InTech-Pattern Recognition Methods For Improvement of Differential Protection in Power Transformers

Pattern recognition methods for improvement of differential protection in power transformers 473
X

Pattern recognition methods for
improvement of differentiaI
protection in power transformers

Alouzar Rahnali
8QLYHUVLW\2I,ODP
,UDQ

1. Introduction

DifferenliaI proleclion vas aIreadv appIied lovards lhe end of lhe 19
lh
cenlurv, and vas one
of lhe firsl proleclion svslens ever used.
IauIls are delecled lv conparison of lhe currenls fIoving inlo and oul of lhe prolecled pIanl
ilen. As a resuIl of lhe fasl lripping vilh alsoIule seIeclivilv il is suiled as nain proleclion
of aII inporlanl ilens of pIanl, i.e. generalors, lransforners, luslars as veII as calIes and
overhead Iines and feeders al aII voIlage IeveIs.
The pover lransforner proleclion is of crilicaI inporlance in pover svslens. Since
nininizalion of frequencv and duralion of unvanled oulages is verv desiralIe lhere is a
high denand inposed on pover lransforner proleclive reIavs. This incIudes lhe
requirenenls of dependaliIilv associaled vilh no naI-operalions, securilv associaled vilh
no faIse lripping, and operaling speed associaled vilh shorl fauIl cIearing line.
One of lhe nain concerns in differenliaI proleclion of lhis parlicuIar conponenl of pover
svslens Iies in lhe accurale and rapid discrininalion of nagnelizing inrush currenl fron
differenl inlernaI fauIls currenls. This is lecause lhe nagnelizing inrush currenl, vhich
occurs during lhe energizing lhe lransforner, generaIIv resuIls in severaI lines fuII Ioad
currenl and lherefore can cause naI-operalion of lhe reIavs. Such naI-operalion of
differenliaI reIavs can affecl lolh lhe reIialiIilv and slaliIilv of lhe vhoIe pover svslen.
The principIe of differenliaI proleclion is iniliaIIv descriled in lhis chapler. SulsequenlIv
differenl proleclion schenes are covered in lhe nexl seclions. Al Iasl an aIgorilhn lased on
pallern recognilion of currenl signaIs using vaveIel lransforn vhich is a pover signaI
processing looI is proposed.

2. Mode of operation of differentiaI protection

The differenliaI proleclion is 1OO seIeclive and lherefore onIv responds lo fauIls vilhin ils
prolecled zone. The loundarv of lhe prolecled one is uniqueIv defined lv lhe Iocalion of lhe
currenl lransforners. Due lo sinpIe currenl conparison, lhe principIe of differenliaI
proleclion is verv slraighl forvard.
26
Pattern Recognition 474

Ceneralors, nolors and lransforners are oflen prolecled lv differenliaI proleclion, as lhe
high sensilivilv and fasl operalion is ideaIIv suiled lo nininize danage. On feeders lhe
differenliaI proleclion is nainIv used lo prolecl calIes, parlicuIarIv on shorl dislances vhere
dislance proleclion cannol le readiIv appIied.
The prine oljeclive of luslar differenliaI proleclion is fasl, zone seIeclive cIearance of
luslar fauIls lo prevenl Iarge svslen oulages and lo ensure svslen slaliIilv. MaI-operalion
nusl le avoided al aII cosl as lhese couId resuIl in exlensive suppIv inlerruplion.

3. PrincipIes of differentiaI protection

The lasic principIes vhich have leen knovn for decades are sliII appIicalIe and
independenl of lhe specific device lechnoIogv.
The differenliaI proleclion conpares lhe neasured vaIues of signaIs vilh regard lo
nagnilude and phase. This is possilIe lv direcl conparison of inslanlaneous vaIues or lv
veclor (phasor) conparison. In each case lhe neasurenenl is lased on Kirchhoffs Iavs
vhich slale lhal lhe geonelric (veclor) sun of lhe currenls enlering or Ieaving a node nusl
add up lo O al anv poinl in line. The convenlion used in lhis conlexl slales lhal lhe currenls
fIoving inlo lhe prolecled zone are posilive, vhiIe lhe currenls Ieaving lhe prolecled zone
are negalive. The currenl differenliaI proleclion is lhe sinpIesl and nosl frequenlIv appIied
forn of differenliaI proleclion. The neasuring principIe is shovn in Iig. 1. X is lhe vinding
of lhe prolecled nachine. The reIav conpares an operaling currenl vilh a reslraining
currenl. The operaling currenl (aIso caIIed differenliaI currenl), , and lhe reslraining
currenl, , are ollained as leIov:

Iig. 1. DifferenliaI reIav conneclion diagran

When lhere is no inlernaI fauIl, lhe currenl enlering in X is equaI in phase and nagnilude lo
currenl Ieaving X. The CTs are of such a ralio lhal during lhe nornaI condilions or for
exlernaI fauIls (Trough fauIls) lhe secondarv currenls of CTs are equaI. The reIav generales
a lripping signaI if lhe operaling currenl, , is grealer lhan a percenlage of lhe reslraining
currenl, ,, according lo:


vhere K is lhe reIav operaling characlerislic, lhal consisls of a slraighl Iine having a sIope
equaI lo K. Inlerseclion of lhis characlerislic vilh verlicaI axis ( ) define lhe reIav nininun
pickup currenl, . The reIav percenlage reslrainl characlerislic lvpicaIIv has an exceIIenl
lehavior, lul il has prolIens discrininaling fauIl currenls fron faIse differenliaI currenls
caused lv nagnelizing inrush and lransforner over excilalion.

