Seven Layer Model

Certification s Introduction Why the Seven Layer Model? How Encapsulation Works The Seven Layers: Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical Troubleshooting using the SevenLayer Model

Cisco

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Introduction

When we browse the Internet, a physical connection allows for us to connect to the internet, either through a modem or through an Ethernet card in the case of a Protocols dedicated connection. A TCP/IP stack allows us to pass traffic and resolve web sites to IP addresses. Finally, applications, such as Netscape and Eudora, allow us to see the web sites and receive our e-mail. Resources The modem or Ethernet function has 2 parts. The modem or Ethernet drivers provide the computer with a way to communicate with the hardware. The PPP connection, also known as Dial-up Networking, allows your computer to access the modem. These two components provide the basis of getting a connection to the Internet. Routers The TCP/IP stack allows the computer to pass traffic across the link to the Internet in a meaningful way. That is, the TCP/IP stack allows your computer to speak the same "language" as the equipment at the other end of your connection. The TCP/IP stack also allows you to resolve friendly host names, such as www.verio.net, into an IP SQL (Internet Protocol) address. Without the TCP/IP stack, we would be forced to go to each web site by it's IP address instead of a name!

Finally, the applications allow us to interact with friendly software to interpret HTML Security code into web pages for us, interact with mail servers to exchange e-mail, connect to news servers to retrieve and post news articles, and exchange data with FTP servers to allow us to download files. Without these programs, the Internet would be much more difficult to navigate through. Telecommu nications top

Why was it created?

The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:

Tools

y A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed. y Each layer should perform a well defined function. y The function of each layer should be chosen in accordance with developing
internationally standardized protocols.

Unix

y The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across
the interfaces.

y The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not
be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity, and small enough that

the architecture does not become unwieldy. Having a way of categorizing each factor in an internet connection makes it easier for Web us to do our jobs as troubleshooters. We all inherently understand that if the modem is not plugged in, you're not going to be able to get your e-mail. The OSI model allows us to follow that logic further: for mindterm example, if you can browse the web by IP but can't see websites by name, you know that the problem is not on the Network layer, but on the Transport layer. top

How Encapsulation Works

The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to communicate with their peer layers in other computer systems. This control information consists of specific requests and instructions that are exchanged between peer OSI layers. Control information typically takes one of two forms: Header- Headers are prepended to the data passed down from upper layers. Trailer- Trailers are appended to data passed down from upper layers.

Imagine that System A is requesting information from System B. System A makes an HTTP (Layer 7) request, which gets prepended with a header and appended with a footer. Layer 6 specifies whether it's a request for a GIF or an HTML document, and treats the Layer 7 header, data, and footer as its own data, prepending that with a header and appending it with a footer. The same treatment happens on Layer 5, and so on. System B receives the request on Layer 1, and begins the decapsulation process, stripping the Layer 1 headers and footers off to reveal the Layer 2 information, and so forth, all the way up to the 7th layer. top

Application

The application layer interacts with software applications (such as Netscape or Outlook Express) that implement a communicating component. Such application programs are outside of the scope of the OSI model, but they translate an enduser's typing into a Layer 7 request. Application layer functions typically include the following:

y Identifying communication partners - The application layer identifies and

determines the availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. y Determining resource availability - The application layer must determine whether sufficient network resources for the requested communication are available. y Synchronizing communication - Communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. Example: The Application layer is responsible for identifying that there is a web server answering on port 80 in order for HTTP communication to happen. top

Presentation
The presentation layer provides a variety of encoding and encryption functions that are applied to the application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent from the application layer of one system will be readable by the application layer of another system. Some examples of presentation layer encoding and encryption schemes follow:

y Conversion of character representation formats - Conversion schemes are used

to exchange information with systems using different text and data representations (such as EBCDIC and ASCII). y Common data representation formats -the use of standard image, sound, and video formats (like JPEG, MPEG, and RealAudio) allow the interchange of application data between different types of computer systems. y Common data compression schemes - The use of standard data compression schemes (like WinZip or GZip) allows data that is compressed at the source device to be properly decompressed at the destination. y Common data encryption schemes - The use of standard data encryption schemes allows data encrypted at the source device to be properly unencrypted at the destination. top

Session
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between presentation layer entities. Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. For example, SQL is a Session layer application that manages multiple queries to the SQL database. It's what allows multiple people to log in to, say, the Intranet at the same time.

