamShakespearelifeandwork
WilliamShakespearewasapoet,dramatist,andactorandisconsideredbymanytobe thegreatestdramatistofalltime.HeistheforemostfigureinEnglishliteratureandhad aprimaryinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftheEnglishliterarylanguage. He was born in April, 1564 in StratforduponAvon, Warwickshire, about 100 miles northwest of London. According to the records of Stratford's Holy Trinity Church, he wasbaptizedonApril26.Sinceitwascustomarytobaptizeinfantswithindaysofbirth, and since Shakespeare died 52 years later on April 23, andmost significantlysince April 23 is St. George's day, the patron saint of England, it has become traditional to assignthebirthdayofEngland'smostfamouspoettoApril23.Aswithmostsixteenth centurybirths,theactualdayisnotrecorded.Andaswithmostremarkablemen,the powerofmythandsymmetryhasprovenirresistible.SoApril23ithasbecome. HisparentswereJohnandMaryShakespeare,wholivedinHenleyStreet,Stratford.John,thesonofRichardShakespeare, wasawhittawer(amaker,workerandsellerofleathergoodssuchaspurses,beltsandgloves)andadealerinagricultural commodities. He was a solid, middle class citizen at the time of William's birth, and a man on the rise. He served in Stratford government successively as a member of the Council (1557), constable (1558), chamberlain (1561), alderman (1565) and finally high bailiff (1568)the equivalent of town mayor. About 1577 John Shakespeare's fortunes began to declineforunknownreasons.Therearerecordsofdebts.In1586hewasreplacedasaldermanforshirkingresponsibilities, andin1592wasreprimandedfornotcomingtochurchforfearofprocessofdebt. Mary,thedaughterofRobertArden,hadinalleightchildrenwithJohnShakespeare.Williamwasthethirdchildandthe first son. The eldest child of John Shakespeare, a tradesman and public servant, and Mary Arden Shakespeare, the daughterofagentlemanfarmer,WilliamwasbaptizedonApril26,1564.Basedonthisfact,itishypothesizedthathewas bornonoraboutApril23,1564. Littleisknownabouthisearlylifeandtheonlydocumentedfactscomefromchristeningandmarriagerecordsandother legal documents. Though no records exist, it is possible young William may have attended the King's New School and receivedwhatwouldhavebeenconsideredaclassicaleducation.HeprobablywouldhavebeentaughtthebasicsofLatin, Greek, Italian,and French and read such authors as Aesop, Caesar, Virgil, andOvid.He probably also would have been taughtlogic,rhetoric,grammar,speech,anddrama. OnNovember28,1582theBishopofWorcesterissuedthemarriagebondfor"WilliamShagspere",hewaseighteenyears oldand"AnnHathweyofStratford."Thiswas,almostbeyonddoubt,AnneHathaway,daughterofRichardHathawayof Shotterya gathering of farm houses near Stratford on May 26, 1583 their first daughter Susanna was baptised. Six monthslater,onMay26,1583,WilliamandAnne'sfirstdaughter,Susanna,wasborn.Twoyearslater,twinswerebornto them, Hamnet and Judith, named after Hamnet and Judith Sadler, apparently lifetime friends to Shakespeare. Hamnet SadlerwasrememberedinShakespeare'swill.ItwasalsoduringthistimeperiodthatShakespearebecameofpartofLord ChamberlainsMen. AsamemberofLordChamberlainsMen,Shakespeareenjoyedfameandprosperityandin1594,hebegantoholdstockin thecompany.ShakespeareandhiscompanyopenedtheGlobeTheatrein1599.Thatsameyear,LordChamberlainsMen performedJuliusCaesarforthefirsttime,probablyattheGlobe.In1603,QueenElizabethdiedandhersuccessor,JamesI, pronouncedShakespearestroupehisservantsunderthenametheKingsMen. Around1610,ShakespearereturnedtoStratfordUponAvontoretireandliveasacountrygentleman,thoughhisplays continuedtobeperformedattheGlobeuntilitsburningin1613.OnApril23,1616,Shakespearediedandsevenyears later,in1623,theFirstFolioofhisworkswaspublished. NOTESABOUTSHAKESPEARESWORKS: Shakespeares dramatic works do not survive in manuscript and the exact order in which his plays were written and producedisnotknownwithcertainty.However,comediessuchasTheComedyofErrors,TheTamingoftheShrew,Loves LaboursLost,andAMidsummerNightsDreamandhisearlytragedyRomeoandJulietwereperformedintheearly1590s.

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Theseearlyworksareinfluencedbyprevailingcontemporaryconventions,butarealsomarkedbyvividcharacterization andrichandinventiveuseoftheEnglishLanguagethatarestrictlyShakespearean.Intheearly17thcentury,Shakespeare produced his four great tragedies; Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, which mark one of the high points in the historyofWesternLiterature.Hislastplays,TheWintersTaleandTheTempestcombineelementsofromancecomedy, andtragedy. In addition tohis dramatic works, Shakespeare wrote over 150 sonnets, which werepublished in 1609, and twoheroic narrativepoems,VenusandAdonis(1593)and(TheRapeof)Lucrece(1594).
TheinformationforWilliamShakespearesbiographywasadaptedfromTheDictionaryofLiteraryBiography(DLB),vol.62,ElizabethanDramatists,pp. 267353,TheOxfordCompaniontotheEnglishLanguage,editedbyTomMcArthur,andMerriamWebstersEncyclopediaofLiterature.

ShakespeareChronologicallistingofplays

Title TheComedyofErrors TitusAndronicus TheTamingoftheShrew 2HenryVI 3HenryVI 1HenryVI RichardIII Love'sLabor'sLost TwoGentlemenofVerona AMidsummerNight'sDream RomeoandJuliet RichardII KingJohn TheMerchantofVenice HenryIVPart1 TheMerryWivesofWindsor HenryIVPart2 AsYouLikeIt HenryV MuchAdoAboutNothing JuliusCaesar TwelfthNight Hamlet TroilusandCressida All'sWellThatEndsWell MeasureForMeasure Othello KingLear Macbeth AntonyandCleopatra TimonofAthens PericlesPrinceofTyre Coriolanus Cymbeline AWinter'sTale TheTempest HenryVIII DateWritten 1590 1590 1591 1591 1591 1592 1592 1593 1593 1594 1595 1595 1596 1596 1597 1597 1598 1598 1599 1599 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1604 1605 1605 1606 1606 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1613 DateRange ?1594 ?1594 ?1594 ?1592 ?1592 ?1592 15921597 ?1597 ?1598 15941598 ?1597 15951597 ?1598 15941598 15951598 15971602 15961598 15981600 1599 15981600 15981599 16001602 15991601 16011603 1598? 15981604 15981604 15981606 16031611 15981608 1598? 15981608 1598? 15981611 15981611 16101611 16121613 FirstPublished 1623 1594 1623 1594 1595 1623 1597 1598 1623 1600 1597 1597 1623 1600 1598 1602 1600 1623 1600 1600 1623 1623 1603 1609 1623 1623 1622 1608 1623 1623 1623 1609 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623

ShakespeareanTheater
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Before Shakespeares time and during his boyhood, troupes of actors performed wherever they could in halls, courts, courtyards,andanyotheropenspacesavailable.However,in1574,whenShakespearewastenyearsold,theCommon CouncilpassedalawrequiringplaysandtheatersinLondontobelicensed.In1576,actorandfutureLordChamberlain's Man,JamesBurbage,builtthefirstpermanenttheater,called"TheTheatre",outsideLondoncitywalls.Afterthismany moretheaterswereestablished,includingtheGlobeTheatre,whichwaswheremostofShakespeare'splayspremiered. ElizabethantheatersweregenerallybuiltafterthedesignoftheoriginalTheatre.Builtofwood,thesetheaterscomprised threetiersofseatsinacircularshape,withastageareaononesideofthecircle.Theaudience'sseatsandpartofthe stagewereroofed,butmuchofthemainstageandtheareainfrontofthestageinthecenterofthecirclewereopento theelements.About1,500audiencememberscouldpayextramoneytositinthecoveredseatingareas,whileabout800 "groundlings"paidlessmoneytostandinthisopenareabeforethestage.Thestageitselfwasdividedintothreelevels:a mainstageareawithdoorsattherearandacurtainedareainthebackfor"discoveryscenes";anupper,canopiedarea called"heaven"forbalconyscenes;andanareaunderthestagecalled"hell,"accessedbyatrapdoorinthestage.There weredressingroomslocatedbehindthestage,butnocurtaininthefrontofthestage,whichmeantthatsceneshadto flowintoeachother,and"deadbodies"hadtobedraggedoff. Performancestookplaceduringtheday,usingnaturallightfromtheopencenterofthetheater.Sincetherecouldbeno dramaticlightingandtherewasverylittlesceneryorprops,audiencesreliedontheactors'linesandstagedirectionsto supplythetimeofdayandyear,theweather,location,andmoodofthescenes.Shakespeare'splaysmasterfullysupply this information . For example, in Hamlet the audience learns within the firsttwentylines of dialogue wherethescene takesplace("Haveyouhadquietguard?"),whattimeofdayitis("'Tisnowstrooktwelf"),whattheweatherislike("'Tis bittercold"),andwhatmoodthecharactersarein("andIamsickatheart"). OneimportantdifferencebetweenplayswritteninShakespeare'stimeandthosewrittentodayisthatElizabethanplays werepublishedaftertheirperformances,sometimesevenaftertheirauthors'deaths,andwereinmanywaysarecordof whathappenedonstageduringtheseperformancesratherthandirectionsforwhatshouldhappen.Actorswereallowed tosuggestchangestoscenesanddialogueandhadmuchmorefreedomwiththeirpartsthanactorstoday.Shakespeare's plays are no exception. In Hamlet, for instance, much of the plot revolves around the fact that Hamlet writes his own scenetobeaddedtoaplayinordertoensnarehismurderousfather. Shakespeare'splayswerepublishedinvariousformsandwithawidevarietyofaccuracyduringhistime.Thediscrepancies betweenversionsofhisplaysfromonepublicationtothenextmakeitdifficultforeditorstoputtogetherauthoritative editions of his works. Plays could be published in large anthologies called Folios (the First Folio of Shakespeare's plays contains36plays)orsmallerQuartos.Foliosweresonamedbecauseofthewaytheirpaperwasfoldedinhalftomake chunks of two pages each which were sewn together to make a large volume. Quartos were smaller, cheaper books containingonlyoneplay.Theirpaperwasfoldedtwice,makingfourpages.Ingeneral,theFirstFolioisofbetterquality thanthequartos.Therefore,playsthatareprintedintheFirstFolioaremucheasierforeditorstocompile. AlthoughShakespeare'slanguageandclassicalreferencesseemarchaictosomemodernreaders,theywerecommonplace tohisaudiences.Hisviewerscamefromallclasses,andhisplaysappealedtoallkindsofsensibilities,from"highbrow" accounts of kings and queens of old to the "lowbrow" blunderings of clowns and servants. Even his most tragic plays includeclowncharactersforcomicreliefandtocommentontheeventsoftheplay.Audienceswouldhavebeenfamiliar with his numerous references to classical mythology and literature, since these stories were staples of the Elizabethan knowledgebase.WhileShakespearesplaysappealedtoalllevelsofsocietyandincludedfamiliarstorylinesandthemes, they also expanded his audiences' vocabularies. Many phrases and words that we usetoday, like"amazement," "in my mind's eye," and "the milk of human kindness" were coined by Shakespeare. His plays contain a greater variety and numberofwordsthanalmostanyotherworkintheEnglishlanguage,showingthathewasquicktoinnovate,hadahuge vocabulary,andwasinterestedinusingnewphrasesandwords. Asitisverydifficulttoselectonlyoneplayofthisgreatplaywrighter,wedecidetoreadandanalyseOthello,becauseof thewayhepresentssoperfectlytheinnerfeelingsofhumanbeingsduringtheacts.

LiteraryTermstohelpreadingShakespeare
AgentofchangeApersonorspiritthatproducesasignificantchangeinasituation.Iagoisthemainagentofchangein Othello.Withouthimtheplotwouldnotproceedtoitstragicconclusion.

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AlliterationApoetictechniqueoftenusedbyShakespearewheretwoormorewordsbeginningwiththesameconsonant soundappearclosetoeachotherwithinalineorseriesoflines.Itisusedtomakethepoetrysoundmoreimpressiveor beautiful,ortoemphasiseaparticularfeelingoridea. AntiheroAcharacterwhodominatestheplaybecauseofhisevilactionsratherthanthenoblequalitieswhichareusually associatedwithahero.Shakespearecreatedsomewonderfulantiheroes;inOthello,Iagocouldbeseenasone.Heisgiven manyoftheplaysmostimpressivesoliloquiesandthequestionofwhyhebehavesashedoesisoftenseenasthemost interestingaspectoftheplay. AssonanceAliterarytechniqueinwhichwordscontainingthesameorverysimilarvowelsoundsareplacedclose together.Thiscanproduceastrong,musicaleffectandisoneofthewaysinwhichthesoundofShakespearespoetry helpstoconveyparticularideasorfeelings. CatastropheAtermforthefinalsceneinaclassictragedyinwhich,eitherasaresultoftheworkingsoffateorasa consequenceofaflawintheherosorheroinespersonality,terribledisastersoccur.Usually,thisinvolvesthedeathsofall ornearlyallthemaincharacters.InOthello,CassioandIagoaretheonlysurvivorsoutofthemajorcharacters. ClimaxAkeymomentintheplot,whenthetensionswhichhavebeensetupanddevelopedthroughoutthemiddlepart oftheplayareresolved.Inatragedy,theclimaxisalsoknownastheCatastrophe. ComedyAlight,amusingstyleofdramathatusuallyhasahappyending.Shakespeareusuallyaddedsomecomicscenes andcharacterstohistragediesinordertoprovidesomelightreliefandtovarythetone.Othelloisunusualbecausethere areveryfewcomicmoments.ThemostfamouscomicsceneintheplayoccursatthebeginningofAct3,Scene1,where theClownmakesfunofabandofmusicianswhoareplayingoutsidetragedyOthelloslodgings. ContrastShakespeareoftenusedcontraststodrawtheaudiencesattentiontoparticularideasorqualitieswithinhis characters.Forexample,intragedy,therearemanycontrastingimagesofblackandwhite,heavenandhell,lightand darkness,andsoon.Charactersarealsocontrastedwitheachother;asanexample,DesdemonaandIagorepresent opposinggoodandevilinfluencesonOthello. DramaticironyAdramatictechniquewheretheaudiencepossessesimportantinformationwhichisnotknownbythe charactersonstage.Thisoftencreateshumourorpowerfultension,asweseethecharactersactinginawaywhichwe knowisunwise,orsayingthingswhichweknowtobemistaken.Othelloisfullofdramaticirony,oftencausedbyIagos abilitytodeceivetheothercharacters. DramatictensionAimportantfeatureofadramaticplot.Inthefirstact,problemsorquestionsareintroduced,settingup suspense.Thisisthendevelopedduringthecentralactsoftheplay,andeventuallyresolvedattheplaysclimax.Theplot tensionkeepstheaudienceinterestedandintriguedastheywonderwhatwillhappennextandhowexactlythevarious tensionswillberesolved. IambicpentameterThisisthetypeofunrhymedversethatShakespearegenerallywrotein.Itwasanextremelypopular formofverseinElizabethanEngland.Itconsistsoffivemetrical'feet'.Thesearearrangedinthefollowingpatternof syllables:either,short/long/short/long/short;orunstressed/stressed/unstressed/stressed/unstressed. IronyAkindofhumourresultingfromthefactthatthereaderoraudienceknowsthattherealmeaningofastatement maynotbethesameasitsliteralmeaning.InOthello,itisironicthatalmostalltheothercharacterscallIagohonest Iago,whentheaudienceknowsfromtheveryfirstscenethatheisdishonestandproudofit! MachiavelliAnItalianstatesmanandpoliticaltheoristwhowroteaboutstatecraftduringShakespeareslifetime.His ideaswerewidelydiscussedthroughoutEurope,andoftenappearinElizabethanandJacobeandrama.Hewasinterested intheideathattheendjustifiesthemeans.Inotherwords,theeffectiveuseofpowermayhavetoinvolveunethical behaviourinordertoachieveadesiredresult.InOthello,IagoisanexampleofaMachiavellianantihero.Hewilldo anythinginordertoachievehisends. MetaphorAcomparisonwhichisimplicitorindirectratherthanexplicit.Twoideasorimagesarecomparedbyusing languageappropriatetobothofthemwithinthesamestatementorline(s)ofpoetry.Theeffectisoftencomplexand thoughtprovoking.

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OxymoronAfigureofspeechinwhichcontradictorytermsarebroughttogetherinwhatisatfirstsightanimpossible combinationsuchaslivingdeath. PlotTheorderinwhichaplaysstorylineunfolds.Shakespeareoftenusedexistingstoriesforhisplays,buthemadehis owndecisionsabouttheorderinwhichthestorywouldberevealedandsometimeschangedtheeventsinthestory,too. Forinstance,inOthello,heusedabasicstorylinewrittenbyanItalianwriter,Cinthio,buthemademanyalterationstothe plotandcompletelychangedboththebeginningandtheending,makingthestorymuchmorepowerfulanddramatic. ProtagonistAcharacter(usuallytheheroorheroine)whoisimportantasanagentofchange,influencingtheevents throughwhichtheplotunfolds. PunAkindofjokewhichreliesonadoublemeaning.Awordorphrasehasoneobviousmeaning,butthereaderor audienceisalsoawareofasecondmeaning,whichisoftenrudeorfunny.Weseeexampleswhenreadingextractfrom theTameofTheShrew. ReliableandunreliablewitnessesAplaywrightoftenpresentsacharacterthroughthewordsandopinionsofothers.This ismademorecomplexandinterestingbecauseofthefactthattheaudiencewillalsohavetoworkoutwhetherthese witnessesarereliableorunreliableinotherwords,canwetrustwhattheyhavetosay,orshouldweimmediately suspectthattheoppositeistrue?Shakespeareoftenusedthistechniquetointroducemajorcharacters.InOthello,both OthellohimselfandDesdemonaareintroducedinthisway.Thiscreatesintensecuriosityastotheirrealcharacteristics andencouragestheaudiencetofocuscarefullyontheirfirstappearancesonthestage. RepresentationThewayinwhichanideaoraparticulargroupofpeoplearepresented.Forinstance,inOthello Shakespeareoffersinterestingrepresentationsofwomenthroughtherangeoffemalecharacters.Attitudestowardsrace inShakespearestimearealsoexploredthroughtherepresentationofablackheroandthewaysinwhichheisperceived andtreatedbytheVenetians. RhymingcoupletTwoconsecutivelineswhichrhyme.Theseareoftenusedattheendofaspeechtosumupanideaor seriesofideas.Rhymingcoupletscanalsosuggestwittyhumouroratrivialattitude. SimileAcomparisonbetweentwoideasorimageswhichismadeexplicit,oftenbyusingthewordslikeoras. SoliloquyAspeechinwhichacharactershareshisorherinnerthoughtswiththeaudience,asifthinkingaloud.Evenif thereareothercharactersonthestage,theaudienceisencouragedtobelievethattheycannothearwhatisbeingsaidin thesoliloquy. TragedyAdramainwhichtheprotagonistisinconflictwithfateorasuperiorforce,leadingtoanunhappyordisastrous conclusion.Often,aflawintheprotagonistscharacterbringsabouthisorherdownfall.InOthello,histendencyto experiencejealousymakestheherovulnerabletotheforcesofdisorderrepresentedbyIago. TragicflawAweaknesswithinthecharacteroftheheroorheroineofatragedy,whicheventuallyleadstohisorher downfall.InGreektragedy,fateplayedthebiggestpartinbringingtragedyuponthecharacters.Shakespearedevelopeda morepsychologicalversion,inwhichthecharactersactionsandpersonalitiesinteractedwithaspectsofearthlyreality. Othellostragicflawcouldbesaidtobehisjealousy. TragicheroThemainprotagonistinatragedy.OthelloisoneofShakespearesgreatesttragicheroes. UnitiesInGreektragedy,theintensityofthedramawasheightenedthroughobservingtheunitiesoftimeandplace. Thismeantthattheactionhadtooccurwithinonelocationorsetting,andwithinashortspaceoftime,oftenoneday. AlthoughShakespearedidnotobservetheunitiesstrictly,heoftenconfinedtheactionofhistragediestoquitea considerableextentinordertocreateafeelingofclaustrophobiaandinevitability.InOthello,mostoftheactiontakes placeinCyprusandthefinalscenesarefocusedaroundOthelloslodgingsinthecitadel.Thishelpstocreatea claustrophobicatmosphereinwhichtragedyseemsmoreandmoreinevitable.Shakespearealsocontractstimeduringthe playsmiddlesection,makingtheriseofOthellosjealousyseemtooccurataterrifyingpace. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

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AMERICANLITERATURE

ThepaintingofWilliamBrewsterispartofathematicrepresentationinthePresident'sroomoftheSenateWing,signifyingReligion. Theotherthemesare:Discovery(ChristopherColumbus);History(BenjaminFranklin);Exploration(AmericusVespucius). ThestatuesofRogerWilliamsandJohnWinthropwerechosenby the respective states that theywere commissioned to represent Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The statue of Williams was sculptedbyFranklinSimmonsin1870;thatofWinthropbyRichard S.Greenoughin1875.

