Introduction To Telecommunication Laboratory

6 FM Modulators
6.1 Objectives
Studying the operation and the chracteristics of varactor diode. Understanding the operation of the voltage controlled oscillator. Implementing a frequecy modulator with voltage-controled oscillator.

6.2 Discussion
Principle of Frequnecy Modulation Operation Frequnecy modulation (FM) is a process in which the carrier frequecy is varied by the amplitude of the modulating signal (i.e, intelligent signal). The FM signal can be expressed by the following equation: t xFM ( t ) = Ac cos ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + 2 f x ( ) d (6.1) If x ( ) = Am cos ( 2 f m ) , then

f A xFM ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + m sin ( 2 f mt ) fm = Ac cos 2 f c t + sin ( 2 f mt )

Where ( t ) = instantaneous modulate frequency f c = carrier frequency f m = modulating frequency

(6.2)

= modulating index = Am ( f f m )
The frequency of FM signal xFM(t) may be expressed as 1 d 1 d 2 f c t + sin ( 2 f mt ) f = (t ) = 2 dt 2 dt = f c f m cos ( 2 f mt )

(6.3)

From Eq. (6-3) we can find that the frequency of modulated signal occurs frequency deviation from the center frequency of the carrier when the intelligence amplitude is variation.

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Varactor Diode The varactor diode, sometimes called tuning diode, is the diode whose capacitance is proportional to the amount of the reverse bias voltage across p-n junction. Increasing the reverse bias voltage applied across the diode decreases the capacitance due to the depletion region width becomes wider. Conversely, when the reverse bias voltage decreased, the depletion region width becomes narrower and the capacitance increased. When an ac voltage is applied across the diode, the capacitance varies with the change of the amplitude.

Fig. 6-1 Relationship between varactor diode and capacitor A relationship between a varactor diode and a conventional capacitor is shown in Fig. 6-1. In fact, a reverse-biased varactor diode is similiar to a capacitor. When a p and n semiconductors combined together, a small depletion region is formed because of the diffusion of minory carries. The positive and negative charges occupy n and p sides of junction, respectively. This just likes a capacitor. The amount of internal junction capacitance can be calculated by the capacitance formula. A C= (6.4) d Where = 11.8 0 = dielectric constant

o = 8.85 1012
A = cross area of capacitor d = width of depletion region

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From the formula above, we know that the varactor capacitance is inversely proportional to the width of depletion region (or the distance between plates) if the area A is constant. Therefore, a small reverse voltage will produce a small depletion region and a large capacitance. In other words, an increase in reverse bias will result in a large depletion region and a small capacitance.

Fig.6-2 The equivalent circuit of varactor diode A varactor diode can be considered as a capacitor and resistor connected in series as shown in Fig. 6-2. The Cj is the junction capacitance between p and n junctions. The Rs is the sum of bulk resistance and contact resistance, approximately several ohms, and it is an important parameter determining the quality of varactor diode. Tuning ratio (TR) is defined as the ratio of the capacitance of varactor diode at the reverse voltage V2 to that another reverse voltage V1 and can be expressed by C (6.5) TR = v 2 Cv1 Where TR = tuning ratio Cv1 = capacitance of varactor diode at V1. CV2 = capacitance of varactor diode at V2. The 1SV55 varactor diode is used in our experments and its major charcacteristics are C3V = 42pF (capacitance of varactor diode at 3V) TR = 2.65 (at 3V~30V) Frequency Modulator Based on MC1648VCO In our experiments we will implement the frequency modulator with MC1648 VCO chip shown in Fig. 6-3. Basically, this circuit is an oscillator and the tuning circuit at input end determines its oscillating frequency. In this circuit, capacitors C2 and C3 are the bypass capacitors for filtering noise. When operating at a high frequency (for example 2.4 MHz) the capacitive reactance of these two capacitors are very small and can be neglected for practical purposes. Therefore, an ac equivalent circuit of tuning tank, shown in Fig. 6-4, is a paralel

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LC resonant circuit. The C can be considered as the capacitance of 1SV55 (Cd) and the input capacitance of MC1648 (Cin) connected in parallel. The value of Cin is approximately 6pF. If we neglect the spray capacitance, the oscillating frequency can be calculated by the formula. 1 1 (6.6) fo = = Hz 2 LC 2 L(Cd + 6 1012 )

Fig. 6-3 MC1648 FM modulator circuit As mentioned above, the capacitance Cd of varactor diode D1 varies with the amount of its reverse bias voltage. According to Eq. (6-6), we know that the change of Cd value will cause the change of oscillating frequency. In the circuit of Fig. 6-3, a small dc bias will produce a large Cd value and a low frequency output. On the other hand, an increase in dc bias will result in a small Cd value and a high frequency output. Therefore, if the bias is fixed and an audio signal is applied to this input, the VCO output signal will be a frequency-modulated signal.