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Transport
The transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport services that are transparent to upper layers. Transport layer functions typically include the following:

y Flow control - Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that
the transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving device can process. Sliding Window - This allows the receiving computer to dictate to the receiving end how many packets the receiver is capable of receiving at one time. Multiplexing - Multiplexing allows data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link. Virtual circuit management - Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport layer. Three-way handshake - The three-way handshake is a connection establishment protocol. First, host A sends a SYN segment to host B in order to check that host B gets ready for establishing a TCP connection. Second, when host B receives the SYN segment that host A sent and is ready to start the TCP session, it sends a SYN and ACK segment back to host A. This ACK advertises an arrival of the first SYN segment to host A. Finally, host A sends an ACK segment for the second SYN and ACK segment that host B sent. Error checking and recovery - Error checking mechanisms for detecting transmission errors. Error recovery involves taking an action (such as requesting that data be retransmitted) to resolve any errors that occur.

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The two most common Transport layer protocols are TCP and UDP. Common Transport Layer Ports 21 22 23 25 53 80 FTP SSH telnet SMTP DNS HTTP

110 POP3 143 IMAP 443 HTTPS A complete Port List top

Network
The network layer provides routing and related functions that allow multiple data links to be combined into an internetwork. This is accomplished by the logical addressing (as opposed to the physical addressing) of devices. The network layer supports both

connection-oriented and connectionless service from higher-layer protocols. Common protocols on the Network layer are BGP and OSPF. RIP is another Network layer protocol, but is not used on larger networks because of its inefficiency. top

Data Link
The data link layer is where the logical information (i.e., IP addresses) is translated into the actual electrical pulses that travel over the physical layer. Frame Relay, ATM, and DSL all work on the Data Link layer. Different data link layer specifications define different network and protocol characteristics, including the following:

y Physical addressing - Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing)

defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer.

y Network topology - Data link layer specifications often define how devices are
to be physically connected (such as in a bus or a ring topology).

y Error notification - Error notification involves alerting upper layer protocols that
a transmission error has occurred.

y Sequencing of frames - Sequencing of data frames involves the reordering of

frames that are transmitted out of sequence.

y Flow control - Flow control involves moderating the transmission of data so

that the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.

Logical Link Control Sub-layer The Logical Link Control (LCC) sublayer of the data link layer manages communications between devices over a single link of a network. LCC is defined in the IEEE 802.2 specification. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of fields in data link layer frames that allow multiple higher-layer protocols to share a single physical data link. LLC supports both connectionless and connection-oriented services used by higherlayer protocols. Media Access Control Sub-layer The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the data link layer manages protocol access to the physical network medium. The IEEE MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which allow multiple devices to uniquely identify one another at the data

link layer.

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Physical
The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between communicating network systems. Physical layer specifications define such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and the physical connectors to be used. Common examples of things that work on the Physical layer are Fiber Optic cables, CAT5 (ethernet) cables, and Copper Twisted Pair.

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Troubleshooting using the Seven-Layer Model

The key here is to think of the Internet like a giant Taco Bell seven-layer burrito...just kidding.

The whole point of the OSI model is to make our jobs easier through classification and dilineation of functions. Ultimately, the easiest way to use the seven-layer model is by figuring out what the user can do on the Net, then going up one layer and seeing if they can perform the functions that are supposed to be performed on that layer. For example:

y Is the router plugged in? What lights are on? If the router is not a) plugged in
to the electrical outlet and b) plugged in to the ISDN jack, the user won't be able to ping. y If the user can ping but can't browse the internet, can the user visit a website by IP address? If the user's TCP configurations are incorrect, they will obviously not be able to translate a name to IP address, and therefore, won't be able to get mail, either. Elementary.