AmericanLiteraryTimePeriods
compiledfromTheAmericanTradition,PrenticeHallTheAmericanExperience,byCindyAdams
Years PuritanTimes to1750 Rationalism/AgeofEnlightenment 17501850

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HistoricalContext

Genre/Style

Content

Effect

PuritansmovetoAmericafor religiousfreedom OthersmovedtoAmericatocolonize itandenduredhardshipswiththe landandtheNativeAmericans sermons diaries personalnarratives captivitynarratives plainstyle Christianutopia relationshipwithGod histories Puritanbeliefs:community,original sin,andhardwork instructive reinforcesauthorityofBibleand church

growingdissatisfactionwithEnglandandtaxation withoutrepresentation rebellionagainstEngland RevolutionaryWar politicalpamphlets travelwriting highlyornatewriting

nationalmissionandAmericancharacter democraticutopia useofreason

prideandpatriotismgrow printculturebecomesavehicleforthenew nationsdemocraticidentityandprinciples(144 EMC) proliferanceofnewspapersandmagazines

Years HistoricalContext Romanticism 18001855 expansionto25statesby1836 technologicaldevelopmentsmake expansionseemeasier(telegraphandthe steamengine) manystatesextendedvotingrightstoall freemenashiftinemphasistocommon people poetry shortstories novels slavenarratives politicalwritings essays subgenres:Transcendentalism Gothic imaginationoverreason reverencefornature supernatural/mysteriouswritingthatcanbe interpretedontwolevels focusonindividualsfeelings fueledabolitionistmovement detectivefiction,inventedbyPoe,still populartoday Modernism 19001946 WWIandWWII technologicalchanges JazzAgeconflictsdevelopedbetween older,conservativegenerationandyoung, alienatedgeneration GreatDepression expandedroleofwomeninsociety continuationofthesamegenresasinthe past subgenre:HarlemRenaissance highlyexperimental(rejectionoftheartistic Realism 18551900 Slavery CivilWar westwardexpansioncontinues

Genre/Style

spirituals slavenarratives politicalwriting poetry shortstories novels subgenres:NaturalismRegionalism

Content

Effect

abolitionofslavery commoncharactersnotidealized localcolor(Regionalism) manslackofcontroloverhisfate moreliteraturecenteredaroundtheMidwest andtheFarWest socialrealismchangingsocialproblems realisticfictionremainspopulartoday Contemporary/Postmodernism 1946present CivilRightsMovement JFKsassassination spaceexploration VietnamWar growingmediainfluence technologicaladvances rethinkingofourpastatthebeginningof21st century continuationofthesamegenresasinthepast newstyles:foundpoems,concretepoems confessionalpoetry performancepoetry

Years HistoricalContext

Genre/Style

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conventionofthepast) freeverse,streamofconsciousnessprose newstyles;useofallusions ironybecameasignaturetechnique Content realitynotabsolutebutdependsuponthe pointofviewoftheobserver impersonal,alienating peoplenotabletocommunicateeffectively griefoverlossofthepast(preworldwars)

blurringoflinesbetweenfactandfiction muchofwhatisbeingwrittenrightnow defiesclassificationuntilcriticshavethe advantageoftimetoplaceitinperspective peopleobservelifeasthemediapresentsit popularculturehasseepedintotheliterature peoplesidentityshapedbyculturaland genderattitudes peoplelearningtocopewithproblems throughcommunication emergenceofethnicandwomenwriters poetryslamshavebecomeinexpensive, popularentertainment moremulticulturalliteratureincludedin anthologies

Effect

Americanliteratureontheleadingedgeof worldsartisticachievement(648PH)

OverviewofAmericanHistoryandLiterature

Thisintroductionismeanttohelpthestudentstoenterthesoulofliterature,kowingitshistoryandimportantfiguresof theAmericanpeople. ThefoundationofAmericanpeopleareduetothepilgrimsandpuritans.BothveryimportantinproducingtheAmerican behaviorandcharacter.

ThePilgrims
TheimmigrationofthePilgrimstoNewEnglandoccurredinstages.Butthattheyhadtogosomewherebecameapparent soon enough. Theirs was the position of the Separatist: they believed that the reforms of the Anglican church had not gonefarenough,that,althoughthebreakwithCatholicismin1535hadmovedsomewaytowardthePuritanbeliefinand ideaofreligiousauthoritygroundedsolelyinScripture,bysubstitutingkingforpopeastheheadofthechurch,England wasonlyrecapitulatinganunnecessary,corrupt,andevenidolatrousorder(Gill,1921).Inonebasicrespect,thePilgrims arealogicaloutcomeoftheReformation.InitsincreasingdisseminationoftheBible,theincreasingemphasisonitasthe basis of spiritual meaning, the subsequently increasing importance of literacy as a mode of religious authority and awareness, a growing individualism was implicit. This individualism may then have easily led to an atomization or dispersion of authority that the monarchy duly feared, and that later generations of Americans could easily label democratization.Asawriterin1921putit,"TheyacceptedCalvin'srule,thatthosewhoaretoexerciseanypublicfunction inthechurchshouldbechosenbycommonvoice"(Wheelwright,vii).Howevermuchthismightemphasizethedemocratic qualitiesofthePilgrims,asdissenterstheydosuggestatsomeleveltheoriginsofdemocraticsociety,initsrelianceupon contendingandevenconflictingpointsofview,andinitstendencytowardamorefluidsocialstructure. But theirs was a religious, not a political agenda; moral and theological principles were involved, and from their perspective,therecouldbenocompromise.Forthem2Corinthiansmadeitclear:"Comeoutfromamongthemandbeye separate,saiththeLord."Toachieveandpreserveasimplicityand'purity'thattheyfelthadbeenlostamidthesomeof thesurvivingfeaturesofCatholicismtheritualswhichcontinuedthroughintotheAnglicanChurchandwereepitomized initsstatement,"'Ibelievein...theholyCatholickChurch'"(Gill,19).Toestablishthemselvesasrightfulinterpretersofthe Bible independent of an inherited social and cultural order, they removed from the Anglican Church in order to re establishitastheybelievedittrulyshouldbe.Thisofcoursemeantleavingthecountry,andtheyleftforHollandin1608.

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After12years,theydecidedtomoveagain.HavinggonebacktoEnglandtoobtainthebackingoftheVirginiaCompany, 102PilgrimssetoutforAmerica.ThereasonsaresuggestedbyWilliamBradford,whenhenotesthe"discouragements"of thehardlifetheyhadinHolland,andthehopeofattractingothersbyfinding"abetter,andeasierplaceofliving";the "children"ofthegroupbeing"drawneawaybyevillexamplesintoextravagenceanddangerouscourses";the"greathope, forthepropagatingandadvancingthegospellofthekingdomofChristinthoseremotepartsoftheworld"(Wheelwright, 78).Inthesereasons,thesecondsoundsmostlikethePilgrimsmanyAmericansarefamiliarwiththegroupthatwantsto be left alone and live in its own pure and righteous way. Behind it seems to lie not only the fear of the breakdown of individualfamilies,butevenaconcernoverthedissolutionofthelargercommunity.Theconcernseemstobethattheir split with England was now only effecting their own disolution into Dutch culture. But it is also interesting to note the underlyingtracesofevangelismin,ifnotthefirst,certainlythelastofthereasons.Ontheonehand,thisstrainwouldfind itslaterexpression(andperversion)insuchportrayalsofthePilgrimsastheRotundafresco,wheretheideaofconversion isbaldlyfashionedwithintheimageofconquest;here,theIndianisshownassubduedbeforethewordofthe"kingdom" evenasthePilgrimsarelanding,andthePilgrimisseenasanagentofdomination,asuperiormoralforcecommandingby its sheer presence. On the other hand, such a portrayal suggests an uneasy tension with the common (and seemingly accurate) conception of the Pilgrims as a model of tolerance. Indeed, the first of their reasons for sailing to America is fairly passivethey want to "draw" others by the example of their prosperity, not necessarily go conquer and actively convert.SuchanideareflectstheonethatwouldbeexpressedexplicitlybythePuritanJohnWinthrop,wheretheNew Worldwouldbecomeabeaconofreligiouslight,amodelofspiritualpromise,a"cittyuponahill." Inanycase,fromtheirownpointofview,theyare'agents'onlyinsofarastheyareagentsofProvidence,andasBradford strivestomakeclearthroughout,thenarrativeoftheiractionsisonlyaninterpretationoftheworksofGod.Thus,ina remarkable instance when a "proud and very profane yonge man" who "would curse and swear most bitterly" falls overboardfromtheMayfloweranddrowns,itisseenas"thejusthandofGoduponhim"(Wheelwright,14).Sotoowhen amemberoftheirpartyissavedfromdrowning,orwhentheinitiallandingpartyfindsthecornandbeansforseed,or withtheirsafearrivalatPlymouthBayingeneral,isthe"spetiallprovidenceofGod"evinced.AndBradfordseemstoself consciouslymaintainthisversionoftheChristianperspectiveasanhistoricalone,neverallowingthereaderorstudentof thePilgrimstoforgetthattheirstoryisonewithatrajectorycomingfromitsbeginningsEngland,andmovingthroughthe beginningsofthe'NewWorld'.Thisisanemphasisthatwillservehistoriesandmemoriesalike,especiallyinviewingthe RevolutionandtheincreaseddemocratizationoftheUnitedStatesassomenecessaryfulfillmentofthePilgrimpromise.

Themayflowercompact
Naturally, the primary text for later interpreters would be the Mayflower Compact, which Bradford gives: InthenameofGod,Amen.Wewhosenamesareunderwriten,bytheloyallsubjectsofourdreadsoveraigneLord,King James,bythegraceofGod,ofGreatBritaine,Franc,andIrelandking,defenderofthefaith,etc. Haveingundertaken,fortheglorieofGod,andadvancementeoftheChristianfaith,andhonourofourkingandcountrie, avoyagetoplantthefirstcolonieintheNorthernepartsofVirginia,doebythesepresentssolemnlyandmutuallyinthe presenceofGod,andoneanother,covenantandcombineourselvestogeatherintoacivillbodypolitick,forourbetter orderingandpreservationandfurtheranceoftheendsaforesaid;andbyvertuehereoftoenacte,constituteandframe shuchjustandequalllawes,ordinances,acts,constitutions,andoffices,fromtimetotime,asshallbethoughtmostmeete andconvenientforthegenerallgoodoftheColonie,untowhichwepromiseallduesubmissionandobedience.Inwitnes whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at CapCodd the .11. of November, in the year of the raigne of our soveraignelord,KingJames,ofEngland,France,andIreland,theeighteenth,andofScotlandthefiftiefourth.AnnoDom. 1620(Wheelwright,3233) Bradford writes of the Compact, that it developed partly in response to "the discontented and mutinous speeches" of someofthe"strangers"colonistswhohadtravelledwiththembutwho"wereuncommittedtochurchfellowship"and thatitassertedandfirmedthePilgrims'"ownelibertie;fornonehadthepowertocommandthem,thepatentetheyhad being for Virginia, and not for New england...." The Compact thus arose out of a need to maintain social and civic coherence,toensurethattheofficialselectedandthegroupasawholewouldhavesomelegitimationagainstchallenges toits"legalauthority"(McQuade,140;Wheelwright,32).MichaelKammen,however,notesa"tradition"intheearly19th century"inwhichtheCompactwasviewedaspartoftherepudiationofEnglishdomination"(Kammen,64).Surelythere areevidentdemocratictendenciesinthetext,whereinacodeestablishedfromtheconsentofthepeoplebecomesthe underpinning of a society of "just and equall lawes," where the officials and figures of authority are all elected. But as "loyallsubjects"tothe"dreadsoveraigneLord,KingJames,"theirtaskistwofold:tomaintainadegreeofindependence thatwouldallowthemtoliveinaccordancewiththeirSeparatistviews,butalsotokeepthetiestoEnglandstrongenough

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sothatthosewhodidnotsharetheirreligionneverthelesswouldbeboundbyanorderultimatelytraceabletotheCrown. ThemisreadingsthatKammennoteswillbediscussedfurtherinfollowingsections.

Thanksgivingandtheindians

"TheFirstThanksgiving,"apaintingbyJ.L.G.Ferris,depictsAmericasearlysettlersandNativeAmericanscelebratingabountifulharvest.

ThefirstfewmonthsweregruelingforthePilgrims.Halfoftheir102membersperished:"ofthe17maleheadsoffamilies, ten died during the first infection"; of the17 wives, only three were left after threemonths.When such devastation is seenagainstthefollowingsummer,whenconditionsimprovedsothatBradfordwouldwriteof"allthingsingoodplenty," thesincerityof'Thanksgiving'becomesapparent.Regardlessofhowfarremovedonemaybenoworevenmayhavebeen whenitwasestablishedasanationalholidayin1863,thesenseofProvidencehadundoubtedlybeenheightenedtoan extreme pitch for the Pilgrims. After such devastating sickness, everyday survival itself was probably seen as cause for gratitude, but when given a full and prosperous harvest (with the help and instruction of Native Americans such as Squanto),thepreviousordealcouldbeunderstoodasatrialbyGod,atestoffaith,theheavenlyrewardprefiguredbyan earthlyone. TheinstitutionalbywhichismeantprimarilytheCapitol'sportrayalofNativeAmericansthroughouttheestablishment ofPlymouthPlantationstandsincuriousrelationtoBraford'snarrative.Firstofall,thereistheinitiallandingparty,withits descriptionofthemenledbyCaptainMilesStandish,firingshotsintothedarknessat"ahideousandgreatcrie."Thisthey mistookfora"companieofwolves,orsuchlikewildbeasts,"untilthenextmorning'sskirmishwhenthe"arrowescame flying"andone"lustieman,andnolessvaliente"who"wasseenshoot.3.arrowes"and"stood.3.shotofamusket..." (Wheelwright,2526).ThisishardlythehumbleservantofferingupthecornatthemeresightofthePilgrim'sarrival.And whenSamoset,thefirstrepresentativeoftheIndians,comestospeak(in"brokenEnglish")withthePilgrims,"hecame bouldlyamongstthem"(emphasisadded);andhavinghadpreviouscontactwithEuropeans,hepresumablyknewasmuch ormoreaboutthePilgrimsthantheyabouthim.Squanto,whohadbeentoEnglandandcouldcommunicatewellwiththe colonists, and who taught them "how to set their corne, wher to take fish, and to procure other commodities," is understoodbythePilgrimsas"aspetiallinstrumentsentofGodfortheirgoodbeyondtheirexpectation"(Wheelwright, 41).Regardlessofthesenseofutilityinsuchanexpression(allthingsbeingforthemtheeffectorinstrumentofGod), thereisanundeniablegratitude,andeventhesenseofdependencethatthosemusthavebeforeonewhowouldprovide aid and instruction. The treaty with Massasoit was initiated not by the Pilgrims but by the sachem himself, who had alreadymadeanequivalentpactwithearlierexplorers.ThesuccessofthetreatyduringMassasoit'slifetimesuggestsan equality,fairness,andtolerancethatwouldbeidealizedandwistfullyrepresentedinvariousremembrancesoftheoverall colonialexperience.Itallowsboththepositiveexemplarofthe'Indian'inMassasoit,andreassuranceofEuropeangood faithindealingwithhim.

ThePuritans
ThemostobviousdifferencebetweenthePilgrimsandthePuritansisthatthePuritanshadnointentionofbreakingwith theAnglicanchurch.ThePuritanswerenonconformistsaswerethePilgrims,bothofwhichrefusingtoacceptanauthority beyondthatoftherevealedword.ButwherewiththePilgrimsthishadtranslatedintosomethingclosertoanegalitarian mode,the"Puritansconsideredreligionaverycomplex,subtle,andhighlyintellectualaffair,"anditsleadersthuswere highly trained scholars, whose education tended to translate into positions that were often authoritarian. There was a builtin hierarchism in this sense, but one which mostly reflected the age: "Very few Englishmen had yet broached the notionthatalackeywasasgoodasalord,orthatanyTom,Dick,orHarry...couldunderstandtheSermonontheMountas wellasaMasterofArtsfromOxford,Cambridge,orHarvard"(Miller,I:4,14).Ofcourse,whilethePuritanemphasison

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scholarshipdidfostersuchclassdistinction,itneverthelessencouragededucationamongthewholeofitsgroup,andin factdemandedaleveloflearningandunderstandingintermsofsalvation.ThomasHookerstatedinTheApplicationof Redemption,"ItswithanignorantsinnerinthemidstofallmeansaswithasickmanremainingintheApothecariesshop, fulofchoycestMedicinesinthedarkestnight:...becausehecannotseewhathetakes,andhowtousethem,hemaykill himselforencreasehisdistempers,butnevercureanydisease"(qtd.inMiller,I:13). Knowledge of Scripture and divinity, for the Puritans, was essential. This was an uncompromising attitude that characterized the Puritans' entry into New England, according to Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, whose thematic anthology, The Puritans (1932, 1963), became a key text of revisionist historicism, standing as an influential corrective againsttheextremeantiPuritanismoftheearlytwentiethcentury.FollowingSamuelEliotMorison,theynotedthatthe emphasisoneducationsawtheestablishment,survival,andflourishingofHarvardCollegewhichsurvivedonlybecause theentirecommunitywaswillingtosupportit,sothateventhepooryeomanfarmers"contributedtheirpecksofwheat" forthecontinuedpromiseofa"literateministry"(Miller,I:14).Andagain,totheircredit,Puritanleadersdidnotbolster theknowledgeofitsministrysimplytoperpetuatethelevelofpoweroftherulingelite.Acontinuinggoalwastofurther educationamongthelaity,andsoensurethatnotonlyweretherightandrighteousideasandunderstandingsbeingheld andexpressed,butthattheexpressionswereinfactmessagesreceivedbyacomprehendingaudience.AnActpassedin Massachusetts in 1647 required "that every town of one hundred families or more should provide free common and grammarschoolinstruction."Indeed,thefirst"FreeGrammarSchool"wasestablishedinBostonin1635,onlyfiveyears aftertheMassachusettsBayColonywasfounded(Miller,II:69597).Foralltheaccusationsofsuperstitionandnarrow mindedness,thePuritanscouldatleastbesaidtohaveprovidedtheirownantidoteintheirsystemofschools.AsJohn CottonwroteinChristtheFountaineofLife,"zealeisbutawildefirewithoutknowledge"(qtd.inMiller,I:22). ThePuritanswho,inthe1560s,firstbegantobe(contemptuously)referredtoassuch,wereardentreformers,seekingto bringtheChurchtoastateofpuritythatwouldmatchChristianityasithadbeeninthetimeofChrist.Thisreformwasto involve,dependinguponwhichPuritanoneasked,varyingdegreesofstrippingawaypracticesseenasresidual"popery" vestments,ceremony,andthelike.ButmanyoftheideaslaterassociatedstrictlywiththePuritanswerenotheldonlyby them. The Calvinist doctrine of predestination, with which Puritanism agreed, was held by the Pilgrims as well: both believed that the human state was one of sin and depravity; that after the Fall all but an elect group were irrevocably boundforhell;that,becauseGod'sknowledgeandpowerwasnotlimitedbyspaceortime,thisgrouphadalwaysbeen elect.Inotherwords,therewasnothingonecoulddoabouttheconditionofone'ssoulbuttrytoactasonewouldexpect aheavenboundsoultoact. AsPerryMillerpointsout,theyinheritedRenaissancehumanismjustastheyinheritedtheReformation,andsoheldan interestingplaceforreasonintheiroverallbeliefs.ThePuritanideaof"CovenantTheology"describeshow"afterthefall ofman,Godvoluntarilycondescended...todrawupacovenantorcontractwithHiscreatureinwhichHelaiddownthe termsandconditionsofsalvation,andpledgedHimselftoabidebythem"(Miller,I:58).Thedoctrinewasnotsomuchone of prescription as it was of explanation: it reasoned why certain people were saved and others were not, it gave the conditionsagainstwhichonemightmeasureupone'ssoul,anditensuredthatGodwouldabideby"humanconceptions ofrightandjustice""notinallaspects,butinthemain"(Miller,I:58).ThereligiousagencyfortheindividualPuritanwas thenlocatedinintenseintrospection,intheattempttocometoanawarenessofone'sownspiritualstate.Aswiththe Pilgrims,theworld,history,everythingforthePuritanbecameatexttobeinterpreted.OnecouldnotexpectallofGod's actionstobelimitedbyone'sideasofreasonandjustice,butoneatleasthadageneralsense,JohnCotton's"essentiall wisdome,"asguidance.Andofcourse,onehadthekey,thebasisofspiritualunderstanding,thefoundationaltextandall encompassingcode,theBible.