4. Main difficuIt in differentiaI protection

DifferenliaI proleclion is eslalIished as lhe nain proleclion for lransforner due lo ils sinpIe
principIe of operalion and sensilivilv. Hovever, a kev prolIen of differenliaI proleclion is
accurale and rapid discrininalion of nagnelizing inrush currenl fron an inlernaI fauIl
currenl.
IniliaI nagnelizing due lo svilching a lransforner in is considered lhe nosl severe case of
an inrush. When a lransforner is de-energized (svilched-off), lhe nagnelizing voIlage is
laken avav, lhe nagnelizing currenl goes lo zero vhiIe lhe fIux foIIovs lhe hvsleresis Ioop
of lhe core. This resuIls in cerlain renanenl fIux Iefl in lhe core. When, aflervards, lhe
lransforner is re-energized lv an aIlernaling sinusoidaI voIlage, lhe fIux lecones aIso
sinusoidaI lul liased lv lhe renanence. The residuaI fIux nav le as high as 8O-9O of lhe
raled fIux, and lherefore, il nav shifl lhe fIux-currenl lrajeclories far alove lhe knee-poinl of
lhe characlerislic resuIling in lolh Iarge peak vaIues and heavv dislorlions of lhe
nagnelizing currenl.
Iigure 2 shovs a lvpicaI inrush currenl. The vaveforn dispIavs a Iarge and Iong Iasling dc
conponenl, is rich in harnonics, assunes Iarge peak vaIues al lhe leginning (up lo 3O lines
lhe raled vaIue), decavs sulslanliaIIv afler a fev lenlhs of a second, lul ils fuII decav occurs
onIv afler severaI seconds (lo lhe nornaI excilalion IeveI of 1-2 of lhe raled currenl).

Iig. 2. TvpicaI inrush currenl

Il is evidenl lhal reIaving proleclion shouId le inilialed in response lo inlernaI fauIl lul nol
lo inrush currenl. To avoid lhe needIess lrip lv nagnelizing inrush currenl, nanv differenl
reslrain nelhods are proposed in recenl vears.
Since lhe nagnelizing lranch represenling lhe core appears as a shunl eIenenl in lhe
lransforner equivaIenl circuil, lhe nagnelizing currenl upsels lhe laIance lelveen lhe
currenls al lhe lransforner lerninaIs, and is lherefore experienced lv lhe differenliaI reIav
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (sec)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
0
100
200
300
400
500

as a faIse differenliaI currenl. The reIav, hovever, nusl renain slalIe during inrush
condilions. In addilion, fron lhe slandpoinl of lhe lransforner Iife-line, lripping-oul during
inrush condilions is a verv undesiralIe silualion (lreaking a currenl of a pure induclive
nalure generales high overvoIlage lhal nav jeopardize lhe insuIalion of a lransforner and
le an indirecl cause of an inlernaI fauIl).

5. The proposed schemes for differentiaI protection

5.1 Recognition of type of signaIs using Fourier Transform
Magnelizing inrush currenl generaIIv conlains a Iarge second harnonic conponenl in
conparison lo an inlernaI fauIl. As a resuIl convenlionaI lransforner proleclion svslens are
designed lo lIock during inrush lransienls lv lhis Iarge second harnonic. The ralio of lhe
second harnonic of differenliaI currenl in excess of a presel lhreshoId is inlerpreled as a
presenl of nagnelizing inrush.
Lel us caIcuIale lhe harnonic conponenl of a lvpicaI inrush currenl vaveforn. We viII
assune a sinpIified vaveforn for lhe inrush currenl. Lel lhe nagnelizing characlerislic le a
verlicaI Iine in lhe pIane, and le a slraighl Iine vilh a finile sIope in lhe saluraled
region. This nakes lhe currenl vaveforn of Iigure 3 acquire lhe shape shovn in Iigure 4.

Iig. 3. Magnelizing currenl during energizing of a lransforner

Iig. 4. IdeaIized inrush currenl vaveforn

The fIux in lhe core is alove lhe saluralion knee poinl for a lolaI anguIar span of
radians, and lhe corresponding currenl is a porlion of a sine vave. Ior lhe renainder of lhe
i
I
t
inrush
current
I(t)
I-i curve
0 S D 2S
m
(1-cos D)

period, lhe currenl is zero. AIlhough lhis is an approxinalion, il is quile cIose lo an acluaI
nagnelizing currenl vaveforn. We nav use Iourier series anaIvsis lo caIcuIale lhe
harnonics of lhis currenl. Consider lhe origin lo le al lhe cenler of a currenl puIse, as shovn
in Iigure 4. Then, lhe approxinalion for lhe currenl vaveforn is:

Since lhis choice of lhe origin gives a svnnelric vaveforn aloul , ve nav use lhe
cosine Iourier series for lhe currenl. The n
lh
harnonic is given lv:

The peak of lhe currenl vave is , and lhe fundanenlaI frequencv conponenl
is given lv:

The reIalive nagnilude of various harnonic conponenls vilh respecl lo lhe fundanenlaI
frequencv conponenl, as caIcuIaled fron equalion (4) and (5), is laluIaled in TalIe 1 up lo
lhe 13
lh
harnonic, and for saluralion angIes of and . Il shouId le noled lhal
vhen lhe saluralion angIe is lhere are no odd harnonics presenl. As lhe angIe of
saluralion increases, lhe harnonic conlenl decreases: indeed, if lecones lhere viII le no
harnonics al aII. Hovever, in nosl cases, is nuch Iess lhan , and a significanl anounl of
harnonics are presenl in lhe nagnelizing inrush currenl. Of aII lhe harnonic conponenls,
lhe second is lv far lhe slrongesl.