Seven Layer Model Charts

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Introduction to Network Types

LAN, WAN and Other Area Networks

By Bradley Mitchell, About.com Guide

See More About:

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types of area networks local area networks wide area networks

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Computer Networks Wireless Networking LAN Wan LAN Networks Wireless Networks

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Are You a Fresher?Join Placement Oriented 4 Month IT Course Designed for Fresh GradsNIIT.com/IT-Training Network TroubleshootingCollect data and solve problems Track trace routes over timewww.pingplotter.com/networktroubles One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are:

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LAN - Local Area Network WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network WAN - Wide Area Network MAN - Metropolitan Area Network SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network PAN - Personal Area Network DAN - Desk Area Network

LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution. Note that these network types are a separate concept from network topologies such as bus, ring and star. See also - Introduction to Network Topologies LAN - Local Area Network A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet. In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring. WAN - Wide Area Network As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances. LAN, WAN and Home Networking Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the Internet WAN via an Internet Service Provider (ISP) using a broadband modem. The ISP provides a WAN IP address to the modem, and all of the computers on the home network use LAN (so-called private) IP addresses. All computers on the home LAN can communicate directly with each other but must go through a central gateway, typically a broadband router, to reach the ISP. Other Types of Area Networks While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types mentioned, you may also commonly see references to these others:

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Wireless Local Area Network - a LAN based on WiFi wireless network technology Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity such as a government body or large corporation. Campus Area Network - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business campus. Storage Area Network - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel. System Area Network - links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

Welcome To LAN MAN WAN

Welcome to LAN MAN WAN, the Internets only real-time online business Telecom quote tool! Use our free service to perform unbiased price research to find the best LAN MAN WAN service at the best possible price. Once you select a LAN MAN WAN plan that interests you, a member of our sales team will contact you to discuss the details of your LAN MAN WAN quote, confirm pricing, and assist you with the signup process. You can also call our toll free help line at (888) 765-8301 for live LAN MAN WAN assistance.

The Benefits Of Using MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

Technology is continually advancing in this modern world and almost every day, new technologies are innovated and released out of the market. Advancement of technology is visible in the field of computer networking. If Local Area Network was the only invention yesterday, it has already progressed to a higher version which is the Wide Area Network. To bridge the two types of network, one of the newest technologies today is MAN - Metropolitan Area Network. The Metropolitan Area Network is designed to connect networks in a metropolitan area, city, campus, community, etc. It is wider than the Local Area Network which can only be used in one building, floor or wide room. But, it is not as big as the Wide Area Network which goes beyond one area or city to another location. The coverage of Metropolitan area network in terms of geography is between LAN and WAN. MAN can cover several blocks and buildings depending on the communication channels of an area. It can reach from 5 to 50 kilometers in one area. The MAN may be used to connect several LAN in order to create a big network. That is why it is often used in business establishment that has several branches near each other. Universities and large campus also use the Metropolitan Area Network nowadays. To connect several Local Area Networks, MAN uses backbone line usually made up of fiber optic. Fiber optic runs in subway tunnels in order to connect the networks in an area using MAN. The advantage of using fiber optic is it can be replaceable with other types of fiber with higher quality. Fiber will be replaced once in a while as needed or there is need to upgrade to another advance type of network in the future. Some Metropolitan Area Network owners use infrared or radio laser links. It is because using cables may be expensive especially that it has to cover a couple of kilometers to link networks. The maximum distance that MAN can handle is 50 kilometers and a fiber optic cable this long will be very expensive to install. Those organizations or campuses using MAN with just few distances in between networks can use the cables. Using MAN is an advantage because it has high speed network access. It serves several protocols such as IEEE 802.6 Distributed Queue Dual Bus Defined (DQDB), IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless MAN