Fig. 6-4 AC Equivalent circuit of tuning tank

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Frequency Modulator Based on LM566 VCO The circuit of Fig. 6-5 is a frequency modulator based on voltage-controlled oscillator(VCO) IC, LM566. If the SW1 is open, this circuit is a typical VCO whose output frequency is determined by the values of C3 and VR1, and the audio input voltage. If the values of C3 and VR1 are fixed, the output frequency is directly proportional to the voltage difference between pins 8 and 5, (V8-V5). In other words, an increase in audio input voltage (V5) causes a decrease in the value of (V8-V5) and a decrease in the output frequency. Conversely, decreasing the audio input voltage (V5) will cause the output frequency to increase. As discussed above the values of C3 and VR1 can also determine the output frequency, which is inversly proportional to the product of VR1 and C3. that is, the greater the VR1xC3 value the lower the output frequency.

Fig. 6-5 LM566 frequency modulator circuit If the SW1 is closed, the voltage divider constructed by R1 and R2 provides a dc level to the audio input (pin5). By adjusting the VR1, we can easily tune the VCO center frequency f0. When an audio signal is applied to the audio input, the output frequency will generate frequency deviations around f0 in the variations of audio amplitude. Thus, a freuency-modulated signal is obtained.

6.3 Experiment Equipments

Module KL-92001 Module KL-93004 Oscilloscope

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6.4 Procedures
Procedure 1- MC1648 Characteristic Measurements 1. Locate the MC1648 FM modulator circuit on Module KL-93004. Insert the connect plug in J2 to set the inductor to L1 (100H). 2. Connect a 3Vdc to dc bias input (I/P2) and observe the output waveform using the oscilloscope. Adjust the VR1 until a sine wave appears at athe output and record the frequency in Table 6-1 3. Repeat step 2 for other dc voltages listed in Table 6-1. 4. Using the results af Table 6-1, plot frequency vs. voltage curve Fig.6-6. Procedure 2- MC1648 Frequency Modulator 1. Insert connect plugs in J1 and J2 to reserve-bias the varactor 1SV55 at 5V and L1=100H. Under these conditions, the output frequency will be center frequency f0. 2. Connect a 2Vpp, 3 kHz sine wave of to the audio input (I/P1) and observe the output waveform using the oscillospe. Adjust VR1 until a sine wave apperars at the output. 3. Repat step 3 for audio frequency of 5 kHZ. Note: Since the frequenciy difference between the carrier and the modulated signals is too large to observe an vident variation in time domain on the oscilloscope, therefore we recommend the use of the frequency analyzer in such a case. Procedure 3- LM566 Characteristic Measurements 1. Locate the LM566 Modulator circuit on Module KL-93004. Insert the connect plug in J2 to set the capacitor to C3 (0.1 F). 2. Connect a 3.6Vdc to the voltage input (pin5) and adjust the VR1 to abtain an output frequency of 2kHz. This frequency is the center frequency f0. 3. Change the dc voltages at pin 5 to 2.7V, 3.0V, 3.3V, 3.9V, 4.2V and 4.5V sequentially. Observe the output frequencies corresponding to the dc voltage inputs and record the results in Table 6-3. 4. Using the results of Table 6-3, plot the frequency vs. Voltage curve in Fig. 6-7.

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Procedure 4- LM566 Frequency Modulator 1. Locate the LM566 FM Modulator circuit on Module KL-93004. Insert connect plugs in J1 and J3 to set the capacitor to C4 (0.01 F). Turn the VR1 to get the output frequency of 20kHz. 2. Connect a 500mVp-p, 1 kHz sine wave to the audio input (I/P1). Using the oscilloscope, observe the output waveform (O/P) and record the result in Table 6-4. 3. Change the audio frequency to 3 kHz sequentially. Observe the output waveforms corresponding to the audio inputs and record the results in Table 6-4. 4. Change the audio input to a 1Vp-p, 1kHZ sine wave. Observe the output waveform and record the result in Table 6-5. 5. Change the audio frequency to 3kHz sequentially. Observe the output waveforms corresponding to the audio inputs and record the results in Table 6-5.