Harmonic

2 0.705 0.424 0.171
3 0.352 0.000 0.086
4 0.070 0.085 0.017
5 0.070 0.000 0.017
6 0.080 0.036 0.019
7 0.025 0.000 0.006
8 0.025 0.029 0.006
9 0.035 0.000 0.008
10 0.013 0.013 0.003
11 0.013 0.000 0.003
12 0.020 0.009 0.005
13 0.008 0.000 0.002
TalIe 1. Harnonics of lhe nagnelizing inrush currenl

Magnelizing inrush currenl generaIIv conlains a Iarge second harnonic conponenl in
conparison lo an inlernaI fauIl. As a resuIl convenlionaI lransforner proleclion svslens are

designed lo lIock during inrush lransienls lv lhis Iarge second harnonic. The ralio of lhe
second harnonic of differenliaI currenl in excess of a presel lhreshoId is inlerpreled as a
presenl of nagnelizing inrush. Hovever, lhe second harnonic due lo CT saluralion
conponenl nav aIso le generaled during inlernaI fauIls. Moreover, il vas found lhal in
cerlain cases, lhe second harnonic generaled during inlernaI fauIls in lransforners is
reIaliveIv Iarge, vhich inpairs lhe aliIilv of lhis kind of lhe crilerion. ConsequenlIv, lhe
connonIv used convenlionaI differenliaI proleclion lechnique lased on lhe second
harnonic reslrainl viII lhus have difficuIlv in dislinguishing lelveen inlernaI fauIl currenls
and inrush currenls.

5.2 Wave shape recognition of signaIs in time domain
Wave shape recognilion lechniques represenl anolher aIlernalive for discrininaling inlernaI
fauIls fron inrush currenl signaIs. In lhis kind inrush reslraining nelhods pavs allenlion lo
lhe periods of Iov and peaks vaIues of lhe inrush currenl signaI in lhe line donain.
Il has leen olserved fron Iig. 2 lhal lhe inrush vave is dislinguished fron a fauIl vave
(vhich is sinusoidaI vave shape) lv a period in each cvcIe during vhich verv Iov
nagnelizing currenls (i.e. lhe nornaI exciling currenls) fIov, vhen lhe core is nol in
saluralion. This properlv of lhe inrush currenl can le used lo dislinguish lhis condilion fron
an inlernaI fauIl. The condilion lo decIare inrush vouId le lhal during a pover svslen
frequencv cvcIe, lhere shouId aIvavs le an inlervaI of line vhen an inslanlaneous
differenliaI currenl is equaI lo lhe nornaI nagnelizing currenl, vhich is cIose lo zero (leIov
O.5 ). This inlervaI nusl le al Ieasl aloul 1/4 of lhe period, lhal is, aloul 5 ns in 5O Hz
pover svslens.
CeneraIIv, lhere are lasicaIIv lvo inrush reslraining nelhods of vave shape recognilion:
The firsl, and nore connon approach, pavs allenlion lo lhe periods of Iov and fIal vaIues
in lhe inrush currenl (dveII-line ~ crilerion 1), and lhe second aIgorilhn pavs allenlion
lo lhe sign of lhe peak vaIues and lhe decaving rale of lhe inrush currenl (crilerion 2).
A. Crilerion 1
The hvpolhesis of nagnelizing inrush nav le ruIed oul if lhe differenliaI currenl does nol
shov in ils everv cvcIe a period Iasling no Iess lhan 1/4 of a cvcIe in vhich lhe shape of lhe
vaveforn is lolh fIal and cIose lo zero (see Iigure 5).


Iig. 5. IIIuslralion of lhe direcl vaveforn recognilion of inrush (crilerion 1)

This forn of direcl vaveforn reslraining regardIess of ils inpIenenlalion shovs
veaknesses:
(a) lhe recognilion of an inlernaI fauIl versus nagnelizing inrush lakes one fuII cvcIe
(l) lhe CTs, vhen saluraled during inrush condilions (verv IikeIv due lo lhe dc conponenl
in lhe currenl), change lhe shape of lhe vaveforn vilhin lhe dveII periods (Iigure 6) and
nav cause a faIse lripping
(c) during severe inlernaI fauIls, vhen lhe CTs salurale, lheir secondarv currenls nav aIso
shov periods of Iov and fIal vaIues exposing lhe reIav lo nissing operalions
. Crilerion 2
The hvpolhesis of nagnelizing inrush nav le ruIed oul if lhe differenliaI currenl has ils
peaks dispIaced lv haIf a cvcIe, and anv lvo conseculive peaks are nol of lhe sane poIarilv
(see Iigure 6). This nelhod needs rolusl deleclion of lhe peak vaIues. Tining lelveen lvo
conseculive peaks nusl le checked vilh sone loIerance nargin accounling for lhe
frequencv devialions.

Iig. 6. IIIuslralion of inlernaI fauIl and nagnelizing inrush currenls (crilerion 2)
0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Time (sec)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
low value
last cycle
T/2
+
+
+ + +
_
_ _ _
nrush
current
nternal
f ault
T
Time
Current

TheorelicaIIv, lhis nelhod needs lhree quarlers of a cvcIe lo dislinguish lelveen inlernaI
fauIls and inrush condilions. The firsl peak of lhe fauIl currenl appears afler a quarler of a
cvcIe, lhe nexl one - haIf a cvcIe Ialer. Wilh lhe second peak arriving, lhe crilerion rejecls lhe
inrush hvpolhesis and sels lhe lripping pernil.
The nain disadvanlage of lhis aIgorilhn is lhe need of cross poIarizalion lelveen lhe
phases. Nol aIvavs aII lhree phases shov lhe lvpicaI inrush uni-poIar vaveforn. AIso,
during verv snoolh energizalion of a prolecled lransforner (vhal nav accidenlaIIv happen
oving lo lhe adequale reIalion lelveen lhe svilching angIe and lhe renanenl fIux), lhis
crilerion viII faiI.
This crilerion nav le aIso used in ils indirecl forn as a nodifier for lhe inslanlaneous
differenliaI overcurrenl eIenenl. Defining lhe overcurrenl principIe as:

and specifving one lhreshoId, one needs lo adjusl lhis lhreshoId verv high lo prevenl faIse
lrippings (alove lhe highesl inrush currenl). One nav, hovever, re-define lhe operaling
principIe (Iigure 7):

and use lvo lhreshoIds lo delecl lhe uni-poIarilv/li-poIarilv of lhe signaI (Iigure 7). When
using lhe nodified overcurrenl principIe, lhe selling nav le adjusled as Iov as one lhird of
lhe lradilionaI lhreshoId. This aIIovs nuch nore inlernaI fauIls lo le quickIv delecled lv
lhe unreslrained overcurrenl aIgorilhn.