Standard (WIMAX), Asynchronous Transfer Mode Protocol (ATM) and many more. Among all protocols, the standard one used in MAN is the DQDB where it allows up to 30 kilometer distance between networks with speed of 34-155 Megabytes per second. Many companies, campuses and local governments are slowly switching to MAN - Metropolitan Area Network. This is because of the advantages that MAN offers and the convenience it brings to clients. Having small networks compounded into a large network such as in MAN provides security for the communication shared in between the networks

Difference in Hub, Switch, Bridge, & Router

Posted on November 20th, 2004 by Ryan

In an ethernet network there are 4 devices that from the the outside look very similar. In this article we will look at the difference between hubs, switches, bridges, and routers. Hub A hub is the simplest of these devices. Any data packet coming from one port is sent to all other ports. It is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for it. Imagine packets going through a hub as messages going into a mailing list. The mail is sent out to everyone and it is up to the receiving party to decide if it is of interest. The biggest problem with hubs is their simplicity. Since every packet is sent out to every computer on the network, there is a lot of wasted transmission. This means that the network can easily become bogged down. Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of data going across the network is never very high. Bridge A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the destination of the packet before sending. If the destination address is not on the other side of the bridge it will not transmit the data. A bridge only has one incoming and one outgoing port. To build on the email analogy above, the bridge is allowed to decide if the message should continue on. It reads the address bob@smith.com and

decides if there is a bob@smith.com on the other side. If there isnt, the message will not be transmitted. Bridges are typically used to separate parts of a network that do not need to communicate regularly, but still need to be connected. Switch A switch steps up on a bridge in that it has multiple ports. When a packet comes through a switch it is read to determine which computer to send the data to. This leads to increased efficiency in that packets are not going to computers that do not require them. Now the email analogy has multiple people able to send email to multiple users. The switch can decide where to send the mail based on the address. Most large networks use switches rather than hubs to connect computers within the same subnet. Router A router is similar in a switch in that it forwards packets based on address. But, instead of the MAC address that a switch uses, a router can use the IP address. This allows the network to go across different protocols. The most common home use for routers is to share a broadband internet connection. The router has a public IP address and that address is shared with the network. When data comes through the router it is forwarded to the correct computer. This comparison to email gets a little off base. This would be similar to the router being able to receive a packet as email and sending it to the user as a fax.

What is the different between hub, bridge, switch, and router in network devices? thx?

Best Answer - Chosen by Voters

A hub is simply a repeating device. It takes the signal it recieves and repeats it across all the ports it has. A bridge is used to link between two networks, wether they are of different types or just different networks. Therefor it has to make some decisions on where the information it is recieving is going. A switch works similiarly where it also makes decisions on where the data is going by reading a small portion of it (the destination address) and determines on which particular port to send it out. A router is the smartest of them all. It makes mutliple decisions based on where the packet is going and the quickest way to get there. It has the functionality of all the other devices including a bridge.

. What routing protocol uses cost as its metric? a. RIP b. EIGRP c. OSPF d. BGP

See an unfamiliar term? Look it up in our SearchNetworking.com glossary, courtesy of Whatis.com. 2. Which of these is an exterior gateway protocol (EGP)?
a. OSPF b. BGP c. RIP d. EIGRP 3. Which of these routing protocols would be used between Autonomous systems (InterAS)? a. OSPF b. RIP c. EIGRP d. BGP 4. Which routing protocol has a default administrative distance of 110? a. BGP b. OSPF c. RIP d. EIGRP e. Static 5. Which routing method is most trusted by a router?

a. BGP b. IGRP c. Static d. RIP e. OSPF 6. What is the process of sending routes from one routing protocol to another routing protocol? a. Redistribution b. Distribution c. Filtering d. Prepending e. Source routing 7. Which command tells RIP to send hellos, out an interface, to find neighbors and to advertise routes? a. hello b. network c. interface d. advertise e. neighbor 8. You want to filter inbound routes from an OSPF neighbor. Which command do you use? a. Distribute-list b. Route-list c. Prefix-list d. Filter-list 9. In BGP, OSPF and EIGRP, an internetwork under common administration is called what? a. Routing system b. Autonomous routing c. Routing domain d. Autonomous system 10. Which command do you use to prevent OSPF HELLO packets from going out of a configured interface? a. no network b. passive c. no advertise d. hello-off e. quiet 11. In OSPF, every router must have communications back to what? a. Area zero b. The root c. OSPF central d. Area one