Salemwitchcraft
ItwasbecausethePuritanmodeofinterpretivitywithitsreadingsofprovidenceandsecondarycausescouldreachsuch extremes that the Salem witchtrials broke out. Of course, as Thomas H. Johnson writes, the belief in witches was generallyquestionedbynoonePuritanorotherwise"andevenaslateasthecloseoftheseventeenthcenturyhardlya scientistofreputeinEnglandbutacceptedcertainphenomenaasduetowitchcraft."ButthePuritancosmologyhelda relentlessimaginativepower,especiallydemonstratedinnarrativeswhereinProvidencewasshowntobeatworkthrough nature and among human beings. The laity read and took in such readings or demonstrations of Providence, and the ministryfeltcompelledbyasenseofofficialresponsibilitytooffertheirinterpretationsandexplaintheworkofGodinthe world(Miller,II:73435). Johnson notes the "lurid details" of Cotton Mather's Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions (1689),whichhelpedgenerateanunbalancedfascinationwithwitchcraft.ThiswouldprovebothfireandtinderforSalem Village, so that "by September, twenty people and two dogs had been executed as witches" and hundreds more were

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either in jail or were accused (Miller, II: 735). Yet to envision the Puritan community at this point simply as a mob of hystericalzealotsistolosesightofthoseprominentfigureswhostoodagainsttheproceedings.Grantedthattheydidnot speakouttooloudlyattheheightofthefervor,butthentodosowouldbetoriskexposuretoaconfusionofplaguelike properties,wherethetestimonyofanallegedvictimalonewasenoughtocondemnaperson.Butitwastheinjusticeof this very condition against which men such as Thomas Brattle and Increase Mather wrote. Brattle's "A Full and Candid Account of the Delusion calledWitchcraft...." (1692) arguedthat the evidence was no true evidence atall, because the formsoftheaccusedweretakentobetheaccused,andtheaccusers,indeclaringthattheywereinformedbythedevilas towhoafflictedthem,wereonlyofferingthedevil'stestimony.Hiswasanargumentwhichseemedwhollyreasonableto many,butitledBrattletothefear"thatageswillnotwearoffthatreproachandthosestainswhichthesethingswillleave behindthemuponourland"(InMiller,II:762).Matherwrotein1693,inCasesofConscienceconcerningEvilSpirits,that "itwerebetterthatTenSuspectedWitchesshouldescape,thanthatoneInnocentPersonbeCondemned"(Qtd.inMiller, II:736). BeyondthisisaswellisthejournalofSamuelSewall,whichrecordshisfascinatingapproachtowhathadhappened.This complicates the idea of the 'Puritan' on another level because while Brattle and (Increase) Mather may have offered challenges to any conception of the homogeneity of Puritan belief, Sewall reminds one of the variability within an individual.Itintroducesanaxisoftimebywhichthemeasureofthe'Puritanmind'mustbeadjusted.OnChristmasDay, 1696,onereadstheterseopening,"Weburyourlittledaughter."AndthreeweekslaterisatranscriptofthenoticeSewall had posted publicly. It relates that "Samuel Sewall, sensible of the reiterated strokes of God upon himself and family...DesirestotaketheBlameandShameof[theSalemproceedings],AskingpardonofMen..."(InMiller,513).Thisis onceagainaninterpretationofthe"reiteratedstrokesofGod"whichhasbroughtthesenseofshametohisconsciousness, and it suggests that, at least for Puritans such as Sewall, these readings of nature and events are not merely those of convenienceorselfjustification.ThereisatleasttheindicationherethatifsomePuritansstoodreadytoseetheguiltin others,someofthosesamepeopleatleastmadetheirjudgmentsingoodfaithandwithhonesty,givingcredencetotheir understandingofthewaysofGod,evenwhentheythemselvesweretheobjectofjudgment.Sewall'sexamplesuggestsa kindofPuritanwhosePuritanismnotonlycarrieshimtoalmostinhumanextremes,butalsorelentlesslybringshimback, fullcircle,tohumility.

Therevealedword,antinomianism,individualism
WhatalsomustbeemphasizedistheabsolutegroundofreligiousunderstandingthattheBiblicaltextrepresentedforthe Puritans. The Bible was the Lord's revealed word, and only through it does He directly communicate to human beings. WhilethenaturalworldmaybestudiedandinterpretedinordertogainasenseofHiswill,Heisnottheworlditself,and doesnotinstillHimselfdirectlyintohumanbeingsbymeansofvisitationsorrevelationsordivineinspirationsofanysort (Miller, I: 10). The antinomian crisis involving Anne Hutchinson focused on this issue. John Winthrop records it in his journal:
[October21,1636]OneMrs.Hutchinson,amemberofthechurchofBoston,awomanofreadywitandboldspirit,broughtoverwithher twodangerouserrors:1.ThatthepersonoftheHolyGhostdwellsinajustifiedperson.2.Thatnosanctificationcanhelptoevidenceto usourjustification...(InMillerI:129)

WhatthePuritansfacedinHutchinson,orintheQuakerideaof"innerlight"whichallowedeverypersondirectaccessto God,wasanoutbreakof"dangerous"individualism,onewhichthreatenedthefoundationoftheirsocialorder.Itwasnot simplyamatteroflettingHutchinsonspreadherideasfreelynotwhenthoseideascouldcarrythePuritanconceptionof grace to such an extreme that it translated into an overall abandonment of any structured church, which is to say, the basis of a Puritan society. Miller states how the followers of Hutchinson became caught up in a "fanatical anti intellectualism" fed by the original Puritan "contention that regenerate men were illuminated with divine truth," which was in turn taken indicate the irrelevance of scholarship and study of the Bible. Both possibilities were potentially destructivetotheMassachusettsBaycolony,andbothonlycarriedoutPuritanideasfurtherthantheyweremeanttogo (Miller, I: 1415); the individualistic tendencies that was embedded in the Pilgrim community, exists as well with the Puritans.InreferencetoTocqueville'suseoftheterminvolumeIIofDemocracyinAmerica,EllwoodJohnsongoessofar astosay,"TheantitraditionalismandderitualizationofsocietythathenamedIndividualismehadtheirsourcesinPuritan culture.ThisPuritanindividualismhadsurvivedespeciallyinthehabitofjudgingothersbytheircharactersofmindand will,ratherthanrank,sex,orrace..."(Johnson,119).Ofcourse,asJohnsonnotes,Tocqueville'sexperienceinAmericawas limited both in time and geographic location. But Hutchinson and her followers were banished, after all, and while PuritanismdidsubstitutethemoresimplifiedapproachofRameanlogictoreplacetheoverlyreconditeandcomplicated mediaevalscholasticism,andwhileitfosteredamorepersonalmodeofreligionwithitsemphasisonindividualfaithand access to Scripture instead of the structured ritualism and mediation of the Catholic church, it nevertheless took for grantedasocietyandstatewhichrelieduponwhatwasonlyatranslatedformofclassdivision,andwhichdependedupon a hierarchy where the word of God would not become dispersed (and so, altered) into a kind of religious precursor to

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democracy.ThePuritanshadthemselvessufferedrepeatedlyunderasocietywhichhadseemedtoevincethepotentially ominoussideoftherelationofchurchandstate.Thekingwastheleaderofthechurch,andthestatedecidedhowthe churchwastofunction,andin1629whenCharlesIdissolvedparliament,thepeoplefoundthattheynolongerhadany politicalrepresentation,anymeanstoactlegislatively.Theirsecularagencyhadthenbecomeameasureoftheirreligious agency; the removal to Massachusetts in turn was a way to gain a political voice, to create a state that would develop accordingtotheirownbeliefsandfashionitselfharmoniouslywiththechurch. Itwasnotanefforttoestablishasocietywhereinonemightunreservedlyexpresswhatonewishedtoexpressandstill hopetohaveasayincommunalaffairs.Ifreligionwastocometobearonthegovernanceofthesociety,towhatgood wouldamoreegalitarian,democraticformcome?Theintegrityofthecommunityasreligiousentity(Winthrop's"cittyon ahill"),whichhadbeenthepurposeoftheircomingtoAmerica,couldonlybe,atbest,weakenedanddispersed,andat worst, be challenged to such a degree and in so many ways that there would be no agreement, no action or political effectiveness.Theirreligionitselfwouldseemtobefacedwithaprospectofwhichkinddoesnoteasily(ifatall)admita prefiguration of what is now called 'gridlock.' Despite what some later commentators would say, Puritanism and Democracy were not coproductive ideas, no matter how much one might have anticipated, and even allowed the eventualityof,theother. OnewhostatedtheproblemswhichwouldultimatelyunravelPuritanismasadominantpoliticalforcewasRogerWilliams. For one thing, Williams's critique of the institutions being developed in Massachusetts directly illuminates the difficulty indicatedabovethatofperpetuatingareligionwhichbothheldtheseedofanincreasinglyliberatingindividualismandat thesametimemaintainedtheneedofalimitedmeritocracy.TheprimarypointofcontentionforWilliamsbeganin1631 whenhedeclaredthatthechurchinNewEnglandwas,initsfailuretofullyseparatefromtheEnglishchurch,inadequate, andtainted.HeremovedtoPlymouth,whereheremainedforayear.Buteventhere"Williamsworeouthiswelcome" (Heimert,196).PartofthereasonlayinanotherofWilliams'scritiqueofNewEnglandasitwasdeveloping,thatthelands grantedtothecolonistshadbeenunjustlygivenbythecrown,becausetheyhadnotbeenfirstpurchasedfromtheIndians. Forhisefforts,Williamswasbanished.Hisprimaryresponsetothiswasoneofhismorethreateningideas,"thatthecivil magistrateshadnopowertopunishpersonsfortheirreligiousopinions"(Miller,I:215).Thiswasnotnecessarilyanover archingargumentforfulltoleration,butratherimpliedastatementspecifictoChristiansalvation,that"nopoweronearth wasentitledtopreventanyindividualfromseekingChristinhisownway"(Heimert,198).ForthePuritanministry,this was far enough, because it targeted the strongest tie between it and civil government, and thus implied a potential disconnectionbetweenthetwo.AsJohnCottonwrote,thequestionof"mensgoodsorlands,livesorliberties,tributes, customes, worldly honors and inheritances" was already the jurisdiction of "the civill state" (qtd. in Hall, 117), but the establishment of laws which fostered Christian principles and punished threats to them that was only part of the continuedandincreasingrealizationofdivinewillonearth. ThatdissenterssuchasHutchinsonandWilliamswerebanished,suggestswhathasrecurringlybeendescribedasamajor factorintheevolutionnotonlyofthePuritantheocracy,butofsupposednationalidentityingeneralthefrontier.Both CrevecoeurandTocquevilleportraythepioneertype,theindividualwho,beingawayfromtheinfluenceofreligionand mannered, social customs, becomes increasingly rough, and even nearbarabaric. This same figure is also seen as a necessary precursor to more and more 'civilized' waves of society. Another view of the frontier effect comes with the increasing democratization of the United States, where populist movements occur such as the Jacksonian Revolution, suggestingakindofevolutionarymodethroughwhichtheAmericansociopolitical'self'ismoreandmorefullyrealized. ForPuritansociety,Millersuggestsamoresocioeconomiceffect,wherethefrontierincreasinglydispersescommunities andsodispersestheeffectandcontroloftheclergy,andwherethedriveformaterialprofitbeginstopredominateover the concern with "religion and salvation" (Miller, I: 17). And if the frontier demands more a strippeddown material efficacy than the finer attributes of 'culture' and class distinction, then so too does frontierinfluenced religion lose its taste for the nicer distinctions of theological scholarship, and move instead toward a greater simplicity, toward the eventualevangelismoftheGreatAwakeninginthe1740s,furtherouttoward"fundamentalism"andotherformsofbelief thathadlongsinceceasedtobePuritan.

Caveatanoteonthejeremiad
Atthispointonemuststepbackwithabitofcaution,andonceagaintakenoteofanimportantprovisionunderlyingthe terminology.Thatis,inusingtheterm"puritan"aboveandassigningtoitasetofcharacteristicsandpreponderances,I must qualify the grounds of the (non)definition. Specifically, an argument such as that belonging to Darrett Rutman becomes useful, even if one does not take it as far as does he (in using specifically against the likes of Perry Miller). Primarily, he takes issue with an approach to history that employs only the selected writings of a selected few, in determining some "notion of Puritan quintessence"one which is supposed to represent all of Puritan New England, ministry and laity alike. As he puts it, this "view of New England Puritanism...rests upon two major implicit

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assumptions....thatthereissuchathingas'Puritanism'...andthattheacmeofPuritanidealsistobefoundinNewEngland duringtheyears16301650"(InHall,110).HisargumentiscorrelativetoonewhichSacvanBercovitchwilltakeupinThe AmericanJeremiad,wherehepointsoutthathistorians,inassumingthissocalleddecline,aresimplyfollowingtheleadof "CottonMatherandotherNewEnglandJeremiahs."TakingstatementssuchasMather's,historians,insteadofseeingitas partofatraditionof"politicalsermon"(touseBercovitch'sphrase)thatcouldbeevincedallthewayfromthesailingof the Arbella, have instead interpreted them as even more historically specific, reactions against an increasing lack of coherencebetweenreligiousandsecularauthority,anddeclarationsofafailingmission.Rutmanindicatesthe"pragmatic value"ofseeingthejeremiadthisway,inthatithelpsisolateamodelofPuritanism,andnarrowsthehistorian'staskto oneofdescribingthethoughtofaspecifictwentyyearperiod. Rutman's basic argument rests on the recognition that, to gain a clearer picture, one must study not only published sermons and theological treatises, but also more wide ranging anthropologic datarecords of social, political, and economicrelationswithinandamongindividualsandcommunities.Intothespecificsofthis,oneneednotgo;astudyin this vein of Sudbury, Massachusetts, reveals underlying instabilities that challenge assumptions of a dominant Puritan 'theocracy,'butthenthisisnotsofarfromMiller'sownconclusion,thatPuritanideologyheldwithinitthebasisofitsown lossofcontrol.ThepointhereisratherthepointfromwhichRutmanbeginsandwithwhichheconcludes,thatonemust becarefulnotassumeanessenceofidentitytobedescribedbeforeattemptingtodescribesimplywhatonefinds,that such an assumption may lead to dangerous equivocations between the ideology of Puritanism and the history of New England(andextrapolatingfromthat,muchoftheUnitedStatesasawhole). ItistheoldinstabilitythatbetweenthereligiousandthesecularwhichtheideaofPuritanismcontains.Theconfusion thenbecomestranslatedintothehistoricalperspectiveintermsthat,asBercovitchstates,comefromthejeremiaditself: "the New England Puritan jeremiad evokes the mythic past not merely to elicit imitation but above all to demand progress"(Bercovitch,24).ForBercovitch,whoreadsthosekeytextsofthe'GreatMigration'JohnWinthrop's"AModel of Christian Charity" and John Cotton's "God's Promise to His Plantations"as important transitions into distinctly Americanformsofthejeremiad,thisentailsan"efforttofusethesacredandprofane,"tohistoricizetranscendentvalues and goals into what he calls a "ritual of errand" (Bercovitch, 26,29). Defined then not so much by preexisting social distinctions but rather by a continual and purposefullyheld sense of mission to which the modern idea of 'progress' is intrinsicandoutofwhichthenotionof"civilreligion"(asKammenwouldsay,"memoryinplaceofreligion")develops, Puritanism,asanideologicalmodeandnot(Rutman's)historical"actuality,"suggestsAmericaasamodernregionfrom theverybeginningsofitscolonization. Less so with historians thanpopularizers of a Puritan mythos, the evocation of a "golden age" existing less as past fact thanfuturepromise,comestodominatethesenseof'Puritantradition'.This,asBercovitchindicates,isattheheartof 'explaining' America, with all its promise as a New World, with its idea of Manifest Destiny, with the kind of self idealizationofNationalPurposethatHenryNashSmithdescribesinVirginLand.Themodernperspectiveanditsblurred secularandreligious(ormoral)understandings,thusiswhatwillbeexploredinthesequel. ThefirstEuropeansinAmericadidnotencounterasilentworld.Achorusofvoiceshadbeenaliveandmovingthroughthe air for approximately 25,000 years before. Weaving tales of tricksters, warriors and gods; spinning prayers, creation stories,andspiritualprophesies,theFirstNationscarvedouttheiroraltraditionslongbeforecolonialmindswerefired andflummoxedbyaworldloudwithlanguagewhenLeifEricssonfirstsightedNewfoundlandinA.D.1000.Graduallythe storiesthatthesefirstcommunitiestoldaboutthemselvesbecamemuffledastheeminencesoftheEuropeanRenaissance begantocontemplatetheNewWorld.Oneofthem,theFrenchthinkerandfatheroftheessay,MicheldeMontaigne,was notloathtotransformtheanecdotesofaservantwhohadvisitedAntarcticFrance(modernBrazil)intoareportonthe livesofvirtuouscannibals.Accordingtohis"OnCannibals"(1588),despitetheirpredilectionforwhitemeat,thesenoble individualsledlivesofgoodnessanddignity,inshamingcontrasttocorruptEurope.Littlewonderthatonanimaginary NewWorldislandinShakespeare'sTheTempest(firstperformedin1611),therudesavageCalibanawaitsaconquering Prosperointhemidstofnaturalbounty.

PioneerstoPuritans
Whetherpartiallyorentirelyfanciful,thesevisionsofparadiseonEarthwerenotmuchdifferentfromSirThomasMore's Utopia(1516),itselfpartlyinspiredbytheItalianAmerigoVespucci'svoyagestotheNewWorld.WondersofanewEden, untainted by European decadence, beckoned to those who would venture to America, even as others spared no ink to paintaccountsofthesavageryofthishostile,unknownworld.Betweentheseextremeslaysomethingapproachingthe truth:Americaasequalpartsheavenandhell,itsaboriginalinhabitantsashumanbeingscapableofbothvirtueandvice. While wealth, albeit cloaked in Christian missionary zeal, may have been the primary motive for transatlantic journeys, many explorers quickly understood that survival had to be secured before pagan souls or gold. John Smith, himself an

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escapedslavefromtheBalkanswholedthe1606expeditiontoVirginia,wroteofhisplunderswitharaconteur'sflairfor embellisnment,impatientwiththosewhobemoanedtherigorsofearningtheircolonialdailybread.Histwinchronicles,A TrueRelationofVirginia(1608)andTheGeneralHistoryofVirginia,NewEngland,andtheSummerIsles(1624),differinat leastonesuggestivedetail:theIndianmaidenPocahontasappearsonlyinthelatter,betrayingthefreedomwithwhich Europeanimaginationworkedonsome"facts"ofthisencounter. Competing accounts of the American experiment multiplied with Thomas Morton, whose Maypole paganism and free trade in arms with the natives raised the ire of his Puritan neighbors, Governor William Bradford, who led Mayflower PilgrimsfromreligiouspersecutioninEnglandtoPlymouthRockin1620,andRogerWilliams,whosoughttounderstand thelanguageofthenatives,earninghimexpulsionfromthe"sanctuary"ofMassachusetts.Moreoftenthannot,feverish religiositycastaspotentaspellontheseearlyAmericanauthorsastheirEnglishliteraryheritage.TheterrorsofJudgment DayinspiredMichaelWigglesworth'sTheDayofDoom(1662),apoemsosensationalthatoneintwentyhomesendedup harboringacopy.Equallyelectrifyingwerenarrativesofcaptivityandrestoration,likethatofMaryRowlandson(1682), often cast as allegories of the soul's journey from a world of torment to heaven. Beset by fragile health and religious doubt, Anne Bradstreet captured in her Several Poems (1678) a moving picture of a Pilgrim mind grappling with the redemptivetrialsoflifewithacouragethatwouldlaterbestirEmilyDickinson. ItseemsunlikelythattwocollegeroommatesatHarvard,EdwardTaylorandSamuelSewall,wouldbothcometodefine Puritanliterarycultureyettheydid.InfluencedbytheEnglishverseofJohnDonneandGeorgeHerbert,Taylor,aNew England minister, became as great a poet as the Puritans managed to produce. Sewall's Diary (begun 12 August 1674) madehimasmucharivalofhisBritishcounterpartSamuelPepysasofthemoreribaldchroniclerofVirginia,WilliamByrd. While it is easy tocaricturethe Puritansas models of virtue or else viciouspersecutors of real or imagined heresy, the simplicityofmythbeggarsthecomplexityofreality.AjuristwhopresidedovertheSalemWitchTrials,Sewallwasalsothe authorofTheSellingofJoseph(1700),thefirstantislaverytractinanAmericathathadacceptedthepracticesince1619. TheGreatAwakening,aperiodinwhichthePuritanmindsetenjoyedabriefrevival,isnotablefortheprolifichistorianand hagiographerCottonMather. TheWonders of the Invisible World (1693) afforded aglimpse of hisskepticism about the prosecutors of the witch trials, while his Magnalia Christi Americana (1702) provided a narrative of settlers' history of America, regularly illuminated with the exemplary "lives of the saints." Moved equally by dogmatic piety and the imperativesofreasonandscience,JonathanEdwardsdeliveredarrestingsermonsthatswayednotonlyhispeers,butalso centurieslater,WilliamJames'sVarietiesofReligiousExperience(1902).Truetoform,Edwards'sAFaithfulNarrativeof theSurprisingWorkofGod(1737)isacelebrationnotonlyofspiritualreawakening,butoftheempiricismofJohnLockeas well.

EnlightenmenttoAutonomy
If anyone embodied the recoil from seventeenthcentury Puritan orthodoxy toward the Enlightenment, it was the architect of an independent, modern United States, Benjamin Franklin (17061790). Printer, statesman, scientist, and journalist,hefirstdelightedhisreaderswiththeannualwitandwisdomofPoorRichardsAlmanac(launchedin1733).In 1741, in parallel with Andrew Bradford's The American Magazine, Franklin's General Magazine and Historical Chronicle markedthebeginningofNewEnglandmagazinepublishing.ButitwashisbestsellingAutobiography(1791)thatrevealed theextenttowhichhispersonaldestinytwinedwiththeturbulentcourseofthenewstate.Ostensiblyalessoninlifefor hisson,thebookbecameacompassforgenerationsofAmericansasittrackedCitizenFranklin'sprogressfromahumble printer'sapprentice,throughhisgloryasadiplomatintheRevolutionaryWar(17751783),totheexclusiveclubofthe foundingfatherswhodraftedtheDeclarationofIndependenceandratifiedtheConstitution. The Revolution that stamped Franklin's life with the destiny of the nation found its most brazen exponent in Thomas Paine. Author of Common Sense (1776) and The American Crisis (pamphlet series, 17761783), Paine was a British expatriate who came to Philadelphia sponsored by Franklin and galvanized the battle for independence. His fervid opposition to the British social order, slavery, and the inferior status of women made him a lightning rod of the Revolution, helping to create an American identity in its wake. America's emergence as a sovereign power became enshrinedintheDeclarationofIndependence,draftedbyThomasJefferson.HarkingbacktoMontaigneinNotesonthe StateofVirginia(17841785),thispatricianstatesmanidolizedthepurityofagrariansocietyinthefearthatthecloserthe NewWorldedgedtowardthesatanicmillsofindustrialEurope,themorecorruptitwouldbecome.Thefounderofthe UniversityofVirginia,whoselibrarywouldseedtheLibraryofCongress,Jeffersonwaselectedpresidentin1800andagain in1804.