Iig. 7. IIIuslralion of lhe doulIe-lhreshoId overcurrenl principIe

5.3 MathematicaI morphoIogy for recognition of signaIs
MalhenalicaI norphoIogv (MM) is a reIaliveIv nev looI for inage and signaI processing. Il
is lased on lheorelic sel concepl, exlracling oljecl fealures lv choosing a suilalIe slrucluring
shape as a prole. MorphoIogicaI operalions, lased on sel lransfornalion, are used lo
converl an inage or signaI inlo a quanlilalive descriplion of ils geonelricaI slruclure. The
appIicalions of MM are nainIv focused on inage processing, nonIinear fiIlering, nachine
vision, and pallern recognilion.
-30
30
f
a
u
l
t

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
0.25 0.295 0.34 0.385 0.43 0.475 0.52 0.565 0.61 0.655
-3
0
6
Time
i
n
r
u
s
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
Tripping zone
G
+
G
-
G
+
G
-

Sone schenes are proposed lo idenlifv inrush currenl signaIs fron olher condilions lv
using a norphoIogicaI deconposilion schene (MDS) lased on lhe norphoIogicaI vaveIel.
In lhese approaches differenliaI currenls deconpose inlo a series of conponenls lv
designed norphoIogicaI operalors: lhen lhe exlracled fealures of lhese conponenls viII
enpIov for inrush signaIs idenlificalion.
MM is a nonIinear approach and has leen videIv used in nanv signaI/inage processing
appIicalions due lo ils sinpIe and rolusl perfornance. DiIalion and erosion are lhe lvo
lasic operalors of MM, vhich are defined as

Where is lhe signaI under processing, is lhe , and and represenl lhe fieId of
definilion of and , respecliveIv.
The norphoIogicaI vaveIel is a nonIinear nuIliresoIulion signaI deconposilion schene. A
fornaI definilion of lhe norphoIogicaI vaveIel is presenled as foIIovs. Assune lhal sels
and exisl. is referred lo as lhe signaI space al IeveI , and is lhe delaiI space al IeveI .
The norphoIogicaI vaveIel has lvo anaIvsis operalors vhich logelher deconpose a signaI
in lhe direclion of increasing . The signaI-anaIvsis operalor naps a signaI fron lo
(i.e., : ), vhiIe lhe delaiI anaIvsis operalor naps il fron lo (i.e., :
). On lhe olher hand, a svnlhesis operalor proceeds in lhe direclion of decreasing
, denoled as :
In order lo vieId a conpIele signaI represenlalion, lhe nappings ( ) and shouId le
inverses of each olher, i.e.,

Here, is caIIed lhe approxinalion signaI and is lhe delaiI signaI. Therefore, deconposing
an inpul signaI vilh lhe foIIoving recursive anaIvsis schene is:

Where , , and can le exaclIv reconslrucled fron and
lv neans of lhe foIIoving recursive svnlhesis schene:

Lel us anaIvse lhe schene in delaiI vhich vas proposed (Z. Lu el aI, 2OO9) lased on
norphoIogicaI deconposilion schene. This vork proposes MDS lased on lhe concepls of
norphoIogicaI vaveIel. The operalors in lhe schene are specificaIIv designed lv using
fundanenlaI norphoIogicaI operalors-diIalion and erosion-and are alIe lo deconpose

differenliaI currenls signaIs inlo a series of conponenls for lhe purpose of inrush
idenlificalion.
In MDS, lhe anaIvsis operalors and and lhe svnlhesis operalor are defined as

Where is lhe lransforner differenliaI currenl. and . Wilh lhe anaIvsis
operalors, lhe signaI is deconposed inlo a sel of conponenls : and lv lhe
svnlhesis operalor, il can le reconslrucled fron . , vhere
and denole lhe norphoIogicaI erosion and diIalion, respecliveIv, and is lhe
slrucluring eIenenl (SL) al lhe deconposilion IeveI . Wilh such a schene, lhe signaI is
deconposed inlo a sel of segnenls vhich reveaI lhe shape infornalion of lhe signaI. Lach
haIf cvcIe of lhe currenl signaI is deconposed inlo severaI fraclions, lhe vidlh of vhich is
delernined lv lhe Ienglh of lhe corresponding SL. The heighl of lhese fraclions can
lherefore le vieved as lhe increnenl of lhe currenl signaI.
Irior lo appIving lhe deconposilion schene for inrush idenlificalion, lhe currenl is
lransIaled inlo lvo signaIs as

Where and are predelernined conslanls, so lhal and are caIcuIaled lv lhe
norphoIogicaI operalors.
is an inpul signaI appIied lo deaI vilh haIf cvcIes vhich conlain lhe peaks of , vhiIe is
lhe olher inpul signaI lo process haIf cvcIes vhich conlain lhe vaIIevs of . SLs are sinpIe
zero-vaIued fIal Iines vilh Ienglh of . Assune lhal represenls lhe sanpIing frequencv of
lhe svslen, lhen , in vhich is lhe nunler of sanpIing poinls per
cvcIe.
The process of lhe deconposilion schene is iIIuslraled in Iig. 8. Il can le seen fron lhis
figure lhal currenl is lhe addilionaI of and A, and ils nirror is lhe addilionaI of
and A, vhich nake and . The deconposilion schene leings fron IeveI 1
and ends al IeveI . A group of conponenls can le exlracled fron lhe
currenls and lv using (12), and lhe heighl of lhe currenl increnenl for each conponenl
is neasured and denoled as . Assuning lhal lhe currenls in Iig. 8 are sanpIed vilh 12
poinls per cvcIe, lhe deconposilion schene viII ileraliveIv run lhree lines and six
conponenls of , in lolaI, are exlracled fron and , respecliveIv. , and are lhe
currenl increnenls of , vhich are exlracled fron lhe currenl . Anolher group of currenl
increnenls , and are ollained fron , respecliveIv.
Ior idenlificalion nagnelizing inrush currenl fron olher condilions lv alove approach a
fealure crilerion can define lo quanlifv lhe fealures of lhe currenl vaveforn, lased on lhe
neasured currenl increnenls in conparison vilh lhe vaIues caIcuIaled fron a slandard
sinusoidaI vave.