12. Which of these routing protocols would be unavailable on a non-Cisco router? a. OSPF b. RIP c. EIGRP d. BGP 13. What type of OSPF router would connect an area that is not using OSPF? a. BDR b. ABR c. BR d. ASBR e. OSBR 14. A router receives two identical routes from different protocols. What route is put into the routing table? a. The route with the most trusted AD b. The best route c. The OSPF route d. Both routes 15. If RIP receives two similar routes to a network, which route is put into the routing table? a. The route with the most trusted administrative distance b. The most specific route c. The RIP version 2 route d. Both routes

ANSWERS 1. C (OSPF) 2. B (BGP) 3. D (BGP) 4. B (OSPF) 5. C (Static) 6. A (Redistribution) 7. B (Network) 8. A (Distribute-list) 9. D (Autonomous system) 10. B (Passive) 11. A (Area zero) 12. C (EIGRP) 13. D (ASBR) 14. A (The route with the most trusted AD) 15. B (The most specific route)

Routing Protocols Types (RIP, IGRP, OSPF, EGP, EIGRP, BGP, IS-IS) Protocols

Types of Routing Protocols

There are three major types of routing protocols.

Routing information protocols (RIP)

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a forceful protocol type used in local area network and wide area network. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) type is categorized interior gateway protocol within the use of distance vector algorithm. Routing information protocols defined in 1988. It also has version 2 and nowadays both versions are in use. Technically it is outdated by more sophisticated techniques such as (OSPF) and the OSI protocol IS-IS.

Interior gateway routing protocol (IGRP)

It is distance vector IGRP (Interior gateway Protocol) make-believe by Cisco. Router used it to exchange routing data within an independent system. Interior gateway routing protocol created in part to defeat the confines of RIP (Routing Information Protocol) in large networks. It maintains multiple metrics for each route as well as reliability, MTU, delay load, and bandwidth. The maximum hop of EIGRP is 255 and routing updates are transmitting 90 seconds. It measured in classful routing protocol, but it is less popular because of wasteful of IP address space.

Open shortest path first (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an active routing protocol used in internet protocol. Particularly it is a link state routing protocol and includes into the group of interior gateway protocol. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) operating inside a distinct autonomous system. The version 2 of Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) defined in 1998 for IPv4 then the OSPF version 3 in RFC 5340 in 2008. The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) most widely used in the network of big business companies.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

The absolute routing protocol for internet is exterior gateway protocol which is specified in 1982 by Eric C. EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol) initially expressed in RFC827 and properly specified in RFC 904 in 1984.The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is unlike distance vector and path vector protocol. It is a topology just like tree.

Enhanced interior gateway routing protocol (EIGRP)

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) based on their original IGRP while it is a Cisco proprietary routing protocol. It is a distance-vector routing protocol in advance within the optimization to lessen both the routing unsteadiness incurred after topology alteration, plus the use of bandwidth and processing power in the router which support enhanced interior gateway routing protocol will automatically reallocate route information to IGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) neighbors by exchanging the 32 bit EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) metric to the 24 bit IGRP metric. Generally optimization based on DUAL work from SRI which assured loop free operation and offer a means for speedy junction.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) are the core routing protocol of the internet and responsible to maintain a table of Internet protocol networks which authorize network reaching capability between AS. The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) expressed as path vector protocol. It doesnt employ conventional IGP metrics but making routing judgment based on path, network policies. It is created to replace the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) routing protocol to permit completely decentralized routing in order to permit the removal of the NSF Net which consent to internet to turn into a truly decentralized system. The fourth version of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)has been in use since 1994 and 4th version from 2006 .The 4 version RFC 4271 has many features such as it correct a lots of previous errors, illuminating vagueness and brought t the RFC much nearer to industry practice.

Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)is a great protocol used by network devices to determine the best way to promoted datagram from side to side a packet switched network and this process is called routing. It was defined in ISO/IEC 10589 2002 within the OSI reference design. Intermediate system-to-intermediate system (IS-IS) differentiate among levels such as level 1and level 2. The routing protocol can be changed without contacting the intra area routing protocol.

RIP version 1
The original specification of RIP, defined in RFC 1058,[4] uses classful routing. The periodic routing updates do not carry subnet information, lacking support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM). This limitation makes it impossible to have different-sized subnets inside of the same network class. In other words, all subnets in a network class must have the same size. There is also no support for router authentication, making RIP vulnerable to various attacks.The RIP version 1 works when there is only 16 hop counts(0-15).If there are more than 16 hops between two routers it fails to send data packets to the destination address.

[edit] RIP version 2

Due to the deficiencies of the original RIP specification, RIP version 2 (RIPv2) was developed in 1993[5] and last standardized in 1998.[6] It included the ability to carry subnet information, thus supporting Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To maintain backward compatibility, the hop count limit of 15 remained. RIPv2 has facilities to fully interoperate with the earlier specification if all Must Be Zero protocol fields in the RIPv1 messages are properly specified. In addition, a compatibility switch feature[6] allows fine-grained interoperability adjustments. In an effort to avoid unnecessary load on hosts that do not participate in routing, RIPv2 multicasts the entire routing table to all adjacent routers at the address 224.0.0.9, as opposed to RIPv1 which uses broadcast. Unicast addressing is still allowed for special applications. (MD5) authentication for RIP was introduced in 1997.[7][8] RIPv2 is Internet Standard STD56 (which is RFC 2453). Route tags were also added in RIP version 2. This functionality allows for routes to be distinguished from internal routes to external redistributed routes from EGP protocols.

A virtual local area network, virtual LAN or VLAN, is a group of hosts with a common set of requirements that communicate as if they were attached to the same broadcast domain, regardless of their physical location. A VLAN has the same attributes as a physical local area network (LAN), but it allows for end stations to be grouped together even if they are not located on the same network switch. LAN membership can be configured through software instead of physically relocating devices or connections. To physically replicate the functions of a VLAN, it would be necessary to install a separate, parallel collection of network cables and equipment which are kept separate from the primary network. However unlike a physically separate network, VLANs must share bandwidth; two separate one-gigabit VLANs using a single one-gigabit interconnection can both suffer reduced throughput and congestion. It virtualizes VLAN behaviors (configuring switch ports, tagging frames when entering VLAN, lookup MAC table to switch/flood frames to trunk links, and untagging when exit from VLAN.)

Uses
VLANs are created to provide the segmentation services traditionally provided by routers in LAN configurations. VLANs address issues such as scalability, security, and network management. Routers in VLAN topologies provide broadcast filtering, security, address summarization, and traffic flow management. By definition, switches may not bridge IP traffic between VLANs as it would violate the integrity of the VLAN broadcast domain. This is also useful if someone wants to create multiple layer 3 networks on the same layer 2 switch. For example, if a DHCP server is plugged into a switch it will serve any host on that switch that is configured to get its IP from a DHCP server. By using VLANs you can easily split the network up so some hosts won't use that DHCP server and will obtain link-local addresses, or obtain an address from a different DHCP server. VLANs are layer 2 constructs, compared with IP subnets which are layer 3 constructs. In an environment employing VLANs, a one-to-one relationship often exists between VLANs and IP subnets, although it is possible to have multiple subnets on one VLAN. VLANs and IP subnets provide independent Layer 2 and Layer 3 constructs that map to one another and this correspondence is useful during the network design process. By using VLANs, one can control traffic patterns and react quickly to relocations. VLANs provide the flexibility to adapt to changes in network requirements and allow for simplified administration

VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) is a Cisco proprietary Layer 2 messaging protocol that manages the addition, deletion, and renaming of Virtual Local Area Networks (VLAN) on a network-wide basis. Cisco's VLAN Trunk Protocol reduces administration in a switched network. When a new VLAN is configured on one VTP server, the VLAN is distributed through all switches in the domain. This reduces the need to configure the same VLAN everywhere. To do this, VTP carries VLAN information to all the switches in a VTP domain. VTP advertisements can be sent over ISL, 802.1q, IEEE 802.10 and LANE trunks. VTP is available on most of the Cisco Catalyst Family products.[1] The comparable IEEE standard in use by other manufacturers is GVRP or the more recent MVRP.

VTP Modes
VTP operates in one of three modes:

Server In this VTP mode you can create, remove, and modify VLANs. You can also set other configuration options like the VTP version and also turn on/off VTP pruning for the entire VTP domain. VTP servers advertise their VLAN configuration to other switches in the same VTP domain and synchronize their VLAN configuration with other switches based on messages received over trunk links. VTP server is the default mode. The VLANs information are stored on NVRAM and they are not lost after a reboot. Client VTP clients behave the same way as VTP servers, but you cannot create, change, or delete VLANs on the local device. Remember that even in VTP client mode, a switch will store the last known VTP information including the configuration revision number. Don t assume that a VTP client will start with a clean slate when it powers up.

Transparent When you set the VTP mode to transparent, then the switches do not participate in VTP. A VTP transparent switch will not advertise its VLAN configuration and does not synchronize its VLAN configuration based on received messages. VLANS can be created, changed or deleted when in transparent mode. In VTP version 2, transparent switches do forward VTP messages that they receive out of their trunk ports.

VTP sends messages between trunked switches to maintain VLANs on these switches in order to properly trunk. VTP messages are exchanged between switches within a common VTP domain. If the domain name is different, the switch simply ignores the packet. If the name is the same then it checks by a revision number. If the revision number of an update received on a client or server VTP switch is higher than the previous revision, then the new configuration is applied. Otherwise, the configuration is ignored. When new devices are added to a VTP domain, revision numbers should be reset on the entire domain to prevent conflicts. Utmost caution is advised when dealing with VTP topology changes, logical or physical. Exchanges of VTP information can be controlled by passwords. You need to put the same password on every switch for it to work

Spanning Tree Protocol

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The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a network protocol that ensures a loop-free topology for any bridged Ethernet local area network. The basic function of STP is to prevent bridge loops and ensuing broadcast radiation. Spanning tree also allows a network design to include spare (redundant) links to provide automatic backup paths if an active link fails, without the danger of bridge loops, or the need for manual enabling/disabling of these backup links. STP is a Data Link Layer protocol. It is standardized as IEEE 802.1D. As the name suggests, it creates a spanning tree within a mesh network of connected layer-2 bridges (typically Ethernet switches), and disables those links that are not part of the spanning tree, leaving a single active path between any two network nodes. STP is based on an algorithm invented by Radia Perlman while working for Digital Equipment Corporation.[1][2]

Understanding Spanning-Tree Protocol

Spanning-Tree Protocol is a link management protocol that provides path redundancy while preventing undesirable loops in the network. For an Ethernet network to function properly, only one active path can exist between two stations. Multiple active paths between stations cause loops in the network. If a loop exists in the network topology, the potential exists for duplication of messages. When loops occur, some switches see stations appear on both sides of the switch. This condition confuses the forwarding algorithm and allows duplicate frames to be forwarded. To provide path redundancy, Spanning-Tree Protocol defines a tree that spans all switches in an extended network. Spanning-Tree Protocol forces certain redundant data paths into a standby (blocked) state. If one network segment in the Spanning-Tree Protocol becomes unreachable, or if Spanning-Tree Protocol costs change, the spanning-tree algorithm reconfigures the spanning-tree topology and reestablishes the link by activating the standby path. Spanning-Tree Protocol operation is transparent to end stations, which are unaware whether they are connected to a single LAN segment or a switched LAN of multiple segment.