LiteratureAftertheRevolution
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AftertheRevolution,AmericanliteraryculturegrewlessdependentonBritishmodels,andthepopularsuccessofpoets like the ConnecticutWits, including TimothyDwight,composer of anAmerican would be epic, The ConquestofCanaan (1785),onlyconfirmedthispoint.ThebroadappealofnovelslikeThePowerofSympathy(1789)byWilliamHillBrownand CharlotteTemple(1791)bySusannaHaswellRowson,bothtalesofseductionthatspoketowhatfuturecriticswouldcalla pulpfictionsensibility,signaledthegrowingsuccessofdomesticauthors(Rowson'snovel,thebestselleroftheeighteenth century, would do equally well in the nineteenth). Modeled on Don Quixote, the comic writings of Hugh Henry BrackenridgeandthegothicsensibilitiesofCharlesBrockdenBrownalsowonadegreeofpopularandcriticallaurels,the latterpresagingthedarkstrainsofPoeandHawthorne.

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HistoryofAmericanLiterature/ColonialPeriod
EarlyColonialLiterature.16071700
I.TheEnglishinVirginia. II.PilgrimsandPuritansinNewEngland. III.TheNewEnglandClergy. IV.PuritanPoetryinNewEngland.

I.TheEnglishinVirginia:CaptainJohnSmith,WilliamStrachey,GeorgeSandys.
Thestoryofanation'sliteratureordinarilyhasitsbeginningfarbackintheremoterhistoryofthatnation,obscuredbythe uncertaintiesofanageofwhichnotrustworthyrecordshavebeenpreserved.Theearliestwritingsofapeopleareusually the first efforts at literary production of a race in its childhood; and as these compositions develop they record the intellectual and artistic growth of the race. The conditions which attended the development of literature in America, therefore,arepeculiar.AttheverytimewhenSirWalterRaleighatypeofthegreatandsplendidmenofactionwho madesuchglorioushistoryforEnglandinthedaysofElizabethwasorganizingthefirstfutileeffortstocolonizethenew world, English Literature, which is the joint possession of the whole Englishspeaking race, was rapidly developing. Sir Philip Sidney had written his Arcadia, first of the great prose romances, and enriched English poetry with his sonnets; EdmundSpenserhadcomposedTheShepherd'sCalendar;ChristopherMarlowehadestablishedthedramauponheroic lines;andShakespearehadjustenteredonthefirstflightsofhisfancy.When,in1606,KingJamesgrantedtoacompany ofLondonmerchantsthefirstcharterofVirginia,SidneyandSpenserandMarloweweredead,Shakespearehadproduced someofhisgreatestplays,thenameofBenJonson,alongwithothernotablenames,hadbeenaddedtothelistofour greatdramatists,andthephilosopher,FrancisBacon,hadpublishedthefirstofhisessays.Thesearethefamiliarnames which represent the climax of literary achievement in the Elizabethan age; and this brilliant epoch had reached its full heightwhenthefirstpermanentEnglishsettlementinAmericawasmadeatJamestownin1607.OnNewYear'sday,the littlefleetcommandedbyCaptainNewportsailedforthonitsventuresomeandromanticenterprise,thesignificanceof whichwasnotaltogetherunsuspectedbythosewhosawitdepart.MichaelDrayton,oneofthemostpopularpoetsofhis day,laterpoetlaureateofthekingdom,sanginquaint,propheticversesacheeryfarewell: "Youbraveheroicminds, Worthyyourcountry'sname, Thathonorstillpursue, Goandsubdue, Whilstloiteringhinds Lurkhereathomewithshame. "Andinregionsfarre, Suchheroesbringyeforth Asthosefromwhomwecame; Andplantourname Underthatstar Notknownuntoournorth. "Andasthereplentygrows Oflaureleverywhere, Apollo'ssacredtree, Youitmaysee, Apoet'sbrows thatmaysingthere."

TheVirginiaColony.

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OriginalmapoftheNewEnglandseacoastmadebyCaptainJohnSmith.

Thislittlebandofadventurers"inregionsfarre"disembarkedfromtheshipsDiscovery,GoodSpeed,andSusanConstant uponthesiteofatownyettobebuilt,fiftymilesinland,ontheshoreofastreamasyetunexplored,intheheartofavast greenwildernessthehomeofsavagetribeswhowerenonetoofriendly.Itwashardlytobeexpectedthattheripeseeds of literary culture should be found in such a company, or should germinate under such conditions in any notable luxuriance. The surprising fact, however, is that in this group of gentlemen adventurers there was one man of some literarycraft,who,whileleadingthemoststrenuouslifeofall,efficientlyprotectingandhearteninghislesscourageous comradesinallmannerofperilousexperiences,compiledandwrotewithmuchliteraryskillthepicturesquechroniclesof thesettlement.

JohnSmith,15801631

CaptainJohnSmith,themainstayoftheJamestowncolonyinthecriticalperiodofitsearlyexistence,wasatruesoldierof fortune, venturesome, resolute, selfreliant, resourceful; withal a man of great good sense, and with the grasp on circumstanceswhichbelongstothemanofpower.HislifesinceleavinghishomeonaLincolnshirefarmatsixteenyearsof age had been replete with romantic adventure. He had been a soldier in the French army and had served in that of Holland. He had wandered through Italy and Greece into the countries of eastern Europe, and had lived for a year in TurkeyandTartary. HehadbeeninRussia,inGermany,inSpain,andinAfrica,andwasfamiliarwiththeislandsoftheMediterraneanand those of the eastern Atlantic. Smith afterward wrote a narrative of his singularly full and adventurous life, not sparing, apparently, the embellishment which in his time seems to have been reckoned a natural feature of narrative art. The honestyofhisstatementshasbeendoubted,perhapstothepointofinjustice;andatthepresenttimeareactionistobe seenwhichpresentsthewritingsofthesturdyoldadventurerinamorefavorablelight. It was natural enough that such a daring rover should catch the spirit of enthusiasm with which the exploration and settlementoftheNewWorldhadinflamedEnglishmenofhistimeandtype.Anditwasarecognitionofhisexperienceand practicalsagacitywhichledtohisappointmentasamemberoftheCouncilattheheadofaffairsintheJamestowncolony. TheTrueRelation. InsofarastheliteraryaccomplishmentsofCaptainJohnSmithhaveanyimmediateconnectionwithAmericanhistory,our interestcentresuponhisTrueRelationofsuchoccurrencesandaccidentsofnoateashathhapnedinVirginiasincethefirst

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plantingofthatCollony,whichisnowresidentintheSouthpartthereof,tillthelastreturnefromthence(London,1608). Smith's writings are plain, blunt narratives, which please by their rough vigor and the breezy picturesqueness of his rugged, unaffected style. Hardly to be accounted literature except by way of compliment, the True Relation is not unworthyofitsplaceinourliteraryrecordasthefirstEnglishbookproducedinAmerica.Itsuppliesourearliestchronicle of the perils and hardships of our American pioneers. The romantic story of Pocahontas is found in its pages, briefly recountedbythewriterintermswhichhardlywarrantitsdismissalasamyth;andmanyanotherthrillingincidentofthat distressing struggle with the wilderness which makes agenuineappeal tothe reader now, as it undoubtedlydidto the kinsmenofthecolonistsinEnglandforwhomthebookwasoriginallyprepared. Otherwritings. Smithwastheauthorofseveralothernarrativeanddescriptivepamphletsinwhichherecountedtheearlyhistoryofthe coloniesatPlymouthandonMassachusettsBay.Indeed,itwastheredoubtableCaptainwhofirstgavetothatpartofthe country the name New England; and to the little harbor on Cape Cod, before the coming of the Puritans, Smith had alreadygiventhenameofPlymouth.In1624,hepublishedAGeneralHistoryofVirginia,acompilationeditedinEngland fromthereportsofvariouswriters.

WilliamStrachey,fl.16091618.
Anotherinterestingchronicleofthisperiloustimewaswritteninthesummerof1610byagentlemanrecentlyarrivedat Jamestownafterastormyandeventfulvoyage.Thisvividnarrative,calledAtrueReportoryofthewrackeandredemption of Sir Thomas Gates, knight, upon and from the ilands of the Bermudas, his coming to Virginia, and the estate of that colony,waswrittenbyWilliamStrachey,ofwhosepersonalitylittleisknown.Thetremendouspictureofshipwreckand
disasterispresentedinamasterlystyle. "Thecloudsgatheringthickuponus,andthewindssingingandwhistlingmostunusually,...adreadfulstormandhideousbeganto blowfromouttheNortheast,whichswellingandroaringasitwerebyfits,somehourswithmoreviolencethanothers,atlengthdidbeat alllightfromheaven,whichlikeanhellofdarkness,turnedblackuponus.... "Prayersmightwellbeintheheartandlips,butdrownedintheoutcriesoftheOfficers,nothingheardthatcouldgivecomfort,nothing seenthatmightencouragehope..." "TheseaswelledabovetheCloudsandgavebattleuntoheaven."

Sir George Summers being upon the watch, had an apparition of a little round light, like a faint star, trembling and streaming along with a sparkling blaze, half the height from the mainmast, and shooting sometimes from shroud to shroud,temptingtosettleasitwereuponanyofthefourshrouds,andforthreeorfourhourstogether,orrathermore, halfthenightitkeptwithus,runningsometimesalongthemainyardtotheveryend,andthenreturning.... "ItbeingnowFriday,thefourthmorning,itwantedlittlebutthattherehadbeenageneraldeterminationtohaveshutup hatchesandcommendingoursinfulsoulstoGod,committedtheshiptothemercyofthesea." NowonderthatwhenStrachey'slittlebook,printedinLondon,fellintothehandsofWilliamShakespeare,thisdramatic recitalofthefuriousstormwhichdrovetheVirginiafleetonthereefsof"thestillvexedBermoothes"shouldhaveinspired thepoetinhisdescriptionofthetempestevokedbyProsperoonhisenchantedisland. So other narratives were written and other chronicles compiled by these industrious Jamestown settlers; but their chroniclesandreportswerelargelyofficialdocumentspreparedfortheguidanceofthecompany'sofficersinLondon,and forthegeneralenlightenmentofEnglishmenathome.Nowhereamongthemdowefindtheringofthatresoundingstyle whichmakesliteratureofStrachey'sprose.

GeorgeSandys,15781644.
ItdidnotseemlikelythatthusearlyinVirginiahistoryanylaurelswouldbegatheredfromApollo'ssacredtreetocrowna poet's brow as Drayton had pleasantly predicted in his lines of farewell. Yet, after all, among these gentlemen adventurers who continued to come from England in increasing numbers, there arrived in 1621, as treasurer of the Virginia company, one who was recognized as a poet of considerable rank George Sandys, author of an excellent metrical translation of the first five books of Ovid. To Sandys also, Drayton, now laureate, had imparted a professional benediction,exhortinghisfriendwithappreciativewords:

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"LetseewhatlinesVirginiawillproduce. GoonwithOvid.... Enticethemusesthithertorepair; Entreatthemgently;trainthemtothatair."

Andamidtheexactingdutiesofhispositioninamostdiscouragingtime,inexperiencesofprivationanddistress,amidthe terrorsofIndianuprisingandmassacre,he"wenton"withOvid.AfterfouryearsofstrenuouslifeinthenewAmerica, SandyswenthometoEnglandwithhistranslationoftheMetamorphosescompleted,andin1626presentedhisfinished work to the king. It was anotable poem,was so accepted bycontemporaries, andafterward elicited the admiration of Dryden and of Pope. Thus came the first expression of the poetic art in the New World "the first utterance of the consciousliteraryspirit,articulatedinAmerica." Werecordwithinterestthesefewliteraryappearancesintheannalsofourearlyhistory,butwecaninnosenseclaim these writers as representatives of our native American literature. Smith, Strachey, and Sandys were Englishmen temporarilyinterestedinagreatschemeofcolonization.Afterbriefsojourninthecolony,theyreturnedtoEngland.They were not colonists; they were travelers; and while their compositions have a peculiar interest, and are not without significanceforus,theycannotbeaccountedAmericanworks.

DevelopmentoftheColony.
TherecordofVirginia'searlystruggles,itsdifficultieswiththeIndians,itsdepletionbyillnessandfamine,itslossesdueto theincapacityofleadersandpoliciesilladaptedtotheconditionsofatruecoloniallife,itsreinforcements,itsacquisition ofcolonists,itsadvancementinwealthandimportance,thisisfamiliarhistory.Theremarkablefactistherapiditywith whichthecolonydeveloped.In1619,twelvehundredsettlersarrived;alongwiththemweresentonehundredconvictsto become servants. Boys and girls, picked up in the London streets, were shipped to Virginia to be bound during their minoritytotheplanters.InthesameyearaDutchmanofwarlandedtwentynegroesatJamestown,whowere sold as slaves the first in America. The cultivation of tobacco became profitable, the plantations were extended, and new colonists were brought over in large numbers. Following the execution of Charles I, and the establishment of the PuritanProtectorate,hundredsoftheexiledCavaliersmigratedtoVirginiawiththeirfamiliesandtraditions.Thesenew colonistsstampedthecharacterofthedominionthatwastobe.ThebestbloodofEnglandwasthusinfusedintothenew enterprise,andthespiritoftheSouthwasdetermined.In1650,thepopulationofVirginiawas15,000;twentyyearslater, itwas40,000. Yetthesouthernsoildidnotprovefavorabletoliterarygrowth.Englishbookswere,ofcourse,broughtintothecolony, andprivatelibrariesweretobefoundhereandthereinthehomesofthewealthy.TherewerenofreeschoolsinVirginia, andbutfewprivateschools.Thechildrenoftheplantersreceivedinstructionundertutorsintheirownhomes,ofwere senttoEnglandfortheireducation.Forfearofseditiousliterature,printingpresseswereforbiddenbytheking.In1671, GovernorBerkeleydeclared: LiteraryConditions. "IthankGodtherearenofreeschools,norprinting,andIhopeweshallnothavethesehundredyears;forlearninghas broughtdisobedienceintotheworld,andprintinghasdivulgedthemandlibelsagainstthebestofgovernments.Godkeep usfromboth."

"LeahandRachel."
Oforiginalliteraryaccomplishment,therewaslittleornothoughtuntilwellonintheeighteenthcentury.Twoorthree vigorouspamphlets,publishedinEnglandnotlongafter1650,areinterestingasvoicingthefirstdecidedutterancesofa genuineAmericanspiritinthesouthernsettlements.JohnHammond,aresidentinthenewercolonyofMaryland,visiting hisoldhomein1656,becamehomesickfortheonehehadleftinAmerica."ItisnotlongsinceIcamefromthence,"he said,"nordoIintend,byGod'sassistance,tobelongoutofitagain....ItisthatcountryinwhichIdesiretospendthe remnant of my days, in which I covet to make my grave," His little work, entitled Leach and Rachel ("the two fruitful sisters,VirginiaandMaryland"),waswrittenwithapurposetoshowwhatboundlessopportunitywasaffordedinthese twocoloniestothosewhoinEnglandhadnoopportunityatall.

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IndianandEarlyAmericanLiterature
Americanchildren'sliteratureoriginatedwiththeoraltraditionofitsNativepeoples.Whenstoriesandlegendsweretold byNativeAmericans,childrenwereincludedintheaudienceasameansofpassingonthesociety'scultureandvaluesto succeeding generations. This oral literature included creation stories and stories of chiefs, battles, intertribal treaties, spirits, and events of long ago. They entertained as they instructed, and were often the most important part of sacred ceremonies. The Puritans and other British settlers in New England brought with them printed matter for children to be used for advancing literacy, teaching religion, and other didactic purposes. British works were imported and reprinted in the Americancolonies,beginningatrendofEuropeanimportsthatwouldcontinueforsometime.Anumberoftheearliest knownchildren'sworkswritteninthecoloniesborrowedheavilyfromtheseimportsinthemeandpurpose.Theseinclude JohnCotton'sSpiritualMilkforBostonBabes(1646).ProbablythebestknownPuritanbookthatchildrenreadatthetime wastheNewEnglandPrimer,originallypublishedsometimebetween1686and1690.Itcontainedlessonsinliteracyand religiousdoctrineinverseformwithpictures,notforthepurposeofentertainingchildrenbutbecausePuritansbelieved childrenlearnedbestthatway.OthercommonbooksinearlyAmericaincludedJohnBunyan'sPilgrim'sProgress(1678) and American schoolbooks such as Noah Webster's Webster's American Spelling Book (1783) and George Wilson's AmericanClassReader(c.1810).

AmericanLiteraryaspects:

EarlyAmericanandColonialPeriodto1776

Americanliteraturebeginswiththeorallytransmittedmyths,legends,tales,andlyrics(alwayssongs)ofIndiancultures. There was nowritten literature among the more than500different Indian languages andtribal cultures that existed in NorthAmericabeforethefirstEuropeansarrived.Asaresult,NativeAmericanoralliteratureisquitediverse.Narratives from quasinomadic hunting cultures like the Navajo are different from stories of settled agricultural tribes such as the pueblodwellingAcoma;thestoriesofnorthernlakesidedwellerssuchastheOjibwaoftendifferradicallyfromstoriesof deserttribesliketheHopi. Tribes maintained their own religions worshipping gods, animals, plants, or sacred persons. Systems of government rangedfromdemocraciestocouncilsofelderstotheocracies.Thesetribalvariationsenterintotheoralliteratureaswell. Still,itispossibletomakeafewgeneralizations.Indianstories,forexample,glowwithreverencefornatureasaspiritual aswellasphysicalmother.Natureisaliveandendowedwithspiritualforces;maincharactersmaybeanimalsorplants, often totems associated with a tribe, group, or individual. The closest to the Indian sense of holiness in later American literatureisRalphWaldoEmerson'stranscendental"OverSoul,"whichpervadesalloflife. The Mexican tribes revered the divine Quetzalcoatl, a god of the Toltecs and Aztecs, and some tales of a high god or cultureweretoldelsewhere.However,therearenolong,standardizedreligiouscyclesaboutonesupremedivinity.The closest equivalents to Old World spiritual narratives are often accounts of shamans initiations and voyages. Apart from these,therearestoriesaboutcultureheroessuchastheOjibwatribe'sManabozhoortheNavajotribe'sCoyote.These tricksters are treated with varying degrees of respect. In one tale they may act like heroes, while in another they may seemselfishorfoolish.Althoughpastauthorities,suchastheSwisspsychologistCarlJung,havedeprecatedtrickstertales asexpressingtheinferior,amoralsideofthepsyche,contemporaryscholarssomeofthemNativeAmericanspointout thatOdysseusandPrometheus,thereveredGreekheroes,areessentiallytrickstersaswell.

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Examples of almost every oral genre can be found in American Indian literature: lyrics, chants, myths, fairy tales, humorousanecdotes,incantations,riddles,proverbs,epics,andlegendaryhistories.Accountsofmigrationsandancestors abound,asdovisionorhealingsongsandtricksters'tales.Certaincreationstoriesareparticularlypopular.Inonewell known creation story, told with variations among many tribes, a turtle holds up the world. In a Cheyenne version, the creator,Maheo,hasfourchancestofashiontheworldfromawateryuniverse.Hesendsfourwaterbirdsdivingtotryto bringupearthfromthebottom.Thesnowgoose,loon,andmallardsoarhighintotheskyandsweepdowninadive,but cannotreachbottom;butthelittlecoot,whocannotfly,succeedsinbringingupsomemudinhisbill.Onlyonecreature, humbleGrandmotherTurtle,istherightshapetosupportthemudworldMaheoshapesonhershellhencetheIndian nameforAmerica,"TurtleIsland." Thesongsorpoetry,likethenarratives,rangefromthesacredtothelightandhumorous:Therearelullabies,warchants, lovesongs,andspecialsongsforchildren'sgames,gambling,variouschores,magic,ordanceceremonials.Generallythe songsare repetitive. Shortpoemsongs given in dreams sometimes have the clear imagery and subtle mood associated withJapanesehaikuorEasterninfluencedimagisticpoetry.AChippewasongruns:
AloonIthoughtitwas Butitwas Mylove's splashingoar.

Visionsongs,oftenveryshort,areanotherdistinctiveform.Appearingindreamsorvisions,sometimeswithnowarning, theymaybehealing,hunting,orlovesongs.Oftentheyarepersonal,asinthisModocsong:
I thesong Iwalkhere.