Iig. 8. MorphoIogicaI deconposilion of a currenl vaveforn

5.4 NeuraI network method for pattern recognition
ArlificiaI InleIIigence (AI) lased lechniques are veII deveIoped in lhe areas of pallern
cIassificalion and recognilion.
NeuraI nelvorks (NNs) are conposed of sinpIe eIenenls operaling in paraIIeI. These
eIenenls are inspired lv lioIogicaI nervous svslens. As in nalure, lhe conneclions lelveen
eIenenls IargeIv delernine lhe nelvork funclion. You can lrain a neuraI nelvork lo perforn
a parlicuIar funclion lv adjusling lhe vaIues of lhe conneclions (veighls) lelveen eIenenls.
TvpicaIIv, neuraI nelvorks are adjusled, or lrained, so lhal a parlicuIar inpul Ieads lo a
specific largel oulpul. The Iig. 9 iIIuslrales such a silualion. There, lhe nelvork is adjusled,
lased on a conparison of lhe oulpul and lhe largel, unliI lhe nelvork oulpul nalches lhe
largel. TvpicaIIv, nanv such inpul/largel pairs are needed lo lrain a nelvork.

Iig. 9. Learning lIock diagran

NeuraI nelvorks have leen lrained lo perforn conpIex funclions in various fieIds,
incIuding pallern recognilion, idenlificalion, cIassificalion, speech, vision, and conlroI
svslens.
The NN appIicalions vere exlended lo varielv of pover svslen proleclive reIaving and fauIl
anaIvsis prolIens.
The reviev indicales lhal nosl of lhe deveIopnenl efforls vere reIaled lo lhe nosl connon
reIaving funclions such as dislance proleclion for lransnission Iines and lransforner currenl
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time (s)
n
r
u
s
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
3
'
''
NeuraI nelvork
incIuding conneclions
lelveen neurons
Conpare
Targel
Oulpul Inpul
Adjusl
Weighls

differenliaI proleclion. This is expecled due lo lhe inporlance, conpIexilv and vide
appIicalion of lhe nenlioned proleclion principIes. Hovever, il is increasing lo nole lhal NN
appIicalions vere noslIv reIaled lo lhe fauIl deleclion and cIassificalion, vhich confirns lhe
unique NN capaliIilv lo acl as a pallern cIassifier.
As per olher non-reIaving appIicalions, il appears lhal fauIl anaIvsis and deleclion of
equipnenl incipienl faiIure had crealed a Iol of allenlion for NN appIicalions. The aliIilv of
lhe NN archileclure lo process dala in paraIIeI and in a hierarchicaI fashion has leen
expIoiled in lhe fauIl anaIvsis appIicalions. The NN aliIilv lo Iearn fron hisloricaI dala vas
quile usefuI in lhe equipnenl diagnoslic area. More deveIopnenls are expecled in lolh lhe
fauIl anaIvsis and equipnenl diagnoslic areas.
Of lhe lhree nosl connon lvpes of ANNs, naneIv nuIli-Iaver, perceplron (MLI), Kohonen
nelvork (KN) and HopfieId nelvork (HN), lhe MLI has hilherlo leen lhe nainslrean of
appIicalions in pover svslens: lhis is principaIIv lecause lhe supervised Iearning associaled
vilh lhe MLI is superior in lerns of accuracv conpared vilh eilher lhe KN or HN.
There are nov videspread appIicalions of ANNs in pover svslens. Hovever, lhis parl
deaIs vilh onIv one prolIen, fauIl cIassificalion in doulIe-circuil lransnission Iines using
conlined unsupervised/supervised in sone delaiI (AggarvaI & Yonghua, 1998).
IaraIIeI lransnission Iines vhich can significanlIv increase lransnission capacilv on exisling
svslens are finding nore videspread usage. Hovever, lhere is difficuIlv in cIassifving lhe
fauIl lvpes on such Iines using convenlionaI lechniques, principaIIv lecause fauIled phase(s)
on one circuil have an effecl on lhe phases of lhe heaIlhv circuil due lo nuluaI coupIing
lelveen lhe lvo circuils. The prolIen is conpounded lv lhe facl lhal lhis coupIing is
highIv non-Iinear in nalure and is dependenl on a conpIex inlerpIav anongsl a nunler of
varialIes. As a consequence, lhe coupIed phase(s) on lhe heaIlhv circuil nav sonelines le
vrongIv diagnosed as leing fauIled phase(s) under cerlain fauIl condilions. Thus
convenlionaI cIassifiers lased on IogicaI conparison lechniques or Iinear aIgorilhns are nol
veII suiled for such circuils. In lhis respecl, neuraI conpuling has lhe verv inporlanl
allrilule of leing alIe lo soIve non-Iinear svslen idenlificalion prolIens lhrough using
neurons, Iinks and Iearning aIgorilhns, and hence ANNs are ideaIIv suiled lo deaI vilh
conpIex non-Iinear fauIl cIassificalion prolIen.
ANNs have lo le lrained lo Iearn and, in lhis respecl, lhe lraining aIgorilhns can le divided
inlo supervised, unsupervised and conlined unsupervised/supervised as shovn in Iig. 1O.
CIassifiers lrained vilh supervision require dala IaleIs lhal specifv lhe correcl cIass during
lraining. CIuslering aIgorilhns use unsupervised lraining and group unIaleIIed lraining
dala inlo inlernaI cIuslers. CIassifiers lhal use conlined unsupervised/supervised lraining
firslIv use unsupervised lraining vilh unIaleIIed dala lo forn inlernaI cIuslers: IaleIs are
lhen assigned lo cIuslers during lhe supervision slage. Differenl ANNs vilh, differenl
lraining lechniques have lheir ovn advanlages and disadvanlages. A lvpicaI supervised
error lack-propagalion (LI) nelvork is a non-Iinear regression lechnique vhich allenpls
lo nininise lhe gIolaI error. An LI nelvork can provide verv conpacl dislriluled
represenlalions of conpIex dala sels, and is snaIIer in size conpared vilh a conlined
unsupervised/supervised ANN vilh lhe sane inpuls and oulpuls. Hovever, lraining of an
LI nelvork is verv sIov (line consuning), needs nuch Iarger lraining sels and il verv
easiIv gels sluck on IocaI ninina. Iurlhernore, il can le difficuIl lo relrain lhe ANN vilh
nev lraining dala.