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6.5 Results
Table 6-1 DC Bias 3 Input (V) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Output Frequency (MHz)

Frequency (MHz)

DC Bias (V)

Table 6-2 (Vm=2V) Input Frequency

Fig. 6-6

Input Waveform

3 kHz

5kHz

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Table 6-3 (C3=0.1F; f0=2kHz) Input voltage (V) Output Frequency (kHz) 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5

Frequency (KHz)

Input Voltege (V)

Table 6-4 (Vm=500mVp-p, C3=0.01F; f0=20kHz) Input Input Frequency Waveform

Fig. 6-7

1 kHz

3 kHz

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Table 6-5 (Vm=1Vp-p, C3=0.01F; f0=20kHz) Input Input Frequency Waveform

1 kHz

3 kHz

6.6 Questions
1. If the inductance in the tank circuit of Fig. 6-3 is 80nH and we wish to get a resonance frequnecy of 100MHz, what capacitance value of varactor diode should be? 2. Examining the Frequency vs. Voltage curve of Fig. 6-6, which portion on the curve is suitable for implementing a frequency modulator? 3. Reviewing the circuit of Fig. 6-5, what is the function of R1 and R2 when SW1 is closed?

Before you leave the lab;

Turn off the power to all the equipment. Disassemble the circuit and place the Small components in the plastic tray. Straighten up your lab station.

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7 FM Demodulators
7.1 Objectives

Studying the principle of phase-locked loop. Understanding the characteristics of the PLL LM565. Demodulating FM signal using PLL. Demodulating FM signal using FM to AM conversion discriminator.

7.2 Discussion
Frequency demodulator, also called frequency discriminator, is a circuit, which converts instantaneous frequency variations to linear voltage changes. There are many types of circuit used in communication systems such as FM to AM conversion, balanced, and phase-shift discriminators and phase-locked loop (PLL) frequency demodulator. In this experiment we will intoduce the operations of PLL frequency demodulator and FM to AM conversion discriminator. Phase- Locked Loop (PLL) operation The PLL is an electric feedback control sysytem, as illustrated by the block diagram in Fig. 7-1, of locking the output and input signals in good agreements in both frequency and phase. In radio communication, if a carrier frequency drifts due to transmission, the PLL in receiver circuit will track the carrier frequency automatically.

Fig. 7-1 PLL block diagram The PLL in the following experiments is used in two different ways: (1) as a demodulator, where it is used to follow phase or frequency modulation and (2) to track a carrier signal which may vary in frequency with time. In general, a PLL circuit includes the following sections: Phase Dedector (PD) Low Pass Filter(LPF)

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Voltage Controlled Oscillator(VCO)

The phase dedector within the PLL locks at its two inputs and develops an output that is zero if these two input frequencies are identical. If the two input frequencies are not identical, then the output of dedector, when passed through the low-pass filter removing the ac components, is a dc level applied to the VCO input. This action closes the feedback loop since the dc level applied to the VCO input changes the VCO output frequency in an attempt to make it exactly match the input frequency. If the VCO output frequency equals the input frequency, the PLL has achieved lock, and the control voltage will be zero for as long as the PLL input frequency remains constant. The parameter of PLL shown in Fig. 7-1 are as follows: Kd = phase dedector gain in volts/radian Ka = amplifier gain in volt/volt Ko = VCO gain in kHz/volt Kl = KdKaKo = closed loop gain in kHz/volt

Fig. 7-2 Phase Dedection A better understanding of the operation of phase dedector may be obtained by considering that simple EXCULSIVE-OR (XOR) gate is used as a phase dedector. The XOR gate can be thought of an inequality dedector which compares the inputs and produces a pulse output when these inputs are unequal. The width of the output pulse is proportional to the phase error of the input signals. As shown

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in Fig. 7-2, the width of the output pulse of (b) is larger than that of (a) and is smaller than that of (c). When the output of phase dedector is applied to the input of low-pass filter, the output of low-pass filter should be a dc level that is directly proportional to the pulse width. In order words, the output dc level is proportional to the phase error of input signals. Fig. 7-2(d) shows the relationship between the input phase error and the output dc level.