IndianoraltraditionanditsrelationtoAmericanliteratureasawholeisoneoftherichestandleastexploredtopicsin Americanstudies.TheIndiancontributiontoAmericaisgreaterthanisoftenbelieved.ThehundredsofIndianwordsin everyday American English include "canoe," "tobacco," "potato," "moccasin," "moose," "persimmon," "raccoon," "tomahawk,"and"totem."ContemporaryNativeAmericanwritingalsocontainsworksofgreatbeauty. After 1680 large numbers of immigrants came from Germany, Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland and France; and England ceased to be the chief source of immigration. Again, the new settlers came for various reasons. Thousands fled from Germany to escape the path of war. Many left Ireland to avoid the poverty induced by government oppression and absenteelandlordism,andfromScotlandandSwitzerland,too,peoplecamefleeingthespecterofpoverty.By1690,the American population had risen to a quarter of a million. From then on, it doubled every 25 years until, in 1775, it numberedmorethantwoandahalfmillion. For the the most part, nonEnglish colonists adapted themselves to the culture of the original settlers. But this did not mean that all settlers transformed themselves into Englishmen. True, they adopted the English language and law and manyEnglishcustoms,butonlyasthesehadbeenmodifiedbyconditionsinAmerica.Theresultwasauniqueculturea blendofEnglishandcontinentalEuropeanconditionedbytheenvironmentoftheNewWorld. AlthoughamanandhisfamilycouldmovefromMassachusettstoVirginiaorfromSouthCarolinatoPennsylvania,without makingmanybasicreadjustments,distinctionsbetweenindividualcoloniesweremarked.Theywereevenmoremarked betweenregionalgroupsofcolonies. The settlements fell into fairly welldefined sections determined by geography. In the south, with its warm climate and fertile soil, a predominately agrarian society developed. New England in the northeast, a glaciated area strewn with boulders, was inferior farm country, with generally thin, stony soil, relatively little level land, short summers, and long winters. Turning to other pursuits, the New Englandersharnessed water power andestablishedgristmills and sawmills. Goodstandsoftimberencouragedshipbuilding.Excellentharborspromotedtrade,andtheseabecameasourceofgreat wealth.InMassachusetts,thecodindustryalonequicklyfurnishedabasisforprosperity. Settling in villages and towns around the harbors, New Englanders quickly adopted an urban existence, many of them carryingonsometradeorbusiness.Commonpasturelandandcommonwoodlotsservedtheneedsoftownspeople,who workedsmallfarmsnearby.Compactnessmadepossiblethevillageschool,thevillagechurch,andthevillageortownhall, where citizens met to discuss matters of common interest. Sharing hardships, cultivating the same rocky soil, pursuing

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simpletradesandcrafts,NewEnglandersrapidlyacquiredcharacteristicsthatmarkedthemasaselfreliant,independent people. Thesequalitieshadmanifestedthemselvesinthe102seawearyPilgrimswhofirstlandedonthepeninsulaofCapeCod, projecting into the Atlantic from southeastern Massachusetts. They had sailed to America under the auspices of the London (Virginia) Company and were thus intended for settlement in Virginia, but their ship, the Mayflower* made its landfall far to the north. After some weeks of exploring, the colonists decided not to make the trip to Virginia but to remainwheretheywere.TheychosetheareanearPlymouthharborasasitefortheircolony,andthoughtherigorsofthe firstwinterweresevere,thesettlementsurvived. *INTheNameofGod,Amen.We,whosenamesareunderwritten,the LoyalSubjectsof ourdreadSovereignLordKingJames,bytheGraceofGod,ofGreatBritain,France,and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, &c. Having undertaken for the Glory of God, and AdvancementoftheChristianFaith,andtheHonorofourKingandCountry,aVoyageto plantthefirstcolonyinthenorthernPartsofVirginia;DobythesePresents,solemnlyand mutually in the Presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation, and FurtheranceoftheEndsaforesaid;AndbyVirtuehereofdoenact,constitute,andframe, suchjustandequalLaws,Ordinances,Acts,Constitutions,andOffices,fromtimetotime, asshallbethoughtmostmeetandconvenientforthegeneralGoodoftheColony;unto which we promise all due Submission and Obedience. In WITNESS whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names at Cape Cod the eleventh of November, in the Reign of our Sovereign Lord King James of England, France, and Ireland, the eighteenth and of Scotland,thefiftyfourth.AnnoDomini,1620 JohnCarver EdwardTilley DegoryPriest ThomasWilliams

WilliamBradford JohnTilley

EdwardWinslow FrancisCooke GilbertWinslow WilliamBrewster ThomasRogersEdmundMargeson IssacAllerton MylesStandish JohnAlden SamuelFuller WilliamMullins WilliamWhite RichardWarren JohnHowland ThomasTinker PeterBrowne JohnRigdale RichardBritteridge EdwardFuller GeoroeSoule JohnTurner RichardClarke

ChristopherMartinFrancisEaton RichardGardiner JamesChilton JohnAllerton JohnCrackston ThomasEnglish JohnBillington EdwardDotey MosesFletcherEdwardLeister

StephenHopkins JohnGoodman

Theliteratureofexploration
Hadhistorytakenadifferentturn,theUnitedStateseasilycouldhavebeenapartofthegreatSpanishorFrenchoverseas empires. Its present inhabitants might speak Spanish and form one nation with Mexico, or speak French and be joined withCanadianFrancophoneQuebecandMontreal. Yet the earliest explorers of America were not English, Spanish, or French. The first European record of exploration in AmericaisinaScandinavianlanguage.TheOldNorseVinlandSagarecountshowtheadventurousLeifErikssonandaband ofwanderingNorsemensettledbrieflysomewhereonthenortheastcoastofAmericaprobablyNovaScotia,inCanada inthefirstdecadeofthe11thcentury,almost400yearsbeforethenextrecordedEuropeandiscoveryoftheNewWorld. ThefirstknownandsustainedcontactbetweentheAmericasandtherestoftheworld,however,beganwiththefamous voyage of an Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus, funded by the Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus's journal in his "Epistola," printed in 1493, recounts the trip's drama the terror of the men, who feared monsters and thoughttheymightfallofftheedgeoftheworld;thenearmutiny;howColumbusfakedtheships'logssothemenwould

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notknowhowmuchfarthertheyhadtravelledthananyonehadgonebefore;andthefirstsightingoflandastheyneared America. Bartolom de las Casas is the richest source of information about the early contact between American Indians and Europeans.AsayoungpriesthehelpedconquerCuba.HetranscribedColumbus'sjournal,andlateinlifewrotealong, vividHistoryoftheIndianscriticizingtheirenslavementbytheSpanish. Initial English attempts at colonization were disasters. The first colony was set up in 1585 at Roanoke, off the coast of NorthCarolina;allitscolonistsdisappeared,andtothisdaylegendsaretoldaboutblueeyedCroatanIndiansofthearea. Thesecondcolonywasmorepermanent:Jamestown,establishedin1607.Itenduredstarvation,brutality,andmisrule. However,theliteratureoftheperiodpaintsAmericainglowingcolorsasthelandofrichesandopportunity.Accountsof the colonizations became worldrenowned. The exploration of Roanoke was carefully recorded by Thomas Hariot in A BriefeandTrueReportoftheNewFoundLandofVirginia(1588).Hariot'sbookwasquicklytranslatedintoLatin,French, andGerman;thetextandpicturesweremadeintoengravingsandwidelyrepublishedforover200years. The Jamestown colony's main record, the writings of Captain John Smith, one of its leaders, is the exact opposite of Hariot'saccurate,scientificaccount.Smithwasanincurableromantic,andheseemstohaveembroideredhisadventures. TohimweowethefamousstoryoftheIndianmaiden,Pocahontas.Whetherfactorfiction,thetaleisingrainedinthe Americanhistoricalimagination.ThestoryrecountshowPocahontas,favoritedaughterofChiefPowhatan,savedCaptain Smith'slifewhenhewasaprisonerofthechief.Later,whentheEnglishpersuadedPowhatantogivePocahontastothem as a hostage, her gentleness, intelligence, and beauty impressed the English, and, in 1614, she married John Rolfe, an Englishgentleman.ThemarriageinitiatedaneightyearpeacebetweenthecolonistsandtheIndians,ensuringthesurvival ofthestrugglingnewcolony. In the 17th century, pirates, adventurers, and explorers opened the way to a second wave of permanent colonists, bringing their wives, children, farm implements, and craftsmen's tools. The early literature of exploration, made up of diaries, letters, travel journals, ships' logs, and reports to the explorers' financial backers European rulers or, in mercantile England and Holland, joint stock companies gradually was supplanted by records of the settled colonies. Because England eventually took possession of the North American colonies, the bestknown and mostanthologized colonial literature is English. As American minority literature continues to flower in the 20th century and American life becomes increasingly multicultural, scholars are rediscovering the importance of the continent's mixed ethnic heritage. Although the story of literature now turns to the English accounts, it is important to recognize its richly cosmopolitan beginnings.

TheColonialPeriodinNewEngland
ItislikelythatnoothercolonistsinthehistoryoftheworldwereasintellectualasthePuritans.Between1630and1690, therewereasmanyuniversitygraduatesinthenortheasternsectionoftheUnitedStates,knownasNewEngland,asin themothercountryanastoundingfactwhenoneconsidersthatmosteducatedpeopleofthetimewerearistocratswho were unwilling to risk their lives in wilderness conditions. The selfmade and often selfeducated Puritans were notable exceptions. They wanted education tounderstand andexecute God'swill as they established their colonies throughout NewEngland. ThePuritandefinitionofgoodwritingwasthatwhichbroughthomeafullawarenessoftheimportanceofworshipping God and of the spiritual dangers that the soul faced on Earth. Puritan style varied enormously from complex metaphysical poetry to homely journals and crushingly pedantic religious history. Whatever the style or genre, certain themesremainedconstant.Lifewasseenasatest;failureledtoeternaldamnationandhellfire,andsuccesstoheavenly bliss.ThisworldwasanarenaofconstantbattlebetweentheforcesofGodandtheforcesofSatan,aformidableenemy with many disguises.ManyPuritans excitedly awaited the "millennium," when Jesuswould return toEarth, endhuman misery,andinaugurate1,000yearsofpeaceandprosperity. Scholars have long pointed out the link between Puritanism and capitalism: Both rest on ambition, hard work, and an intensestrivingforsuccess.AlthoughindividualPuritanscouldnotknow,instricttheologicalterms,whethertheywere "saved"andamongtheelectwhowouldgotoheaven,Puritanstendedtofeelthatearthlysuccesswasasignofelection. Wealthandstatusweresoughtnotonlyforthemselves,butaswelcomereassurancesofspiritualhealthandpromisesof eternallife. Moreover,theconceptofstewardshipencouragedsuccess.ThePuritansinterpretedallthingsandeventsassymbolswith deeperspiritualmeanings,andfeltthatinadvancingtheirownprofitandtheircommunity'swellbeing,theywerealso

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furtheringGod'splans.Theydidnotdrawlinesofdistinctionbetweenthesecularandreligiousspheres:Alloflifewasan expressionofthedivinewillabeliefthatlaterresurfacesinTranscendentalism. In recording ordinary events to reveal their spiritual meaning, Puritan authors commonly cited the Bible, chapter and verse. History was a symbolic religious panorama leading to the Puritan triumph over the New World and to God's kingdomonEarth. ThefirstPuritancolonistswhosettledNewEnglandexemplifiedtheseriousnessofReformationChristianity.Knownasthe "Pilgrims," they were a small group of believers who had migrated from England to Holland even then known for its religioustolerancein1608,duringatimeofpersecutions. LikemostPuritans,theyinterpretedtheBibleliterally.TheyreadandactedonthetextoftheSecondBookofCorinthians "Comeoutfromamongthemandbeyeseparate,saiththeLord."DespairingofpurifyingtheChurchofEnglandfrom within,"Separatists"formedunderground"covenanted"churchesthatsworeloyaltytothegroupinsteadoftheking.Seen as traitors to the king as well as heretics damned to hell, they were often persecuted. Their separation took them ultimatelytotheNewWorld. The Dutch possessed New Netherland, later to be called New York, for 40 years.Butthevwerenotamigratingpeople.Colonizingofferedthemneither politicalnorreligiousadvantagesthattheydidnotalreadyenjoyinHolland. In addition, the Dutch West India Company found it difficult to retain competentofficialstoadministerthecolony.in1664,witharevivalofBritish interest in colonial activity, the Dutch settlement was taken by conquest. Longafterthis,however,theDutchcontinuedtoexerciseanimportantsocial and economic influence. Their sharpstepped, gable roofs became a permanent part of the scene, andtheir merchantsgavethecity its bustling commercialatmosphere. The Dutch also gave New York a style of life quite different from that in Puritan Boston. In New York, holidays were markedbyfeastingandmerrymaking.AndmanyDutchtraditionssuchascallingonone'sneighborsonNewYear'sDay andcelebratingthevisitofSaintNicholasatChristmastimesurvivedformanyyears. WiththetransferfromDutchauthority,anEnglishadministrator,RichardNicolls,setaboutremodelingthelegalstructure ofNewYork.HedidthissograduallyandwithsuchwisdomthathewontherespectofDutchaswellasEnglish.Town governmentshadtheautonomouscharacteristicsofNewEnglandtowns,andinafewyearstherewasaworkablefusion betweenresidualDutchlawandcustomsandEnglishpractices. By1696 nearly 30,000people lived in theprovince of New York. In the rich valleysof theHudson, Mohawk, and other rivers, great estates flourished. Tenant farmers and small independent farmers contributed to the agricultural development of the region. Rolling grasslands supplied feed for cattle, sheep, horses, and pigs; tobacco and flax were planted;andfruits,especiallyapples,grewinabundance.Thefurtradealsocontributedtothegrowthofthecolony.From Albany,232kilometersnorthofNewYorkCity,theHudsonRiverwasaconvenientwaterwayforshippingfurstothebusy port. In contrast to New England and the middle colonies were the predominantly rural southern settlements, Virginia, Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia. Jamestown, inVirginia, was the first Englishcolony to survive in theNew World. Late in December 1606, a group of about a hundred men, sponsored by a London colonizing company, had set out in search of great adventure. They dreamed of finding gold; homes in the wilderness were not their goal. Among them, CaptainJohnSmithemergedasthedominantfigure,anddespitequarrels,starvation,andIndianattacks,hiswillheldthe littlecolonytogetherthroughthefirstyears. Intheearliestdays,thepromotingcompany,eagerforquickreturns,requiredthecoloniststoconcentrateonproducing lumber and other products for sale in the London market, instead of permitting them to plant crops for their own subsistence.Afterfewdisastrousyearsthecompanyeaseditsrequirementsanddistributedlandtothecoionists. In 1612, a development occurred that revolutionized the economy of Virginia. This was the discovery of a method of curingVirginiatobaccotomakeitpalatabletotheEuropeantaste.ThefirstshipmentofthistobaccoreachedLondonin 1614,andwithinadecadeithadbecomeVirginia'schiefsourceofrevenue.

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Thecultivationoftobaccoexhaustedthesoilafterseveralcrops.Breakingnewground,plantersscatteredupanddown thenumerouswaterways.Notownsdottedtheregion,andevenJamestown,thecapital,hadonlyafewhouses. Though most settlers had come to Virginia to improve their economic position, in Maryland the neighboring colony, religiousaswellaseconomicmotivesledtosettlement.WhileseekingtoestablisharefugeforCatholicsthere,theCalvert familywasalsointerestedincreatingestatesthatwouldbringprofits.Tothatend,andtoavoidtroublewiththeBritish government,theCalvertsencouragedProtestantaswellasCathoiicimmigration. In social structure and in government the Calverts tried to make Maryland an aristocratic land in the ancient tradition, which they aspired to rule with all the prerogatives of kings. But the spiritof independence ran strong in this frontier society.InMaryland,asintheothercolonies,theauthoritiescouldnotcircumventthesettlers'stubborninsistenceonthe guarantees of personal liberty established by English common law and the natural rights of subjects to participate in governmentthroughrepresentativeassemblies. MarylanddevelopedaneconomyverysimilartothatofVirginia.Devotedtoagriculturewithadominanttidewaterclassof greatplanters,bothcolonieshadabackcountryintowhichyeomenfarmerssteadilyfiltered.Bothsufferedthehandicaps ofaonecropsystem.Andbeforethemidpointofthe18thcentury,bothwereprofoundlyaffectedbyblackslavery. In these two colonies the wealthy planters took their social responsibilities seriously, serving as justices of the peace, colonelsofthemilitia,andmembersofthelegislativeassemblies.Butyeomenfarmersalsosatinpopularassembliesand foundtheirwayintopoliticaloffice.Theiroutspokenindependencewasaconstantwarningtotheoligarchyofplanters nottoencroachtoofarupontherightsoffreemen. Bythelate17thandearly18thcenturies,thesocialstructureinMarylandandVirginiahadtakenonthequalitiesitwould retainuntiltheCivilWar.Supportedbyslavelabor,theplantersheldmostofthepoliticalpowerandthebestland,built great houses, adopted an aristocratic way of life, and kept in touch with the world of culture overseas. Next in the socioeconomic scale were the farmers, placing their hope for prosperity in the fresh soil of the back country. Least prosperouswerethesmallfarmers,strugglingforexistenceincompetitionwithslaveowningplanters.inneitherVirginia norMarylanddidalargetradingclassdevelop,fortheplantersthemselvestradeddirectlywithLondon. It was reserved for the Carolinas, with Charleston as the leading port, to develop into the trading center of the south. Therethesettlersquicklylearnedtocombineagricultureandcommerce,andthemarketplacebecameamajorsourceof prosperity.Denseforestsalsobroughtrevenue;lumber,tar,andresinfromthelongleafpineprovidedsomeofthebest shipbuildingmaterialsintheworld.NotboundtoasinglecropaswasVirginia,theCarolinasalsoproducedandexported riceandindigo.By1750,morethan100,000peoplelivedinthetwocoloniesofNorthandSouthCarolina. In the south, as everywhere else in the colonies, the growth of the back country had special significance. Men seeking greater freedom than could be found in the original tidewater settlements pushed inland. Those who could not secure fertile land along the coast, or who had exhausted the lands they held, found the hills farther west a bountiful refuge. Soon the interior was dotted with thriving farms. Humble farmers were not the only ones who found the hinterland attractive.PeterJefferson,forexample,anenterprisingsurveyorfatherofThomasJefferson,thirdPresidentoftheUnited Statessettledinthehillcountrybyacquiring160hectaresoflandforabowlofpunch. Living on the edge of the Indian country, making their cabins their fortresses, and relying on their own sharp eyes and trusty muskets, frontiersmen became, of necessity, a sturdy, selfreliant people. They cleared tracts in the wilderness, burnedthebrush,andcultivatedmaizeandwheatamongthestumps.Themenworebuckskin,thewomengarmentsof cloth they had spun at home. Their food was venison, wild turkey, and fish. They had their own amusementsgreat barbecues, housewarmings for newly married couples, shooting matches, and contests where quilted blankets were made. Already linesof cleavage were discernible between thesettled regions of theAtlantic seaboardand the inland regions. Menfromthebackcountrymadetheirvoicesheardinpoliticaldebate,combattingtheinertiaofcustomandconvention. Apowerfulforcedeterringauthoritiesintheoldercommunitiesfromobstructingprogressandchangewasthefactthat anyoneinanestablishedcolonycouldeasilyfindanewhomeonthefrontier.Thus,timeaftertime,dominanttidewater figureswereobliged,bythethreatofamassexodustothefrontier,toliberalizepoliticalpolicies,landgrantrequirements, andreligiouspractices.Complacencycouldhavesmallplaceinthevigoroussocietygeneratedbyanexpandingcountry. ThemovementintothefoothillswasoftremendousimportforthefutureofAmerica.

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OfequalsignificanceforthefuturewerethefoundationsofAmericaneducationandcultureestablishedinthecolonial period.HarvardCollegewasfoundedin1636inMassachusetts.Neartheendofthecentury,theCollegeofWilliamand MarywasestablishedinVirginia.Afewvearslater,theCollegiateSchoolofConnecticut(latertobecomeYaleCollege)was chartered.Butevenmorenoteworthywasthegrowthofaschoolsystemmaintainedbygovernmentalauthority.In1647 theMassachusettsBayColony,followedshortlybyalltheotherNewEnglandcoloniesexceptRhodeIslandprovidedfor compulsoryelementaryeducation. Inthesouth,thefarmsandplantationsweresowidelyseparatedthatcommunityschoolslikethoseinthemorecompact northern settlements were impossible. Some planters joined with their nearest neighbors and hired tutors for their children;otherchildrenweresenttoEnglandforschooling. In the middle colonies, the situation varied. Too busy with mater1al progress to pay much attention to educational matters,NewYorklaggedfarbehind.Schoolswerepoor,andonlysporadiceffortsweremadebytheroyalgovernmentto providepublicfacilities.TheCollegeofNewJerseyatPrinceton,King'sCollege(nowColumbiaUniversity)inNewYorkCity, and Queen's College (now Rutgers) in New Brunswick, New Jersey, were not established until the middle of the 18th century. OneofthemostenterprisingofthecolonieseducationallywasPennsylvania.Thefirstschoolthere,begunin1683,taught reading, writing, and keeping of accounts. Thereafter, in some fashion, every Quaker community provided for the elementaryteachingofitschildren.Moreadvancedtraininginclassicallanguages,history,literaturewasofferedatthe FriendsPublicSchool,whichstilloperatesinPhiladelphiaastheWilliamPennCharterSchool.Theschoolwasfreetothe poor,butparentswhocouldwererequiredtopaytuition. InPhiladelphia,numerousprivateschoolswithnoreligiousaffiliationtaughtlanguages,mathematics,andnaturalscience, and there were night schools for adults. Women were not entirely overlooked, for private teachers instructed the daughters of prosperous Philadelphians in French, music, dancing, painting, singing, grammar, and sometimes even bookkeeping. TheintellectualandculturaldevelopmentofPennsylvaniareflected,inlargemeasure,thevigorouspersonalitiesoftwo men: James Logan and Benjamin Franklin. Logan was secretary of the colony, and it was in his fine library that young Franklinfoundthelatestscientificworks.In1745,Loganerectedabuildingforhiscollectionandbequeathedbothbuilding andbookstothecity.FranklincontributedevenmoretotheintellectualactivityofPhiladelphia.Heformedaclubknown astheJunto,whichwastheembryooftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety.Hisendeavorsled,too,tothefoundingofa publicacademythatlaterdevelopedintotheUniversityofPennsylvania.Hewasalsoaprimemoverintheestablishment ofasubscriptionlibrarywhichhecalled"themotherofallNorthAmericansubscriptionlibraries." In the south, volumes of history, Greek and Latin classics, science, and law were widely exchanged from plantation to plantation. Charleston, South Carolina, already a center for music, painting, and the theater, set up a provincial library before1700. In New England,thefirst immigrantshadbrought theirown little libraries and continued to import books fromLondon.Andasearlyasthe1680s,Bostonbooksellersweredoingathrivingbusinessinworksofclassicalliterature, history, politics, philosophy, science, theology, and belleslettres. The desire for learning did not stop at the borders of establishedcommunities.Onthefrontier,thehardyScotchIrish,thoughlivinginprimitivecabins,werefirmdevoteesof scholarship,andtheymadegreateffortstoattractlearnedministerstotheirsettlements. Literary production in the colonies was largely confined to New England. Here attention was concentrated on religious subjects.Sermonswerethemostcommonproductsofthepress.Afamous"hellandbrimstone"minister,theReverend CottonMather,authoredsome400works,andhismasterpiece,MagnaliaChristiAmericana,wassoprodigiousthatithad tobeprintedinLondon.Inthisfolio,thepageantofNewEngland'shistoryisdisplayedbytheregion'smostprolificwriter. But the most popular single work was the Reverend Michael Wigglesworth's long poem, The Day of Doom, which describedtheLastJudgmentinterrifyingterms. Cambridge, Massachusetts, boasted a printing press, and in 1704 Boston's first successful newspaper was launched. Several others soon entered the field, not only in New England but also in other regions. In New York, freedom of the press had its first important test in the case of Peter Zenger, whose New York Weekly Journal, begun in 1733, was spokesman for opposition to she government. After two years of publication, the colonial governor could no longer tolerateZenger'ssatiricalbarbsandhadhimthrownintoprisononachargeoflibel.Zengercontinuedtoedithispaper from jail during his ninemonth trial, which excited intense interest throughout the colonies. Andrew Hamilton, a prominentlawyerdefendinghim,arguedthatthechargesprintedbyZengerweretrueandhencenotlibelous.Thejury