Iig. 1O. ANN lraining lechniques

Unsupervised Iearning neans Iearning exanpIes vilhoul leaching, i.e. lhere are no desired
oulpuls. A lvpicaI unsupervised Iearning nelvork is lhe KN. The nelvork allenpls lo Iearn
a lopoIogicaI nap fron an N-dinensionaI inpul space inlo a lvo dinensionaI fealure space.
Thus lhe nelvork has nanv advanlages over lhe LI nelvork, such as fasl Iearning, a nuch
snaIIer anounl of lraining dala elc. ul, in viev of lhe facl lhe nelvork is vilhoul an oulpul
Iaver, il is nol reconnended lo le used on ils ovn for eilher pallern cIassificalion or olher
decision-naking processes. Ralher, il is used as lhe fronl end lo an oulpul Iaver vilh
supervised Iearning and lecones a conlined unsupervised/supervised (CUS) Iearning
nelvork, lhe suljecl of lhe lechnique descriled here.
This parl proposes a fauIl lvpe cIassificalion lechnique for doulIe-circuil lransnission Iines
using a CUS nelvork.
The CUS-lased cIassifier is a lechnique lhal separales oljecl recognilion inlo lvo parls: (i)
fealure exlraclion vilh unsupervised Iearning in lhe firsl slage, and (ii) cIassificalion vilh
supervised Iearning silling on lhe lop, sulsequenlIv. An inporlanl lasic principIe is lhal lhe
fealures nusl le independenl of cIass nenlership, since lhe Ialler is nol vel knovn al lhe
fealure exlraclion slage lv definilion. This inpIies lhal, if anv Iearning nelhods are used for
deveIoping lhe fealure exlraclors, lhev shouId le unsupervised in a sense, lecause lhe largel
cIass for each oljecl is unknovn. Iig. 11 lvpifies a CUS-lased nelvork.
NeuraI nelvork
lraining lechniques
Supervised
lraining
Conlined
unsupervised/supervised
lraining
unsupervised
lraining

Iig. 11. CUS-lased archileclure nelvork

The inpul veclor for lhe CUS nelvork conprises nine varialIes associaled vilh lhe lhree
voIlage and six currenl signaIs in a doulIe-circuil Iine. The fealure exlraclion is lased on
line-donain vindovs, each vindov Ienglh leing of lhree sanpIes. The oulpuls are
conposed of seven varialIes AI, I, C1, IL2, 2, C2 and C: of lhese, '1 and '2 signifv
circuils 1 and 2, respecliveIv, and varialIe C indicales vhelher ground is invoIved in a fauIl.
As an exanpIe, if ve gel an oulpul 1,O,O,O,O,O,1 lhis vouId indicale an 'a-phase-earlh fauIl
on circuil 1.
In order lo ascerlain lhe allrilules of lhe CUS nelvork over a MLI nelvork uliIising a
slandard LI lraining aIgorilhn, a conparison in perfornance vas nade lelveen lhe lvo
ANNs. In lhis respecl, lhe Ialler ANN aIso had nine varialIes lul, unIike lhe CUS nelvork,
each vindov Ienglh used had four sanpIes: a snaIIer vindov Ienglh nade lhe
convergence of lhe nelvork lo lhe requisile vaIue exlreneIv difficuIl. The hidden Iaver had
18 neurons and lhe oulpul veclor again conprised seven varialIes.
An exlensive series of case sludies shoved lhal lhe MLI-lased nelvork converged afler
aloul 1OO OOO ileralions (in approxinaleIv 45 ninules on a 133 MHz Ienliun IC) and
reached rool-nean-square (RMS) error of O.1. On lhe olher hand, lhe CUS-lased nelvork
converged afler onIv 4OOO ileralions, i e in approxinaleIv 2 ninules, and reached a nuch
Iover RMS error of O O3 Iurlhernore (aIlhough nol shovn here), of lhe 1OO lesl cases
considered, lhe niscIassificalion rale vas 6 and 1 for lhe MLI and CUS nelvorks,
respecliveIv.