Fig. 7-3 Operation of frequency locking For a further understanding of the operation of the PLL can be obtained by considering that initially the PLL is not lock. The VCO has an input voltage of 2V and is running at its free-running frequency, say 1kHz. Consider the signals shown in Fig. 7-3. If the VCO frequency and the signal A with the lower frequency 980Hz are applied to the inputs of the phase dedector XOR, the narrower width of output pulse will cause the low-pass filter obtaining the smaller output voltage 1V. This smaller voltage decreases the VCO frequency close to the input frequency. If the VCO output frequency equals the input frequency, lock will result. On the contrary, the higher frequency 1.2kHZ of input signal B causes the larger filter output of 3V that increases the VCO frequency output to lock at the input frequency. LM252 PLL Basic Characteristics The LM565 is a general-purpose phase-locked loop and is widely used in frequency demodulation. In designing with the LM565, the importamt parameters of interest are as follows: 1- Free running Frequency Fig. 7-4 shows a PLL circuit with LM565. In the absence of the input signal, the output frequency of the VCO is called free-running frequency f0. In the PLl circuit of Fig. 7-4, the free-running frequency of LM565 is determined by the time components C2 and VR1, and can be found by 1 Free running frequency f o = (7.1) 3.7VR1C2

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Closed loop gain K L = K d K a K o = 33.6 f o Vc

(7.2)

Where Vc = total supply voltage to circuit = Vcc ( Vcc ) = 5V ( 5V ) = 10V

Fig. 7-4 LM565 PLL 2- Lock Range Initially, the PLL is in already-locked state and the VCO is running at some frequency if the input frequency fi is away from the VCO frequency f0, locking may still occur. When the input frequency reaches a specific frequency where the PLL loses lock, the frequency difference of fi and f0 is called the lock tange of the loop. The lock range of LM565 can be found by 8f (7.3) fL = 0 Vc 3- Capture Range Initially, the loop is unlocked and the VCO is running at some frequency. If the input frequency fi is close to the VCO frequency f0, unlocking may maintain. When the input frequency reaches a specific frequency where PLL locks, the frequency difference of fi and f0 is called the capture range of the loop. The capture range of LM565 can be found by 2 f L 1 (7.4) fc = 3.6 103 C 2 2

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Fig. 7-5 Illustration of lock and capture ranges Frequency Demodulator Based on LM565 PLL The PLL circuit of Fig. 7-4 can be used as a frequency demodulator. When the input signal increases in frequency, the output signal decreases in voltage. Inversely, if the input signal decreases in frequency, the output signal will increase in voltage. The VCO circuit of the LM565 is equivalent to that of the LM566. the freerunning frequency f0 of the VCO is determined by the values of external components C2 and VR1. The internal resistor 3.6k (pin7) and the external capacitor C3 form a low-pass filter. The capacitor C4 connected between pins 7 and 8 is a frequency compensation capacitor. FM-to-AM Conversion Discriminator Fig. 7-6 shows the blocks of FM to AM discriminator. The input FM signal is first converted into AM signal by the differentiator, and then the output AM signal is demodulated by the envelope dedector to recover the original audio signal.

Fig. 7-6 Block diagram of the FM-to-AM conversion discriminator In Fig. 7-6, if input signal xFM ( t ) is
t xFM ( t ) = Ac cos ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + 2 f x ( ) d

(7.5)

Then the differentiator output will be

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x = Ac ( t ) sin ( t ) FM = 2 Ac f c + f x ( t ) sin ( t ) + 180

(7.6)

' From the Eq. (7-6) above, the amplitude of x FM (t) signal vary with the ' variation of x(t) amplitude. Thus the x FM (t) signal is an amplitude modulated

signal. If this AM signal passes through an envelope dedector, the audio signal will be recovered. The circuit of Fig. 7-7 is a frequency discriminator with FM-to-AM conversion technique. The components U1, C1, C2, R1 and R2, operate as a differentiator. The inverting amplifier U2 with gain of R4/R3, and the AM peak dedector icluding D1, R5, R6, C4 and C5. The coupling capacitor C6 is used to block the dc level.

Fig. 7-7 FM to AM conversion discriminator circuit

Fig. 7-8 Frequency response of bandpass filter Excepting various frequency demodulators mentioned above, LC bandpass filters are popular available in the use of frequency demodulation in ultrahigh and microwave frequency ranges. Fig. 7-8 shows the response of the bandpass filter.

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The linear portion on the curve where the voltage variaton is proportional to the frequency variation meets the requirement of a discriminator.