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returnedaverdictofnotguilty,andZengerwentfree.ThislandmarkdecisionhelpedestablishinAmericatheprincipleof freedomofthepress. Inallphasesofcolonialdevelopment,astrikingfeaturewasthelackofcontrollinginfluencebytheEnglishgovernment. Duringtheirformativeperiod,thecolonieswere,toalargedegree,freetodevelopascircumstancesdictated.TheEnglish governmenthadtakennodirectpartinfoundinganyofthecoloniesexceptGeorgia,andonlygraduallydiditassumeany partintheirpoliticaldirection. ThefactthattheKinghadtransferredhisimmediatesovereigntyovertheNewWorldsettlementstostockcompaniesand proprietorsdidnot,ofcourse,meanthatthecolonistsinAmericawouldnecessarilybefreeofoutsidecontrol.Underthe terms of the Virginia Company and Massachusetts Bay charters, complete governmental authority was vested in the companies involved, and it was expected that these companies would be resident in England. Inhabitants of America, then,wouldhavenomorevoiceintheirgovernmentthaniftheKinghimselfhadretainedabsoluterule. Inonewayoranother,however,exclusiverulefromtheoutsidewasbrokendown.Thefirststepwasadecisionbythe London (Virginia) Company to grant Virginia Colonists representation in the government In 1618 the Company issued instructions to its appointed governor providing that free inhabitants of the plantations should elect representatives to joinwiththegovernorandanappointivecouncilinpassingordinancesforthewelfareofthecolony. This proved to be one of the most farreaching events in the entire colonial period. From then on, it was generally accepted that the colonists had a right to participate in their own government. In most instances, the King, in making future grants, provided in the charter that freemen of the colony involved should have a voice in legislation affecting them.Thus,chartersawardedtoCecilCalvertofMaryland,WilliamPennofPennsylvania,theproprietorsoftheCarolinas, andtheproprietorsofNewJerseyspecifiedthatlegislationshouldbewith"theconsentofthefreemen." In only two cases was the selfgovernment provision omitted. These were New York, which was granted to Charles II's brother,theDukeofYork,latertobecomeKingJamesII;andGeorgia,whichwasgrantedtoagroupof"trustees."Inboth instances the provisions for governance were shortlived, for the colonists demanded legislative representation so insistentlythattheauthoritiessoonyielded. At first, the right of colonists to representation in the legislative branch of the government was of limited importance. Ultimately, however, it served as a stepping stone to almost complete domination by the settlers through elective assemblies,whichfirstseizedandthenutilizedcontroloverfinancialmatters.Inonecolonyafteranother,theprinciple wasestablishedthattaxescouldnotbelevied,orcollectedrevenuespenteventopaythesalaryofthegovernororother appointiveofficerswithouttheconsentoftheelectedrepresentatives.Unlessthegovernorandothercolonialofficials agreedtoactinaccordancewiththewillofthepopularassembly,theassemblyrefusedtoappropriatemoneyforvital functions.Thustherewereinstancesofrecalcitrantgovernorswhowerevotedeithernosalaryatallorasalaryofone penny. In the face of this threat, governors and other appointive officials tended to become pliable to the will of the colonists. InNewEngland,formanyyears,therewasevenmorecompleteselfgovernmentthanintheothercolonies.IfthePilgrims had settled in Virginia, they would have been under the authority of the London (Virginia) Company. However, in their own colony of Plymouth, they were beyond any governmental jurisdiction. They decided to set up their own political organization. Aboard the Mayflower, they adopted an instrument for government called the Mayflower Compact to "combineourselvestogetherintoacivilbodypoliticforourbetterorderingandpreservation...andbyvirtuehereof(to) enact,constitute,andframemuchjustandequallaws,ordinances,acts,constitutions,andoffices...asshallbethought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony...." Although there was no legal basis for the Pilgrims to establishasystemofselfgovernment,theactionwasnotcontestedand,underthecompact,thePlymouthsettlerswere ableformanyyearstoconducttheirownaffairswithoutoutsideinterference. AsimilarsituationdevelopedwhentheMassachusettsBayCompany,whichhadbeengiventherighttogovern,moved bodilytoAmericawithitscharter,andthusfullauthorityrestedinthehandsofpersonsresidinginthecolony.Thedozen orsooriginalmembersofthecompanywhohadcometoAmericaatfirstattemptedtoruleautocratically.Buttheother colonistssoondemandedavoiceinpublicaffairsandindicatedthatrefusalwouldleadtoamassmigration. Facedwiththisthreat,thecompanymembersyielded,andcontrolofthegovernmentpassedtoelectedrepresentatives. Subsequent New England colonies New Haven, Rhode Island, and Connecticut also succeeded in becoming self governingsimplybyassertingthattheywerebeyondanygovernmentalauthorityandthensettinguptheirownpolitical systemmodeledafterthatofthePilgrimsofPlymouth.

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Theassumptionofselfgovernmentinthecoloniesdidnotgoentirelyunchallenged.Britishauthoritiestookcourtaction against the Massachusettscharter and in1684 it was annulled. Thenall the NewEnglandcolonies were brought under royalcontrolwithcompleteauthorityvestedinanappointivegovernor.Thecolonistsstrenuouslyobjectedand,afterthe Revolutionof1688inEngland,whichresultedintheoverthrowofJamesII,theydroveouttheroyalgovernor. Rhode Island and Connecticut, which now included the colony of New Haven, were able to reestablish their virtually independentpositiononapermanentbasis.Massachusetts,however,wassoonbroughtagainunderroyalauthority,but thistimethepeopleweregivenashareinthegovernment.Asinthecaseofothercolonies,this"share"wasgradually extended until it became virtual dominance, effective use being made here as elsewhere of control over finances. Still, governorswerecontinuallyinstructedtoforceadherencetopoliciesthatconformedtooverallEnglishinterests,andthe English Privy Council continued to exercise a right of review of colonial legislation. But the colonists proved adept at circumventingtheserestraints. Beginningin1651,theEnglishgovernment,fromtimetotime,passedlawsregulatingcertainaspectsofcolonialeconomic life,somebeneficialtoAmerica,butmostfavoringEngland.Generally,thecolonistsignoredthosethattheydeemedmost detrimental.AlthoughtheBritishoccasionallytriedtosecurebetterenforcement,theireffortswereinvariablyshortlived, andtheauthoritiesreturnedtoapolicyof"salutaryneglect." ThelargemeasureofpoliticalindependenceenjoyedbythecoloniesnaturallyresultedintheirgrowingawayfromBritain, becomingincreasingly"American"ratherthan"English."Thistendencywasstronglyreinforcedbytheblendingofother nationalgroupsandculturesthatwassimultaneouslytakingplace. Howthisprocessoperatedandthemannerinwhichitlaidthefoundationsofanewnationwerevividlydescribedin1782 by Frenchborn agriculturist J. Hector St John Crvecoeur: "What then is the American, this new man?" he asked in his LettersfromanAmericanFarmer "HeiseitheraEuropean,orthedescendantofaEuropean,hencethatstrangemixtureofblood,whichyoufidinnoother country.........IcouldpointouttoyouafamilywhosegrandfatherwasanEnglishman,whosewifewasDutch,whoseson marriedaFrenchwoman,andwhosepresentfoursonshavenowfourwivesofdifferentnations.HeisanAmerican,who, leavingbehindhimallhisancientprejudicesandmannersreceivesnewonesfromthenewmodeoflifehehasembraced, thenewgovernmentheobeys,andthenewrankheholds..."

WilliamBradford(15901657)

WilliamBradfordwaselectedgovernorofPlymouthintheMassachusettsBayColonyshortlyaftertheSeparatistslanded. Hewasadeeplypious,selfeducatedmanwhohadlearnedseverallanguages,includingHebrew,inorderto"seewithhis own eyes the ancient oracles of God in their native beauty." His participation in the migration to Holland and the MayflowervoyagetoPlymouth,andhisdutiesasgovernor,madehimideallysuitedtobethefirsthistorianofhiscolony. Hishistory,OfPlymouthPlantation(1651),isaclearandcompellingaccountofthecolony'sbeginning.Hisdescriptionof thefirstviewofAmericaisjustlyfamous: Beingthuspassedthevastocean,andaseaoftroubles...theyhadnownofriendstowelcomethemnorinnstoentertain or refresh their weatherbeaten bodies; no houses or much less towns to repair to, to seek for succor...savage barbarians...were readier tofill their sideswith arrows than otherwise.And for the reason it was winter, andthey that know the winters of thatcountry know them to be sharp and violent,and subject to cruel and fierce storms...all stand uponthemwithaweatherbeatenface,andthewholecountry,fullofwoodsandthickets,representedawildandsavage hue.

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Bradford also recorded the first document of colonial selfgovernance in the English New World, the "Mayflower Compact," drawn up while the Pilgrims were still on board ship. The compact was a harbinger of the Declaration of Independencetocomeacenturyandahalflater. Puritans disapproved of such secular amusements as dancing and cardplaying, which were associated with ungodly aristocrats and immoral living. Reading or writing "light" books also fell into this category. Puritan minds poured their tremendousenergiesintononfictionandpiousgenres:poetry,sermons,theologicaltracts,andhistories.Theirintimate diariesandmeditationsrecordtherichinnerlivesofthisintrospectiveandintensepeople. AnneBradstreet(c.16121672)ThefirstpublishedbookofpoemsbyanAmericanwasalsothefirstAmericanbooktobe publishedbyawomanAnneBradstreet.ItisnotsurprisingthatthebookwaspublishedinEngland,giventhelackof printingpressesintheearlyyearsofthefirstAmericancolonies.BornandeducatedinEngland,AnneBradstreetwasthe daughterofanearl'sestatemanager.Sheemigratedwithherfamilywhenshewas18.Herhusbandeventuallybecame governoroftheMassachusettsBayColony,whichlatergrewintothegreatcityofBoston.Shepreferredherlong,religious poemsonconventionalsubjectssuchastheseasons,butcontemporaryreadersmostenjoythewittypoemsonsubjects from daily life and her warm and loving poems to her husband and children. She was inspired by English metaphysical poetry,andherbookTheTenthMuseLatelySprungUpinAmerica(1650)showstheinfluenceofEdmundSpenser,Philip Sidney,andotherEnglishpoetsaswell.Sheoftenuseselaborateconceitsorextendedmetaphors."ToMyDearandLoving Husband"(1678)usestheorientalimagery,lovetheme,andideaofcomparisonpopularinEuropeatthetime,butgives theseapiousmeaningatthepoem'sconclusion:
Ifevertwowereone,thensurelywe. Ifevermanwerelovedbywife,thenthee; Ifeverwifewashappyinaman, Comparewithme,yewomen,ifyoucan. Iprizethylovemorethanwholeminesofgold OralltherichesthattheEastdothhold. Myloveissuchthatriverscannotquench, Noroughtbutlovefromthee,giverecompense. ThyloveissuchIcannowayrepay, Theheavensrewardtheemanifold,Ipray. Thenwhilewelive,inloveletssopersevere Thatwhenwelivenomore,wemayliveever.

Edward Taylor (c. 16441729)LikeAnneBradstreet,and,infact,allofNewEngland'sfirstwriters,theintense,brilliant poetandministerEdwardTaylorwasborninEngland.Thesonofayeomanfarmeranindependentfarmerwhoowned hisownlandTaylorwasateacherwhosailedtoNewEnglandin1668ratherthantakeanoathofloyaltytotheChurch ofEngland.HestudiedatHarvardCollege,and,likemostHarvardtrainedministers,heknewGreek,Latin,andHebrew.A selflessandpiousman,Tayloractedasamissionarytothesettlerswhenheacceptedhislifelongjobasaministerinthe frontier town of Westfield, Massachusetts, 160 kilometers into the thickly forested, wild interior. Taylor was the best educatedmaninthearea,andheputhisknowledgetouse,workingasthetownminister,doctor,andcivicleader. Modest,pious,andhardworking,Taylorneverpublishedhispoetry,whichwasdiscoveredonlyinthe1930s.Hewould, nodoubt,haveseenhiswork'sdiscoveryasdivineprovidence;today'sreadersshouldbegratefultohavehispoemsthe finestexamplesof17thcenturypoetryinNorthAmerica. Taylorwroteavarietyofverse:funeralelegies,lyrics,amedieval"debate,"anda500pageMetricalHistoryofChristianity (mainlyahistoryofmartyrs).Hisbestworks,accordingtomoderncritics,aretheseriesofshortPreparatoryMeditations.

MichaelWigglesworth(16311705)
MichaelWigglesworth,likeTayloranEnglishborn,HarvardeducatedPuritanministerwhopracticedmedicine,isthethird NewEnglandcolonialpoetofnote.HecontinuesthePuritanthemesinhisbestknownwork,TheDayofDoom(1662).A long narrative that often falls into doggerel, this terrifying popularization of Calvinistic doctrine was the most popular poemofthecolonialperiod.ThisfirstAmericanbestsellerisanappallingportraitofdamnationtohellinballadmeter.

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Itisterriblepoetrybuteverybodylovedit.ItfusedthefascinationofahorrorstorywiththeauthorityofJohnCalvin.For morethantwocenturies,peoplememorizedthislong,dreadfulmonumenttoreligiousterror;childrenproudlyrecitedit, andeldersquoteditineverydayspeech.Itisnotsuchaleapfromtheterriblepunishmentsofthispoemtotheghastly selfinflictedwoundofNathanielHawthorne'sguiltyPuritanminister,ArthurDimmesdale,inTheScarletLetter(1850)or Herman Melville s crippled Captain Ahab, a New England Faust whose quest for forbidden knowledge sinks the ship of American humanity in MobyDick (1851). (MobyDick was the favorite novel of 20thcentury American novelist William Faulkner,whoseprofoundanddisturbingworkssuggestthatthedark,metaphysicalvisionofProtestantAmericahasnot yetbeenexhausted.) Like most colonial literature, the poems of early New England imitate the form and technique of the mother country, though the religious passion and frequent biblical references, as well as the new setting, give New England writing a special identity. Isolated New World writers also lived before the advent of rapid transportation and electronic communications.Asaresult,colonialwriterswereimitatingwritingthatwasalreadyoutofdateinEngland.Thus,Edward Taylor,thebestAmericanpoetofhisday,wrotemetaphysicalpoetryafterithadbecomeunfashionableinEngland.At times,asinTaylor'spoetry,richworksofstrikingoriginalitygrewoutofcolonialisolation. ColonialwritersoftenseemedignorantofsuchgreatEnglishauthorsasBenJonson.SomecolonialwritersrejectedEnglish poetswhobelongedtoadifferentsectaswell,therebycuttingthemselvesofffromthefinestlyricanddramaticmodels theEnglishlanguagehadproduced.Inaddition,manycolonialsremainedignorantduetothelackofbooks. The great model of writing, belief, and conduct was the Bible, in an authorized English translation that was already outdatedwhenitcameout.TheageoftheBible,somucholderthantheRomanchurch,madeitauthoritativetoPuritan eyes. New England Puritans clung to the tales of the Jews in the Old Testament, believing that they, like the Jews, were persecutedfortheirfaith,thattheyknewtheonetrueGod,andthattheywerethechosenelectwhowouldestablishthe New Jerusalem a heaven on Earth. The Puritans were aware of the parallels between the ancient Jews of the Old Testament and themselves. Moses led the Israelites out of captivity from Egypt, parted the Red Sea through God's miraculousassistancesothathispeoplecouldescape,andreceivedthedivinelawintheformoftheTenCommandments. LikeMoses,PuritanleadersfelttheywererescuingtheirpeoplefromspiritualcorruptioninEngland,passingmiraculously overawildseawithGod'said,andfashioningnewlawsandnewformsofgovernmentafterGod'swishes. Colonialworldstendtobearchaic,andNewEnglandcertainlywasnoexception.NewEnglandPuritanswerearchaicby choice,conviction,andcircumstance.

SamuelSewall(16521730)

EasiertoreadthanthehighlyreligiouspoetryfullofBiblicalreferencesarethehistoricalandsecularaccountsthatrecount real events using lively details. Governor John Winthrop's Journal (1790) provides the best information on the early MassachusettsBayColonyandPuritanpoliticaltheory. SamuelSewall'sDiary,whichrecordstheyears1674to1729,islivelyandengaging.SewallfitsthepatternofearlyNew EnglandwriterswehaveseeninBradfordandTaylor.BorninEngland,Sewallwasbroughttothecoloniesatanearlyage. HemadehishomeintheBostonarea,wherehegraduatedfromHarvard,andmadeacareeroflegal,administrative,and religiouswork.

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Sewallwasbornlateenoughtoseethechangefromtheearly,strictreligiouslifeofthePuritanstothelater,moreworldly YankeeperiodofmercantilewealthintheNewEnglandcolonies;hisDiary,whichisoftencomparedtoSamuelPepys's Englishdiaryofthesameperiod,inadvertentlyrecordsthetransition. LikePepys'sdiary,Sewall'sisaminuterecordofhisdailylife,reflectinghisinterestinlivingpiouslyandwell.Henoteslittle purchasesofsweetsforawomanhewascourting,andtheirdisagreementsoverwhetherheshouldaffectaristocraticand expensivewayssuchaswearingawigandusingacoach.

MaryRowlandson(c.1635c.1678)
TheearliestwomanprosewriterofnoteisMaryRowlandson,aminister'swifewhogivesaclear,movingaccountofher 11weekcaptivitybyIndiansduringanIndianmassacrein1676.Thebookundoubtedlyfanned the flame of antiIndian sentiment,asdidJohnWilliams'sTheRedeemedCaptive(1707),describinghistwoyearsincaptivitybyFrenchandIndians afteramassacre.Suchwritingsaswomenproducedareusuallydomesticaccountsrequiringnospecialeducation.Itmay be argued that women's literature benefits from its homey realism and commonsense wit; certainly works like Sarah KembleKnight'slivelyJournal(publishedposthumouslyin1825)ofadaringsolotripin1704fromBostontoNewYorkand backescapesthebaroquecomplexityofmuchPuritanwriting.

CottonMather*(16631728)
NoaccountofNewEnglandcolonialliteraturewouldbecompletewithoutmentioningCottonMather,themasterpedant. The third in the fourgeneration Mather dynasty of MassachusettsBay, he wroteat length ofNewEngland in over 500 books and pamphlets. Mather's 1702 Magnalia Christi Americana (Ecclesiastical History of New England), his most ambitiouswork,exhaustivelychroniclesthesettlementofNewEnglandthroughaseriesofbiographies.Thehugebook presentstheholyPuritanerrandintothewildernesstoestablishGodskingdom;itsstructureisanarrativeprogressionof representative American "Saints' Lives." His zeal somewhat redeems his pompousness: "I write the wonders of the Christianreligion,flyingfromthedeprivationsofEuropetotheAmericanstrand."

RogerWilliams(c.16031683)
Asthe1600sworeonintothe1700s,religiousdogmatismgraduallydwindled,despitesporadic,harshPuritaneffortsto stemthetideoftolerance.TheministerRogerWilliamssufferedforhisownviewsonreligion.AnEnglishbornsonofa tailor,hewasbanishedfromMassachusettsinthemiddleofNewEngland'sferociouswinterin1635.Secretlywarnedby GovernorJohnWinthropofMassachusetts,hesurvivedonlybylivingwithIndians;in1636,heestablishedanewcolonyat RhodeIslandthatwouldwelcomepersonsofdifferentreligions. AgraduateofCambridgeUniversity(England),heretainedsympathyforworkingpeopleanddiverseviews.Hisideaswere aheadofhistime.Hewasanearlycriticofimperialism,insistingthatEuropeankingshadnorighttograntlandcharters becauseAmericanlandbelongedtotheIndians.Williamsalsobelievedintheseparationbetweenchurchandstatestill afundamentalprincipleinAmericatoday.Heheldthatthelawcourtsshouldnothavethepowertopunishpeoplefor religiousreasonsastandthatunderminedthestrictNewEnglandtheocracies.Abelieverinequalityanddemocracy,he wasalifelongfriendoftheIndians.Williams'snumerousbooksincludeoneofthefirstphrasebooksofIndianlanguages,A KeyIntotheLanguagesofAmerica(1643).Thebookalsoisanembryonicethnography,givingbolddescriptionsofIndian life based on the time he had lived among the tribes. Each chapter is devoted to one topic for example, eating and mealtime.Indianwordsandphrasespertainingtothistopicaremixedwithcomments,anecdotes,andaconcludingpoem. Theendofthefirstchapterreads:
Ifnature'ssons,bothwildandtame, Humaneandcourteousbe,

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HowillbecomesitsonsofGod Towanthumanity.

Inthechapteronwordsaboutentertainment,hecommentsthat"itisastrangetruththatamanshallgenerallyfindmore freeentertainmentandrefreshingamongthesebarbarians,thanamongstthousandsthatcallthemselvesChristians." Williams'slifeisuniquelyinspiring.OnavisittoEnglandduringthebloodyCivilWarthere,hedrewuponhissurvivalin frigidNewEnglandtoorganizefirewooddeliveriestothepoorofLondonduringthewinter,aftertheirsupplyofcoalhad been cut off. He wrote lively defenses of religious toleration not only for different Christian sects, but also for non Christians."ItisthewillandcommandofGod,that...apermissionofthemostPaganish,Jewish,Turkish,orAntichristian consciencesandworships,begrantedtoallmen,inallnations...,"hewroteinTheBloodyTenetofPersecutionforCause ofConscience(1644).TheinterculturalexperienceoflivingamonggraciousandhumaneIndiansundoubtedlyaccountsfor muchofhiswisdom. Influence was twoway in the colonies. For example, John Eliot translated the Bible into Narragansett. Some Indians convertedtoChristianity.Eventoday,theNativeAmericanchurchisamixtureofChristianityandIndiantraditionalbelief. ThespiritoftolerationandreligiousfreedomthatgraduallygrewintheAmericancolonieswasfirstestablishedinRhode Island and Pennsylvania, home of the Quakers. The humane and tolerant Quakers, or "Friends," as they were known, believedinthesacrednessoftheindividualconscienceasthefountainheadofsocialorderandmorality.Thefundamental Quaker belief in universal love and brotherhood made them deeply democratic and opposed to dogmatic religious authority. Driven out of strict Massachusetts, which feared their influence, they established a very successful colony, Pennsylvania,underWilliamPennin1681.

AmericanTexts
IndigenousPeople'sLiterature

Tsalagi(Cherokee)Stories
TheBearMan
One springtime morning a Cherokee named Whirlwind told his wife goodbye and left his village to go up in the Smoky Mountainstohuntforwildgame.Intheforesthesawablackbearandwoundeditwithanarrow.Thebearturnedand startedtorunaway,butthehunterfollowed,shootingonearrowafteranotherintotheanimalwithoutbringingitdown. Whirlwinddidnotknowthatthisbearpossessedsecretpowers,andcouldtalkandreadthethoughtsofpeople. AtlasttheblackbearstoppedandpulledthearrowsoutofhisbodyandgavethemtoWhirlwind."Itisofnouseforyouto shootatme,"hesaid."Youcan'tkillme.ComewithmeandIwillshowyouhowbearslive." "Thisbearmaykillme,"Whirlwindsaidtohimself,butthebearreadhisthoughtsandsaid:"No,Iwillnothurtyou. "HowcanIgetanythingtoeatifIgowiththisbear?"Whirlwindthought,andagainthebearknewwhatthehunterwas thinking,andsaid:"Ihaveplentyoffood." Whirlwinddecidedtogowiththebear.Theywalkeduntiltheycametoacaveinthesideofamountain,andthebearsaid: "ThisisnotwhereIlive,butweareholdingacouncilhereandyoucanseewhatwedo."Theyenteredthecave,which widenedastheywentfartherinuntilitwasaslargeasaCherokeetownhouse.Itwasfilledwithbears,oldandyoung, brownandblack,andonelargewhitebearwhowasthechief.Whirlwindsatdowninacornerbesidetheblackbearwho hadbroughthiminside,butsoontheotherbearsscentedhispresence.

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"Whatisthatbadsmellofaman?"oneasked,butthebearchiefanswered:"Don'ttalkso.Itisonlyastrangercometosee us.Lethimalone." The bears began to talk among themselves, and Whirlwind was astonished that he could understand what they were saying.Theywerediscussingthescarcityoffoodofallkindsinthemountains,andweretryingtodecidewhattodoabout it.Theyhadsentmessengersinalldirections,andtwoofthemhadreturnedtoreportonwhattheyhadfound.Inavalley tothesouth,theysaid,wasalargestandofchestnutsandoaks,andthegroundbeneaththemwascoveredwithmast. Pleasedatthisnews,ahugeblackbearnamedLongHamsannouncedthathewouldleadtheminadance. Whiletheyweredancing,thebearsnoticedWhirlwind'sbowandarrows,andLongHamsstoppedandsaid:"Thisiswhat menusetokillus.Letusseeifwecanusethem.Maybewecanfightthemwiththeirownweapons." LongHamstookthebowandarrowsfromWhirlwind.Hefittedanarrowanddrewbackthesinewstring,butwhenhelet go,thestringcaughtinhislongclawsandthearrowfelltotheground.Hesawthathecouldnotusethebowandarrows andgavethembacktoWhirlwind.Bythistime,thebearshadfinishedtheirdance,andwereleavingthecavetogoto theirseparatehomes. Whirlwindwentoutwiththeblackbearwhohadbroughthimthere,andafteralongwalktheycametoasmallercavein the side of the mountain. "This is where I live," the bear said, and led the way inside. Whirlwind could see no food anywhereinthecave,andwonderedhowhewasgoingtogetsomethingtosatisfyhishunger.Readinghisthoughts,the bearsatuponhishindlegsandmadeamovementwithhisforepaws.WhenheheldhispawsouttoWhirlwindtheywere filledwithchestnuts.HerepeatedthismagicandhispawswerefilledwithhuckleberrieswhichhegavetoWhirlwind.He thenpresentedhimwithblackberries,andfinallysomeacorns. "Icannoteatacorns,"Whirlwindsaid."Besidesyouhavegivenmeenoughtoeatalready." Formanymoons,throughthesummerandwinter,Whirlwindlivedinthecavewiththebear.Afterawhilehenoticedthat hishairwasgrowingalloverhisbodylikethatofabear.Helearnedtoeatacornsandactlikeabear,buthestillwalked uprightlikeaman. OnthefirstwarmdayofspringthebeartoldWhirlwindthathehaddreamedoftheCherokeevillagedowninthevalley.In thedreamheheardtheCherokeestalkingofabighuntinthemountains. "Ismywifestilltherewaitingforme?"Whirlwindasked. "Sheawaitsyourreturn,"thebearreplied."Butyouhavebecomeabearman.Ifyoureturnyoumustshutyourselfoutof sightofyourpeopleforsevendayswithoutfoodordrink.Attheendofthattimeyouwillbecomelikeamanagain." AfewdayslaterapartyofCherokeehunterscameupintothemountains.TheblackbearandWhirlwindhidthemselvesin thecave,butthehunters'dogsfoundtheentranceandbegantobarkfuriously. "Ihavelostmypoweragainstarrows,"thebearsaid."Yourpeoplewillkillmeandtakemyskinfromme,buttheywillnot harm you. They will take you home with them. Remember what I told you, if you wish to lose your bear nature and becomeamanagain. TheCherokeehuntersbeganthrowinglightedpineknotsinsidethecave. "Theywillkillmeanddragmeoutsideandcutmeinpieces,"thebearsaid."Afterwardsyoumustcovermybloodwith leaves.Whentheyaretakingyouaway,ifyoulookbackyouwillseesomething." Asthebearhadforetold,thehunterskilledhimwitharrowsanddraggedhisbodyoutsideandtooktheskinfromitand cutthemeatintoquarterstocarrybacktotheirvillage.Fearingthattheymightmistakehimforanotherbear,Whirlwind remained in the cave, but the dogs continued barking at him. When the hunters looked inside they saw a hairy man standingupright,andoneofthemrecognizedWhirlwind. Believingthathehadbeenaprisonerofthebear,theyaskedhimifhewouldliketogohomewiththemandtrytorid himselfofhisbearnature.Whirlwindrepliedthathewouldgowiththem,butexplainedthathewouldhavetostayalone inahouseforsevendayswithoutfoodorwaterinordertobecomeasamanagain.

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Whilethehunterswereloadingthemeatontheirbacks,Whirlwindpiledleavesovertheplacewheretheyhadkilledthe bear,carefullycoveringthedropsofblood.Aftertheyhadwalkedashortdistancedownthemountain,Whirlwindlooked behindhim.Hesawabearriseupoutoftheleaves,shakehimself,andgobackintothecave. When the hunters reached their village, they took Whirlwind to an empty house, and obeying his wishes barred the entrancedoor.Althoughheaskedthemtosaynothingtoanyoneofhishairinessandhisbearnature,oneofthehunters musthavetoldofhispresenceinthevillagebecausetheverynextmorningWhirlwind'swifeheardthathewasthere. Shehurriedtoseethehuntersandbeggedthemtoletherseeherlongmissinghusband. "Youmustwaitforsevendays,"thehunterstoldher."Comebackaftersevendays,andWhirlwindwillreturntoyouashe waswhenheleftthevillagetwelvemoonsago." Bitterlydisappointed,thewomanwentaway,butshereturnedtothehunterseachday,pleadingwiththemtolethersee her husband. She begged so hard that on the fifth day they took her to the house, unfastened the door, and told Whirlwindtocomeoutsideandlethiswifeseehim. Althoughhewasstillhairyandwalkedlikeabearonhindlegs,Whirlwind'swifewassopleasedtoseehimagainthatshe insistedhecomehomewithher.Whirlwindwentwithher,butafewdayslaterhedied,andtheCherokeesknewthatthe bearshadclaimedhimbecausehestillhadabear'snatureandcouldnotlivelikeaman.Iftheyhadkepthimshutupin thehousewithoutfooduntiltheendofthesevendayshewouldhavebecomelikeamanagain.Andthatiswhyinthat village on the first warm and misty nights of springtime, the ghosts of two bearsone walking on all fours, the other walkinguprightarestillseentothisday.

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CottonMatherWhatMustIDoToBeSaved?
TheGreatestConcernintheWorld[Thejailer]"broughtthemout,andsaid,Sirs,whatmustIdotobesaved?Andthey said,BelieveontheLordJesusChrist,andthoushaltbesaved,andthyhouse"(Acts16:3031) WhatMustIDotoBeSaved? ItisimpossibletoaskamoreweightyQuestion!ItisdeplorablethatwehearitaskedwithnomoreFrequency,withnor more Agony. The Spirit of Slumber which the Poison of the old Serpent has brought uponthe children of Men is to be deploredexceedingly.Awakenusoutofthis[terrible]stupidity,OGodofallGrace,lestweperish[eternally]. My Design is to bring in a Good and full Answer to this Weighty Question, Oh! how Thankful ought we to be, for the GloriousGospeloftheBlessedGod,thatmakesusabletoAnswerit!TheGospelwhichwehaveinourhands,thisaGospel ofsuchastonishingMystery,ofsuchHeavenlyMajesty,andofsuchConsummatePurity,thatitcanbenootherthanthe WordofGod;ItmustbeofaDivineOriginal.Oh!highlyFavouredPeople,whoknowthisJoyfulSound!Oh!Unavoidably andInexcusablyWretched,ifwedisregardit. TheDevilsknew,ThatthoseExcellentMinistersoftheLordPaulandSilas,werecometoPhilippi,withadesigntoanswer thisWeightyQuestion.Theycouldnotbearit;theyfeareditwouldissueinaDestructionupontheirKingdomthere.They stirredupthemindsofsomeWickedPeople,toabuseandReviletheseMinisters,andrunthemintoPrison.SomeWicked People were afraid lest they should lose a little Money, by the coming of such Ministers among them; and the Devils inspiredtheseMuckwormstouseincessantEndeavoursuntiltheyhadmadetheseMinistersuncapableofPreachingany moreuntothem. OurGloriousLordappearedforhisFaithfulServants.TheyGlorifiedHiminthemidstoftheirTrials.TheySangHisPraises under the Stripes and the Stocks which the Satanic Party inflicted on them. Oh, Patient Servants of the Lord! What a symptomhaveyouthatyoushalloneDayReigninGlorywithHim?ThesepoormenSanguntotheLord;theLordheard them,andsav'dthem!AterribleEarthquakeatMidnightshookopentheDoorsoftheirPrison.TheKeeperthathadthe nowsupersededkeysofthePrison,wasterrified.Inhisconsternation,hefallsdownatthefeetofhisPrisoners,hetreats themnolongerasPrisoners,butratherasAngels.HeferventlyputstothemtheQuestion,which,Oh!Thatitwereoften heardwithanequalfervencyamongus!WhatmustIdotobeSaved? SomeLearnedmenthinkthattheGaolerhadfromtheTraditionsoftheirPhilosophers,conceivedsomeHopeofabetter Life;andseeinghisLifehereindanger,hedoes,asdistressedWretchesintheLastminutesoftheirLifeusetodo,Cryout for some help to make sure of a Better Life, Or, more probably, the late words of the possessed Young Woman in the TownabouttheseMinisters;ThesemenaretheServantsofthemostHighGod,whoshowuntousthewayofSalvation; mightruninhismind,andmindhimofthatSalvation,andmakehimthink,whetherthesemenwerenotappointedofGod, fortheInstructionofothersinthewaytothatSalvation. There is a most important matter which must now be undertaken to be demonstrated. That whereas there must be somethingdone,byeverymanthatwouldbesaved,itshouldbetheSollicitiousInquiryofeverymanWhatmustbedone byhim,thathemaybeSaved. WewillproceedupontheawakeningDemonstrationsofthisthing;DemonstrationsmorepowerfulthananyThunderbolts. Oh!thattheissuemightbe,thattheHearersmaybeAwakened,withamightyImpressionupontheirSoulstomakethe EnquiryWhatmustIdotobeSaved?

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I.Youmustknow,thatThereisaGreatSalvationproposeduntothesinfulChildrenofmen;AndyoumustKnow,andThink, ThatthereisNothingofSoGreatConcernmentforanyman,astoobtainapartinthatGreatSalvation. IndeedKnowledgeisthefirstThing,thatisnecessaryinordertoSalvation;Anditisabsolutelynecessary,Unspeakable Necessary.[Prov.1]WereadHosea4:6.ofPeopleDestroyedforthelackofKnowledge. Ah!destructiveIgnorance,whatshallbedonetochasetheeoutoftheWorld!Aworldwhichbytheeisrenderedadark World,theKingdomofDarkness!TheOraclesofWisdomhaveassuredusTheSoulwithoutknowledgeisnotgood;They assuredus,TheywhoknownotGodshallhaveaVengeanceinflamingFire,takenofthem;Theyhaveassuredus;'TisLife Eternal,toknowtheonlytrueGod,andJesusChristwhomHehathsent.AnIgnoranceofthe[true]Gospel,isattended withalongTrainofUnknown,butveryEvilConsequences.TistheGospelofSalvation;TheythatareIgnorantofitmust needsmissofSalvation. 'TisanErroneousandPerniciousPrinciple,ThataManmaybeSavedinanyReligion,ifhedobutLiveaccordingtoit.The unerringandinfallibleGospelhasexpresslytaughtusotherwise[in]2Cor.4:3"Ifourgospelbehid,itishiduntothemthat belost." Itisnotunseasonablehere,andasEarlyasmaybe,tobringinthatAdmonition. Knowledge,Knowledge;TogetgoodKnowledge,letthatbetheFirstCareofthemthatwouldbeSaved.Knowledge,'Tisa Principal thing; My Child, Get Knowledge; with all thy might, Get understanding. Oh! That this Resolution might immediatelybemadeinthemindsofallourpeople;IwillgetasmuchKnowledgeaseverIcan! TheWordofGodmustbeReadandHeardwithDiligencethatsoyoumayarrivetotheKnowledgethatisneedfulforyou. The Catechisms in which you have the Word of God fitted for your more early Apprehension of it must be diligently Studied. UntoalltheotherMeansofKnowledge,theremustbeadded,HumbleandEarnestSupplicationsbeforetheGloriousLord, YoumustcrytoGodforKnowledge,andliftupyourVoicetoHimforUnderstanding;PreferitbeforeSilver,Beforeany EarthyTreasures. There may be some so very Ignorant, that they know not how to Pray. I would advise them to take the Hundred and NineteenthPsalm.TheywillfindinitmanyaPrayersuiteduntotheircircumstances,Takeit,Useit,andparticularlythose Petitionsinit:Teachme,OLord,thewayofthyStatutes;andLord,TeachmeGoodJudgmentandKnowledge;andLord, GivemeUnderstanding,thatImayknowthyTestimonies:GivemeunderstandingandIshallLive.TakeEncouragement fromthatword;andPleaditbeforetheLord:James1:5.IfanyofyoulackofWisdom,lethimaskofGodthatgivethtoall menLiberally,andupbraidethnot;anditshallbegivenhim. AndnowtopursuediverseEndsatonce,IamtotellyouThattheMainThingswhich'tisnecessaryforyoutoknow,are thethingswhichconcernSalvation.MoreParticularly;Youmustknow,first;FromWhatyoudoneedSalvation.Andhere, First;Youaretoknow,ThattheOneEternalandInfiniteGodwhoSubsistethinThreePersonswhichHisWordcall,The FatherandtheSon,andtheHolySpiritCreatedourFirstParents,inanHolyandHappyState,attheEndoftheSixDays,in whichHeCreatedallthings. But,ourFirstParentshearkeningtotheTemptationsofWickedSpirits,didEataForbiddenFruit;andbythatsin,theyfell fromGod,andfromtheirHolyandHappyState;AndtheirFallhasbro'ttheirChildrenwiththem,intoaStateofSinand Misery,theirSinwasourSin,fromtheircorruptnaturewearebornintotheworldenvenom'dwithsuchaNature[heart]. TheDeath[eternal]whichtheBrokenLawofGodthreateneduntothem;isduetousall:ADeathwhichintendsallMisery, notonlyinthisWorld,butinAnother,whereourSoulscontinueImmortal[liveforever],aftertheyhaveleftthisworld. Thenyouaretoknow;ThatthereisaLawgiventous,which,istheEverlastingRule,accordingtowhichGodrequiresusto glorifyHim;aLawofLovetoGodandMan,containedinourTenCommandments. But,thatyoudailybreakthisLaw;andthateveryBreachofitIncurstheWrathofGodwhoisofPurerEyesthantobehold EvilandcannotlookuponIniquity.

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Lastly,youaretoknow,ThatwhileyoulieundertheGuiltofSin,youarealsoundertheReignofSin,andundertheReign ofSatantoo;AmostwoefulOppressionfromtheWorstEnemiesThatCanBe.GodisinIllTermswithyou.Hevisitsyou notwithHisgreatconsolationsAllThingsareagainstyou;ThethingsthatappearforyourWelfare,dobutEnsnareyou,do butPoisonyou,dobutproduceyourfurtherDistancefromGod. Yourveryprosperityhurtsyou;YourAdversarylaystheChainsofDeathuponyou.Youareeverymomentindanger,of being seized by the formidable Justice of God for Eternal Burnings. If you Die Unpardoned, you are sent among Devils. Damn'duntotorments;mustundergoastrangePunishment,andalongonewhichisReservedinaFutureState,forthe workersofiniquity[unrepententsinners]. Oh! Sinner; this, is thy Lamentable Case And Knowing this how canst thou do any other than make that Sollicitious Enquiry;WhatmustIdotobeSaved?KnowingthisTerroroftheLord.Oh! BePerswaded! YoumustknowsecondlybyWhomyoumayhaveSalvation.Andhere;YouaretoknowthegreatmysteryofgodlinessGod manifestsinflesh.YourSalvationdependsonyourknowingofsuchaSaviour. WehavenottheleastIntimationintheBookofGod,ThataunknownSaviourwillbeours.Butitisdreadfullyintimated, ThatifPeoplehavenoUnderstandingofHim,HethatmadethemwillnothavemercyonthemandHethatformedthem willshewthemnoFavour. You are then to know; That the Son of God assumed the Blessed Jesus, the Sinless and Holy Son of a Virgin, into one personwithHimself. AndthisAdmirablePerson,whoisGodandManinonePerson,hasasourSurety,fulfilledtheLawofGodforus;answered thepreceptofit,inhisRighteousLife;answeredthePenaltyofit,inHisgrieviousdeath;sufferedtheCross,andEndured theCurseinourstead. Youaretoknowherewithal;thatthismightyandmatchlessandOnlySaviouroftheworld,whoisalsotheGovenorofthe World,isRisenfromtheDead,andisEnthronedintheHeavens,andwillreturntoruleandJudgetheWorld;butHewill SaveuntotheutermostAllthatcomeuntoGodbyHim. Oh!UndoneSinner;canstthouhearofsuchaSaviourandnotmakethatSollicitiousenquiry,WhatmustIdo,thatImay haveanInterestintheOnlySaviour? YoumustKnow,Thirdly;WhatshallbedoneforyouifyoufindSalvation. And here; You are to know that no good thing shall be withheld from the Saved of the Lord. Wonder wonder. Be swallowedupwithwonderment,atthisGrace,Oselfdestroyedones! There is Proposed unto You A deliverance from all the undesirable Circumstances, into which you have Run, by your DeparturefromGod. Itisproposeduntoyou,ThatyoushallNolongerbethechildrenofDeath,butbemadetheChildrenofGod.Thatyoushall beForgivenandAcceptedwithaReconciledGodandbefollowedwithperpetualTestimoniesofhisFatherlyLove:ThatNo IniquityshallhaveDominionoveryou,butyoushallbecometheamiableTemples,whereinHewilldwell,withthesweet InfluencesofHisGoodSpiritforeverirradiatingofyou. Itispropos'duntoyou;ThatyourSpirits,atyourDissolution[death]shallputontheGarmentsofLight,andEnterintothe PeaceaRestofanHeavenlyParadise:ThatyourBodieserelongbyaResurrectionshallbeRestoreduntoyourSpirits:but betheLively,theLovely,themostAgreeableandEverlastingMansionsforthem:ThatyoushallhaveaJoyfulPortionin thecityofGod,andhaveHismarvelouskindnessForeverdoingunutterablethingsforyou,inthatstrongcity:Thereyou shallatlengthbefilledwithalltheFulnessofGodandhaveGodbecomeAllinAlluntoyouforeverandever. All this is contained in the Salvation whereof You have a Tender. Salvation, 'Tis a comprehensive Word as IncomprehensibleGood!Eyehasnotseen,Earhasnotheard,noHeartcanconceive,whatislaidupintheSalvationof God.