7.3 Experiment Equipments

Module KL-92001 Module KL-93004 Oscilloscope

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7.4 Procedures
Procedure 1- LM565 PLL Characteristic Measurements 1. Locate the LM565 PLL circuit on Module KL-93004. Insert the connect plug in J2 to set the capacitor to C2 (0.1F) 2. Adjust the VR1 to abtain the maximum free-running frequency foh and the minimum free-running frequency fol at LM565 pin 4 (O/P). Record the results in Table 7-1. 3. Adjust the VR1 to abtain the VCO free-running frequency f0=2kHz. 4. Insert the connect plug in J1. connect a 0.5Vp-p, 2kHz square wave to the input (I/P). 5. Observe the PLL input (I/P) and the VCO output (pin 4) signals and slowly increase the input frequency until the output signal just unlocks. Record the input frequency as fLh in Table 7-1. 6. Return the input frequency to the free-running frequency f0 of VCO. Slowly decrease the input frequency until the output signal just unlocks and record the input frequency as fLl in Table 7-1. 7. Using the equation fL=(fLh-fL)/2, calculate the lock range. 8. Incerase the input frequency to force the VCO output unlocked. Slowly decrease the input frequency until the PLL just locks. Observe the input frequency fCh and record the result in Table 7-1. 9. Decrease the input frequency to force the VCO output unlocked. Slowly increase the input frequency until the PLL just locks. Observe the input frequency fCl and record the result in Table 7-1. 10. Using the equation fc=(fCh-fC)/2, calculate the capture range. Procedure 2- LM565 V-F Characteristic Measurements 1. Locate the LM565 PLL circuit on Module KL-93004. Insert the connect plug in J2 to set the capacitor to C2 (0.1F) 2. Remove the connect plug from J1. Turn the VR1 to get a free-running frequency f0 of 2kHz at VCO output (pin4). 3. Reinsert the connect plug in J1. 4. Connect a 0.5Vp-p, 2kHz square wave to the input (I/P). Measure and record the output voltage of LM565 (O/P) in Table 7-2. 5. Change the input frequencies of 0.5kHz, 1kHz, 1.5kHz, 2.5kHz, 3kHz and 3.5kHz sequentially and measure the output voltages corresponding to the input frequencies. Record the results in Table 7-2. 6. Plot output voltages vs. input frequency curve in Fig. 7-9.

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Procedure 3- PLL Frequency Demodulator 1. Locate the LM566 Modulator circuit on Module KL-93004. Insert the connect plugs in J1 and J3 to set the capacitor to C4 (0.01 F). Turn the VR1 to get the output free-running frequency f0 of 20kHz. 2. Complete LM565 PLL circuit by inserting the connect plug in J3 to set the capacitor to C5 (0.01 F). Turn the VR1 to get the output free-running frequency f0 of 20kHz at VCO output. (pin4) 3. Connect the LM566 FM modulator output to the LM565 PLL circuit input, and insert connect plug in J1. 4. Connect 300mVp-p, 1kHz sine wave to the input of LM566 FM modulator. Using the oscilloscope, observe the output waveform of LM565 PLL circuit and record the result in Table 7-3. Procedure 4- FM to AM Frequency Demodulator

1. Locate the MC1648 FM Modulator circuit on Module KL-93004. Insert connect plugs in J1 and J3 to set the inductor to L1 (220 H) and the 1SV55 varactor operating at 5V. 2. Connect a 2Vp-p, 1 kHz sine wave to the input (I/P1). Turn the VR1 to get the output amplitude of 600 mVp-p. 3. Connect the output of MC1648 FM modulator to the input of FM to AM Discriminator Circuit on the lower of Module KL-93004. 4. Using the osciloscope, observe and record the input and output waveforms of frequency demodulator in Table 7-4.

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7.5 Results
Table 7-1 C f0 Free-running Frequency Range fOh fOl Lock Range fL fLh fLl Capture Range fc fCh fCl

C2 0.1F

Hz 2kHz Hz Hz

Hz

Hz

Hz

fL =

Hz

fC =

Hz

Table 7-2 (Vm=0.5Vpp, fo=2kHz, C2=0.1uF) Input Frequency (kHz) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Output Voltage (V)

Fig. 7-9

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Table 7-3 (Vm=300mVp-p, f0=20kHz) Audio Input Frequency Waveform 1 kHz

Output Waveform

Table 7-4 (Vm=2Vp-p) Audio Frequency 1 kHz

Input Waveform

Output Waveform

7.6 Questions
4. Examining the results of experiment 7-1, could you find that the VCO frequency would be when the input frequencies of LM565 were outside its lock range? 5. Comparing the lock range with the lock range of LM565, which is the wider? 6. State the function of capacitor C3 in the circuit of Fig. 7-4. If replacing the C3 (0.1 F) by a 0.01 F capacitor, what is the cjange of the output signal (pin7) of LM565? 7. If a low pass filter is externally connected to the output of LM565 frequency demodulator, does the demodulated signal become smoother?

Before you leave the lab;

Turn off the power to all the equipment. Disassemble the circuit and place the Small components in the plastic tray. Straighten up your lab station. Report any problems or suggest improvements to your TA.

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