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Oh!Ruin'dSinner;whydoesitnotnowbecomethySollicitousEnquiry;WhatmustIdothatImaynotlosethevastthings whereuntoIaminvitedbymySaviour?Thesearethethingsthatmustbeknown.AndiftheseThingsBeknown,andOwn'd, theplainInferencefromthemwillbethis;ThattheManisforsakenofReason,UnworthytobecalledaReasonableMan, whoisnotverysolicitouslyInquisitive;WhatmustIdotobesaved?Butnow,'tistimetoanswerthatgreatEnquiry,we willdoitbycallinginaSecondProposition. II.Somethingmustbedonebyeverymanthatwouldnotforfeitallclaim,RejectallHopeoftheGreatSalvation. Andthisalsomustbeknown.YoumustKnowWhatmustbedone.Andthereuponitshallbesaiduntoyou;Job13:17. "WhenyouknowthesethingshappyareyouIfyoudothem."ItisNotEnoughtoKnow;TheremustbePracticeJoyn'd Withyourknowledge. Somethingmustbedone;Elseithadneverbeensaid,Hebrews5:6"ChrististheAuthorofeternalSalvation,untoallthem that Obey him", Something must be done; Else we had never been told; Hebrews 6:9 "There are the things that accompanySalvation." We are often instructed in the Sacred Writings, That there Is a Way, wherein alone Salvation is to be Expected, A way calledThewayofLife;and,Thewayoftruth;ThewayoftheLord;andthewayofPeace;andThewayofGoodmen;and, ThewayoftheRighteous.Inthisway,Somethingmustbedone,ThereareStepstobetakenthatwemayFndthisway, andKeepthisway.TistheEverlastingway;ThereisnoAlteringofit. Somethingmustbedone;Forwearesure,Allmenarenotsaved.Therearesome,whoareChildrenofPerdition,There aresome,whoareVesselsofwrath;therearesomewhogoawayintoeverlastingpunishment,Somethingmustbedone, todistinguishyoufromthatcrookedGeneration.Weread,Matthew7:14"Narrowisthewaywhichleadethuntolifeand FewtherebethatFindit". IndeedthereisNothingtobedonebyus,tomeritourSalvation,ButsomethingmustbedonetosecureourSalvation. Indeed there is Nothing to be done by us, in our own strength. But something Must be done by us, thro' Christ who strengthensus. Moreplainly,OurBlessednessnowcomenotuntous,ontheTermsofaCovenantofworks,'Tisnotproperlyourdoings, thatistheconditionofourBlessedness.WearetobeSaved,byTakingratherthanbyDoing.Theconditionisreceiveand besaved.Itis,approve,andbeSaved.Or,BewillingtobeSaved.WespeakofDoing,intheLargestsenseoftheword;and westillsay,somethingmustbedone,thatwemaybeSaved. LettheQuestionthencomein.And,Oh!BringitinwithalltheSolicitude,whichwereproperfor,theGreatestConcernin theWorld. WHATMUSTIDOTOBESAVED? IhaveseenthisQuestionScandalouslyanswered,inPamphletsthathavebeendispersedaboutourNation.TheOne Thingthat isneedfulhasbeen left unregarded, unmention'd. PerhapstheObservation of certainSuperstitiousHolidays hasbeenrecommendedinsteadofthatonething.Alashowhavethesoulsofmenbeenbetrayed,bymenunskilfulinthe word of righteousness! How unskilfully, and unfaithfully have the methods of Salvation been declared by many who perverttheGospelofChrist!NotsonowIhope!Apuregospel,asounddoctrine,mustbepursu'd,Youarenowtobe treatedwithnothingbutwholesomeWords;nothingbutthefaithfulsayingsofGod. I. AndwhatBetter,whatotherAnswercanbegiven,(OtherFoundationcannomanLay!)tothisQuestion,butwhat theApostlesofGodgavetoitofold?WhenthepoormansaidwhatmustIdotobeSaved,wereadtheysaidBelieveon theLordJesusChrist,andthoushaltbesaved. ThisistheSumoftheGospel;ThisistheChargegiventotheMinistersoftheGospel;Mark16:15,16"PreachtheGospel toeveryCreature.Hethatbelieveth...shallbesaved."FaithintheLordJesusChrist,whoistheOnlySaviour;This,This mustbefoundinallthatwillbesaved. Thefaith,whichis,AsatisfactionofthemindinthewayofSalvationbyaGloriousChristRevealedintheGospel.

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TheFaithbywhichwedenyourselves,andRelyonaGloriousChrist,forallSalvation.TheFaithbywhichweReceivea GloriousChrist,andRestonHimforSalvationasHeisoffereduntous. ButHowmustthisfaithoperateinallthatwouldbesaved?OhSet!YourHeartstothesethings;theyarenotvainthings; YourLives,theveryLivesofyourSoulsareconcernedinthem. IfyourHeartsmaynowfallinwiththesethings,andform'dandshap'daccordingtotheEvangelicalMoldofthemlo, ThisDaySalvationiscomeuntoyoursouls.GloriousLord,inclinetheheartsofourPeople,todowhatmustbedonethat sothySalvationmaybebestow'duponthem.Firstthismustbedone;YoumustcometobebitterlySensible,thatyou want[lack]aGloriousChristforyourSaviour.Weread,John7:37."IfanyManThirstlethimcomeuntome."Truly,no manwillcometoaChrist,untilaThirstorapungentandPainfulSenseoftheWantofaChristberaisedinhim.You mustfeeltheBurdenofyoursin,lyingonyou;andcryout,Oh'TisaheavyBurdentooheavyforme!YoumustseeGod Angrywithyou,SinBindingofyou,Hellgapingforyou;andutterlyDespairofhelpingyourselvesoutoftheconfusion thatiscomeuponyou. You must be filled with sorrow, for what you have done; with horror at what you are Expos'd unto. The Cry of your Uneasy Souls must be that; of Romans 7:24. "O wretched man that I am who shall deliver me!" You must be no strangerstosuchsoliloquiesasthese;Ihavesinned;Ihavesinned,and,woeisuntome,thatIhavesinned,Ihavelost the knowledge of God and lost the Image of God, and lost the Favour of God. My Sin renders me obnoxious to the Vengeance of God. Lust enchants me, enslaves me; Satan Tyrannizes over me. I am in hourly Hazzard of an Eternal BanishmentfromGod,intoOuterDarkness,intothePlaceofDragons.Oh!wretchedmanthatIam:Icandonothingto delivermyself.Iperish,Iperish,exceptaGloriousChristbemydeliverer. TheDegreeofthisDistressonthemindsofthemthatshallbesavedisVarious.ThereisaVarietyinthatPrepatoryWork, which does distress the Elect of God, in their coming to a Saviour. Converts do sometimes needlessly Distress themselves,andEvendeceivethemselves,byinsistingtoomuchontheMeasureofthisPreparation.Butsomuchofthis Work, as will render us restless without a Christ; so much of this Work, as will render a whole Christ precious to us beforetheremustbesomuchinourExperience,ifwewouldbesaved. Secondly;ThismustbeDone;Youmustconfessyourselves,UnableToDoAnythingEffectuallyofyourselves,incoming toagloriousChrist,asyourSaviour.WithafearfultremblingofSoul,youmustmakethisProfession;Lordthouworketh inustoWillandtoDo,ofthyowngoodPleasure!YourProfessionmustbethatofEph2:8"ByGraceareyesaved,thro' FaithandthatnotofyourselvesitistheGiftofGod." YourProfessionmustbethatofJohn6:65."Nomancancome,exceptitbegiventohim."Oh!LieattheFootofSoverign GraceconfessingandImploringLord,Iamjustlydestroyed.IfIdonotsincerelyrenouncemysin,sincerelyembracemy Saviour.ButIcannot,Oh!Icannot!IhavedeadlyfettersuponmySoul;IshallneveranswerthygraciousCalls,except thySoverignGraceenableme.Oh!Quickenme:Oh!Strengthenme:Oh!Enableme;TurnthoumeandIShallbeTurned. YourImpotencymustnotnowbemadeanExcuseforyourImpenitency.YourInabilitymustAffrightyouexceedingly. AffectyouExceedingly;ItmaynotExcuseyouinaslothfulNegligence.YoumustNotRemainCarelessofdoinganything, Becauseyoucanthoroughlydonothing.HavingfirstCry'duntoGod,thatHewouldhelpyoutodowhatyouhavetodo, youmustnowtrytodoit;nowtry,whetherHedonothelpyoutodoit. Thirdly;Thismustbedone;YoumustAdmire,YoumustAdore,YoumustAddressaGloriousChrist,inallHisofficesfor allHisBenefits.Oh!HearaCompassionateRedeemerCallingyou;Isai.45:22"LookuntomeallyeEndsoftheEarth,and beyeSaved."Comply,Reply;Lord,Ilookuntothee,Iwillbethine,Saveme. Andhere,youaretoRememberthattheFirstThingyouwantisAttonementandAcceptancewithGod.ForthisPurpose youmustbeholdaGloriousChrist,asaPriestbringingaSacrificeandmakingaRighteousnessforyouAccordingly.Your first Address to Heaven must be this; Lord let my many and horrid sins be Forgiven me for the sake of that great Sacrifice,whichthouhasthadintheBloodofJesusChristthySon,whichCleansethfromallsin.AndLordLetmewho amapoorSinnerutterlyhopelessofworkingoutformyselfaRighteousnessnowstandbeforeTheeinthewondrous RighteousnessofthatLord,whoistheHeadofHischurch,andwhohaswroughtoutaSpotlessRighteousnessforus. ButRemembertoDependonthismostsufficientSacrificeandRighteousness,notasQualifiedforitbyanygoodThing to be observed in yourselves. Do not stay from it on a Prospect anon to come recommended unto it by some commendable goodness in yourselves first attained. No Depend, and Venture upon it, as Encouraged by no other Qualificationbutthis;AmostmiserableSinner;yetinvited,yetCompelleduntothisMercyoftheLord.

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Well;IftheFaithwhichhasgotthusfar,benotacounterfeit,itwontstophere.YoumustbeholdagloriousChrist,asa Prophet,andaKing.FaithhasothererrandsuntotheSaviourbesidesthat,ofadesiretobeJustified.AtrueBelieverwill notcounthimselfsaved,ifhebenotSanctified,aswellasjustified.TheSaviourputsthisdemanduntoyou;Matthew 20:32WhatwillyethatIshalldountoyou?Youanswer;O,mygreatSaviourIcomeuntotheethatbythybeingmy Sacrifice and my Righteousness and my Advocate, Everliving to make Intercession for me, I may be Saved unto the Uttermost.Butthismustnotbeall.TheremustbethisintheAnswer,OmySaviourIcomeuntotheeforInstruction:Let thySpiritwiththyWordcausemetoKnowtheThingsofmyPeace,andkeepmefromallDelusions. AndtheremustbethisintheAnswer,OmySaviourIcomeuntotheeforGovernment:LetthySpiritofGrace,conquer the Enmity of my Heart against the things that are pleasing to God and make me a conquerer over all my Spiritual Adversaries. ThisisthatFaith,whereoftheEndistheSalvationoftheSoul.Believeafterthismanner,andyoubelievetotheSaving oftheSoul. II. ButwemaycarryontheAnswer,withoutbeingreprovedforaddinganythinguntothewordsofGod.AtrueFaith, willalwayshaveRepentanceaccompanyingofit. Repentance unto life; Tis a Dead Faith which cannot show it; A Dead Soul that has it not, AgenuineFaithisalwaysaRepentingFaith.Weseethetwosistershandinhand;Acts20:21RepentancetowardsGod andFaithtowardourLordJesusChrist.WeconstantlyseeitintheExperienceofalltheFaithful.'TistheDenomination ofRepentance;2Cor7:10.RepentancetoSalvation.ItmustbefoundinalltheCandidatesofSalvation. Well then; First; This must be done; You must heartily and bitterly Bewail all your Sins. YourOriginalSin,yourActualSin;themonstrousAggravationofyourSin;Youmustbeconvincedofit.Acontritionmust followthisconviction;WithaBrokenheartyoumustcryout,Psalm38:18"Iwilldeclaremyiniquity,Iwillbesorryfor mySin." YoumustmournforyourSin,andmournfortheOffencegiventoGodbyyourSin,aswellasfortheMischiefdoneto yourselves:Mourn,Mourn,andnevercountthatyouhavemournedenough. Secondly;ThismustbedoneYoumustmakeaPenitentConfessionofyourSins;aRemorsefulconfessionofthem,All yourknowncrimes,youmustasparticularlyasyoucan,EnumeratewithshameandgriefbeforetheLord. You must be able to say; Psalm 51:3, "I acknowledge my Transgressions and my Sin is ever before me. Your AcknowledgementofyoursecretSinsmustbeonlytotheLord:butwhereyourSinsareKnown,whereyourNeighbors havebeeneitherSufferersby,orWitnessesofyourMiscarriages,theyalsoshouldKnowthatyouacknowledgethem. Thirdly; This must be done; Every way of Sin must be Abhorr'd, must be Avoided, must be Forsaken. Amendment is Essential to Repentance: Except you reform you don't repent. So you are warn'd of God; Prov. 28:13. "He that confessethandforsakethshallfindmercy."IfyougooninanyEvidentwayofSinyouwillfinditaWayofDeath,aPath oftheDestroyer;itwillbringtoaDamnationthatslumberethnot. VerytremendousThingswillbedonetothoseEnemiesofGod,whogoonstillintheirtrespasses.HaveyoudoneAmiss? YoumustsayIwilldosonomoreyoumustnotpersistinwhatyouhavedone. And hence, if you have wrong'd another man in what you have done, you must Vigorously Endeavour all possible restitution,restitution,aThingtoolittleunderstood,toolittleexhorted,toolittlepractised;restitutionwithoutwhich therecanbenorightrepentance.ThisistheRepentancewhichisfoundineverytruebeliever;Itmustbefoundinevery onethatwouldbesaved. III.And,Holiness,Holiness;Apatientcontinuanceinwilldoing.ThereisNoLifeintheFaith,whichisnotProductivetoan HolyLife;'TisnotaFaithwhichwillbringtoeverlastingLife.IftheGracetoBelieveontheLordJesusChrist,beinfusedinto theSoul,theHabitofeveryotherGraceisatthesameInstantinfused. IwillshowyoutheMottoontheGoldenGatesoftheHolyCity;Hebrews12:14."WithoutHolinessnomanshallseethe Lord."AnHolyLife,ALifepressingafterUniversalandPerpetualconformitytotheRulesofHoliness;This,ThisistheRoyal Pathleadingtosalvation;Yea,tisnolittlepartofourSalvation.

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Thismustbedone;YoumustResignyourselvesupuntotheHolySpiritoftheLord;Consent,Request,Entreat,ThatHe wouldEternallytakePosessionofyou.FromtheDust,cryuntoHim;Psalm141:10."ThouartmyGodthySpiritisgood; leadmeuntothelandofRectitude."CryuntoHim;OSpiritofHoliness,RaisemeoutoftheRuinsthatmySinhasbrought uponme.Possessmeforever.CausemetofearGod,andLoveChrist,andhateSin,andslightthisWorldandknowmyself, andmakememeetfortheInheritanceoftheSaintsinLight;Bringmetobeoneofthem,Ipraythee,Ipraythee!Thereis agoodFoundationofHolinesslaidinthisresignation. Butthen,Thismustbedone;YoumustLivelilyPursuetheDeathofEverySin.YoumustflytotheDeathofyourSaviour,as thepurchaseandthePatternofsogreataBlessing;butyoumustcountnoTroubletoomuchtobeundergone,thatyou maycomeatsuchaBlessing.ThisisthatHolinesswithoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord.Thismustbedone:Youmust setbeforeyourselvestheExampleofyourSaviour:StudyhowHewasintheWorld;StudytowalkasHewalked;mightily DelightineverystrokeofResemblanceuntoHim;Yea,tho'itbeinSufferingsthatyouresemblehim.ThisisthatHoliness, withoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord. Thismustbedone;YoumustbyasolemnDedicationofyourselves,andyourAlluntotheLord,becometheLord's. ItmustthereforebeyourDesiretohaveallyourTalents,allyourPosessions,andEnjoymentsandInterestsemploy'dfor theHonouroftheLord:andowningtheLord,asthegreatGiver,andOwner,theLordProprietorofallthatyouhave,you mustbereadytosubmituntothewillofGodwhenhepleaseswithafflictiveDispensationstotakeanyofitfromyou.This istheHolinesswithoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord. Thismustbedone;Youmustremember,ThattheEyeoftheomnipotentGodisuponyou,Youmustoftenbringthisto remembrance,Godseesme,hearsme,knowsme,isacquaintedwithallmyways,AsenseofyourbeingundertheNotice ofGod,andoftheAccountuntowhichyouwillbecalledbyGodmustmakeyouafraidofincurringHisDispleasure;Afraid evenofSecretMiscarriages.ThisisthatHolinesswithoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord. Thismustbedone:YoumustmakeityourExercisetokeepaconscienceclearofOffencetowardsGodandtowardsMan. YoumustlabourtobeAcquaintedwithyourWholeDuty;andyourAcquaintancewiththeWillofGodmustbefollowed withproportionableDesiresandLaboursafterObediencetoit. YoumustPrayalwayswithallPrayer,withsecretPrayer,withHouseholdPrayer,withPublicPrayer.Youmusthavean HighValueforthosetwoSacramentsoftheNewTestament,theBaptismandtheSupperoftheLord. YoumustreligiouslyObservetheLord'sDay. YoumustPreserveyourownPlaceandLifeandBedandWealthandName:Youmust,withthesameSincerity,befriend yourNeighboursalsointheirs.LoveyourNeighboursasyourselves,andDoasyouwouldbeDoneunto. You must be especially and mightily conscientious of Relative Christianity. Carry it well in all the Relations wherein the Lordhasplacedyou,whetherSuperiors,orInferiors,orEquals;withsuchaCarriageasmayadorntheDoctrineofGod yourSaviour;suchaCarriageasmayrenderyourcorelativesthebetterforyou. Briefly,YoumustDenyallUngodlinessandWorldlyLustsandLivegodilyandsoberlyandrighteouslyintheWorld.Thisis that Holiness without which no man shall see the Lord. Methinks a most Obvious Inference may be drawn from these Things,ThattheMinistryoftheGospelmustbeattended,andnotneglected,bythemwhowouldnotneglectthegreat Salvation;AmostawfulInference,ThatitisadangerousThingtolivewithoutthemeansofSalvation,whichareinthe ministryofthe[True]Gospelordinarilytobemetwithal.TheWellsofSalvationarekeptopeninsuchaministry.Oh!Do not undervalue the Blessings of those Upper Springs! There are men, who by the command of a glorious Christ, give themselvesupuntotheserviceoftheEvangelicalMinistry,andarethePreachersoftheGospeluntotherestoftheworld: AnorderofmenconcerningwhomourgloriousLordhaspromisedMatthew28:20,"Lo,Iamwithyoualwaystotheendof the world."Ifan Angel should comefromHeaven untoyou asunto Cornelius, onceto Speakuntothis Question,What mustIdotobesaved?Hewouldunquestionablysay,Repairtosuchaministrydon'tthinktolivewithoutit. We have settled the Point; Without Faith we can have no Salvation. But I assume: Romans 10:14, 17 "How shall they believeinHimofwhomtheyhavenotheard?Andhowshalltheyhearwithoutapreacher?Faithcomethbyhearingand hearingbytheWordofGod.Oh!ThattheUngospelizedPlantationswhichlive,Ishouldrathersay,whichdie,withoutthe meansofsalvation,wouldconsiderofit.

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YourQuestionisanswered.OsoulsinPeril,Imaynowsayuntoyou;ICor.15:2"Youaresavedifyoukeepinmemory whatIhavepreacheduntoyou."AndyetImustsayuntoyou,Thatifafterall,youtrampleuponthesethings,itwillbe good for you that you had never been born; the very mention of them will dreadfully increase and inflame your condemnation.ButthesuccessofallmustbeleftwiththeGloriousOne. AndOFatherofmercies,DothoumercifullylookdownupontheSoulthathasheardtheseThings.Disposeandassistthat soul,todothoseGoodThings,uponwhichthouhastpromisedthesalvationofthesoul.IPraythee,IPraythee! Awakeupmysoul!theawfulday, Iscomingswiftlyon, WhenthoumustleavethisHouseofClay, AndflytoWorldsunknown. Oh!donotpassthyLifeinDreams, Tobesurpriz'dbyDeath: AnddropunthinkingdowntoFlames, WhenIresignmyBreath. No:everydaythyCoursereview, ThyrealStatetolearn: AndwithanardentZealpursue ThyGreatandChiefconcern. Rouzealltheman:thyWorkisgreat, Andallthemandemands; ThineHead,thineHeart,thyBreath,thySweat, ThyStrengthandboththineHands. Oh!lettheimportantWorkbedone, Donewhilst'tiscall'dtoDay. LestthouthetimeofHopeoutrun, AndruethemadDelay. Repent(mysoul)BelieveandPray: Bideverylustfarewell. TothyRedeemerhasteaway, AndscapefromDeathandHell. TowhomDearJesus,shouldIlive TowhombutTheealone. Thoudidstatfirstmybeinggive, AndIamallThineown. ToTheeI'llthenmyselfdevote, MyLifeandallmyPow'rs. Eachwarmaffection,busythought, AndallmypassingHours. OLetthosegloriousHopesrefine, AndelevatemySoul. ToheavenlyThingsmyHeartincline, AndmeanerJoyscontrol. MayFaithandHopestretchalltheirwings, Andbearmeuponhigh; AndasImountmayEarthlyThings, Belowunheededlie. JESUSmySaviourandmyGod, MyLifeandSacrifice, MyHopesdeepfoundedinthyBlood, Raisefarabovetheskies. Prepareme,Lord,forthyRightHand, ThencomethejoyfulDay: ComeDeath,andcomeCelestialband, TobearmySoulaway. FINIS xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

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