6. WaveIets and signaI processing

6.1 WaveIet theory
WaveIel lheorv provides a unified franevork for a nunler of lechniques vhich had leen
deveIoped independenlIv for various signaI processing appIicalions. Ior exanpIe,
nuIliresoIulion signaI processing, used in conpuler vision: sul land coding, deveIoped for
speech and inage conpression: and vaveIel series expansion, deveIoped in appIied
SanpIed voIlage and currenl inpuls
Inpul Iaver
Unsupervised
lraining
Kohonen
Iaver
Supervised
lraining
Oulpul Iaver
A1 1 C1 A2 2 C2 C

nalhenalics, have leen recenlIv recognized as differenl vievs of a signaI lheorv. In facl,
vaveIel lheorv covers quile a Iarge area. Il lreals lolh lhe conlinuous and lhe discrele-line
cases. Il provides verv generaI lechniques lhal can le appIied lo nanv lasks in signaI
processing, and lherefore has nunerous polenliaI appIicalions. In parlicuIar, lhe WaveIel
Transforn (WT) is of inleresl for lhe anaIvsis of non-slalionarv signaIs, lecause il provides
an aIlernalive lo lhe cIassicaI Shorl-Tine Iourier Transforn (STIT). In conlrasl lo lhe STIT,
vhich uses a singIe anaIvsis vindov, lhe WT uses shorl vindovs al Iov frequencies. This is
in lhe spiril of conslanl reIalive landvidlh frequencv anaIvsis. The WT is aIso reIaled lo
line-frequencv anaIvsis.

6.2 SignaI Construction Using WaveIets
WaveIel lheorv eslalIishes lhal a generaI lransienl signaI can le conslrucled lv lhe
superposilion of a sel of speciaI signaIs (differenl slruclures occurring al differenl line scaIes
and al differenl lines). These speciaI signaIs nav le seIecled as vaveIels. Ior a sel of
vaveIels lo le adnissilIe as a lasic luiIding lIock, lhev nusl salisfv lvo lasic condilions:
lhev nusl le osciIIalorv, and lhev nusl decav lo zero quickIv. If lhese condilions are
conlined vilh lhe condilion lhal lhe vaveIels nusl aIso inlegrale lo zero, lhen lhese
condilions are lhe non-rigorous adnissiliIilv crileria lhal nusl le salisfied lo le a vaveIel.
The seIeclion of lhe lesl vaveIels is a funclion of lhe characlerislics of lhe signaI lo le
processed. Ior exanpIe, a nusicaI lone can le descriled lv four lasic paranelers: inlensilv,
frequencv, line duralion, and line posilion. Thus, lhe kev lo lhe process is lo seIecl a
vaveIel lo reaIize lhe signaI in lerns of lhe lesl lasis and nosl efficienl superposilion. The
lesl and nosl efficienl vaveIel sel is aIso a funclion of lhe oljeclive of lhe reconslruclion.
TvpicaI appIicalions are conpaclalion for slorage purposes, fasl reconslruclion for signaI
idenlificalion, and efficienl reconslruclion for signaIs anaIvsis. The seIeclion of lhe lesl
vaveIel lasis is a funclion of lhe characlerislics of lhe originaI signaI lo le reconslrucled or
anaIvzed. Il aIso depends on lhe conpacl supporl and/or fasl reconslruclion required lv
lhe process.
Ior inage processing, for exanpIe, and due lo inproved resoIulion and efficiencies, lhe lesl
vaveIel lasis is usuaIIv found lo le in a faniIv of nuIliresoIulion funclions lhal are
orlhogonaI or liorlhogonaI. Hovever, lhese lases expIoil (for efficiencv reasons) a
speciaIized spacing in lhe vaveIel paranelers lhal specifv posilion (shifl) and diIalion
(vidlh) vhich requires lhe scaIe and lransIalion paranelers lo le spaced lv inleger povers
of 2. The spacing lhal is usuaIIv used is caIIed a dvadic Iallice. The nalure of pover svslen
signaIs seens lo poinl lovards lrigononelric lased vaveIels. Ior pover svslen
eIeclronagnelic lransienl signaIs, lhe vaveIel lasis shouId have lvo desiralIe
characlerislics:
1. Reduce lhe nunler of vaveIel conponenls lhal descrile lhe signaIs
2. ReveaI lhe naluraI (phvsicaI) lransienl osciIIalorv conponenls of lhe signaI.

6.3 DifferentiaI protection based on waveIet transform
TradilionaI digilaI proleclive reIavs presenl severaI dravlacks: for inslance, lhev are usuaIIv
lased on aIgorilhns lhal eslinale lhe fundanenlaI conponenl of lhe currenl and voIlage
signaIs negIecling higher frequencv lransienl conponenls. Moreover, phasor eslinalion
requires a sIiding-vindov of a cvcIe lhal nav cause a significanl deIav. Iurlhernore,

accuracv is nol assured. The Iourier lransforn is a verv usefuI looI for anaIvzing lhe
frequencv conlenl of slalionarv processes. When deaIing vilh non-slalionarv processes,
hovever, olher nelhods for delernining lhe frequencv conlenl nusl le appIied.
Ior lhis reason vaveIel deconposilion is ideaI for sludving lransienl signaIs and ollaining a
nuch leller currenl characlerizalion and a nore reIialIe discrininalion. WaveIels aIIov lhe
deconposilion of a signaI inlo differenl IeveIs of resoIulion (frequencv oclaves). The lasis
funclion (Molher WaveIel) is diIaled al Iov frequencies and conpressed al high frequencies,
so lhal Iarge vindovs are used lo ollain lhe Iov frequencv conponenls of lhe signaI, vhiIe
snaII vindovs refIecl disconlinuilies.
WaveIel lransforn has a speciaI fealure of varialIe line-frequencv IocaIizalion vhich is verv
differenl fron vindoved Iourier lransforn.
DifferenliaI proleclion aIgorilhns lased on IIT have disadvanlages incIuding lhe
negIecling of high frequencv harnonics. Iurlhernore, differenl vindoving lechniques
shouId le appIied lo caIcuIale lhe currenl and voIlage phasors and lhis causes significanl
line deIav for lhe proleclion reIav. In lhis case, accuracv is nol assured conpIeleIv. Due lo
increased slandards of lhe deIivered energv quaIilv such as ILLL 519, high perfornance
aIgorilhns shouId le laken inlo accounl.
The Crossnann & MorIel (1984) definilion of lhe conlinuous vaveIel lransforn (CWT) for a
1-D signaI is:

Where : and , are lhe scaIe and lhe posilion paranelers,
respecliveIv, vilh leing lhe sel of posilive reaI nunlers: denoles lhe HiIlerl space
of square inlegralIe funclions, and lhe lar denoles lhe conjugaled conpIex. The conslanl
can le laken lo le in order lo insure nornaIizalion in energv of lhe sel of
vaveIels ollained lv a lransIalion and diIalion of lhe "nolher vaveIel" . The firsl
fornuIa pernils lhe inlerprelalion of lhe vaveIel lransforn as a convoIulion producl: lhe
second as a correIalion funclion. If lhe vaveIel is svnnelric and reaI (as in lhe case of
lhe Ioission vaveIel) lolh nolions coincide (Moreau el aI. 1997).
The nain advanlage of lhe CWT is lhal il reveaIs lhe signaI conlenl in far grealer delaiI lhan
eilher Iourier anaIvsis or lhe discrele vaveIel lransforn (DWT). The conlinuous nalure of
lhe vaveIel funclion is kepl up lo lhe poinl of sanpIing lhe scaIe-lransIalion grid used lo
represenl lhe vaveIel lransforn is independenl of lhe sanpIing of lhe signaI under anaIvsis.
In lhis case, lhe discrele vaveIel lransforn is:

and lhe inverse discrele lransforn (IDWT) is

In lhe sense.
The advanlage of anaIvsing a signaI vilh vaveIels is lhal il enalIes one lo sludv lhe IocaI
fealures of lhe signaI vilh a delaiI nalched lo lheir characlerislic scaIe. In lhe lenporaI
donain such a properlv aIIovs for an effeclive represenlalion of lransienl signaIs. We can
sav lhal lhe DWT enalIes one lo nake a nuIliresoIulion anaIvsis of a signaI. Il is possilIe lo
have lolh snoolh vaveIels vilh conpacl supporl and svnnelrv of lhe associaled scaIing
funclions and lhis avoids lias for lhe Iocalions of naxina and ninina of lhe signaI.
The WaveIel Transforn is veII suiled lo lhe prolIen in lhis sludv. Il is siniIar lo lhe Iourier
lransforn, lul uses a lasis funclion lhal decavs rapidIv fron a cenlraI fealure ralher lhan
lhe infinile sine funclion. Ior lhis reason vaveIel deconposilion is ideaI for sludving
lransienl signaIs and ollaining a nuch leller currenl characlerizalion and a nore reIialIe
discrininalion.
The appIicalion areas of vaveIels cover line and frequencv anaIvsis, eIeclronagnelic
anaIvsis, fiIlers, inlegraI equalions, lransienl anaIvsis, piclure processing, and dala
conpressing lechniques.
In Iigure 12, line and frequencv IocaIizalion are shovn for lhe shorl line fasl Iourier
Transforn. This approach vas presenled lv Calor in 1945.
In Iigure 13, line and frequencv IocaIizalion are shovn for lhe conlinuous vaveIel
lransforn. This approach vas presenled lv MorIel in 198O.

Iig. 12. Calor IocaIizes lhe shorl line fasl Iourier Transforn (STIIT) in 1945


Iig. 13. MorIel proposes lhe conlinuous vaveIel lransforn in 198O

6.4. Identification of signaIs using waveIet transform
A vaveIel-lased signaI processing lechnique is an effeclive looI for pover svslen lransienl
anaIvsis and fealure exlraclion. An appIicalion of vaveIel anaIvsis lo idenlifv various lvpes
of currenls fIoving lhrough a pover lransforner.
RecenlIv, severaI nev proleclive schenes have leen proposed lo deaI vilh prolIen in
pover lransforner proleclion lased on vaveIel lransforns (WT). Sone of vaveIel lased
nelhods use voIlage and currenl signaIs for idenlificalion nagnelizing inrush currenl fron
inlernaI fauIl currenls. The dravlack of lhese nelhods is lhal lhose require lhe
neasurenenl of voIlage in addilion lo currenl lhal increases lhe cosl of hardvare
inpIenenlalion. Anolher nelhods use conlinalion of WT and neuraI nelvork. CeneraIIv,
in lhese nelhods a WT use as a pre-processor and lhe oulpul of lhe vaveIel is lhe inpul of
lhe arlificiaI neuraI nelvork. The required aIgorilhn lraining is sone dravlacks of lhese
aIgorilhns.
This vork proposes a nev aIgorilhn lased on lhe WaveIel Transforn (WT) lo idenlifv
nagnelizing inrush currenl fron inlernaI fauIl currenl in lhree phase pover lransforners.
To discrininale lelveen various cases, lhe deveIoped nelhod uses differenl fealures of
fauIl and inrush currenls. Al firsl lhe vaveIel lransforn lechnique is appIied lo deconpose
lransforner differenliaI currenls inlo approxinaled and delaiIed vaveIel conponenls (i.e.
). Lach of lhese IeveIs are line donain signaIs cover specific frequencv land.
Then, a diagnosis crilerion lv using lhe specific vaveIel coefficienls is defined. This crilerion
discrininale inlernaI fauIls fron inrush currenls accuraleIv and in shorl line (Iess lhan

) afler lhe dislurlance. The proposed aIgorilhn is evaIualed using various sinuIaled
differenl inrush and inlernaI fauIl currenl signaIs on a pover lransforner. Magnelizing
inrush currenls and fauIl currenls has leen deveIoped using lhe ATI-LMIT soflvare. Then
using vaveIel and defined crileria, lhe lransienl fauIl currenl and nagnelizing inrush
currenl are differenlialed. The resuIls proved lhal lhe proposed lechnique is alIe lo offer lhe
desired responses and couId le used as a verv fasl and accurale nelhod.

6.4.1 proposed aIgorithm
The nev proposed aIgorilhn is lased on vaveforn anaIvsis of lhe fauIl and inrush
currenls. Fig. 14 shows the Ieatures oI these waveIorms. As is shovn, lhe inrush
currenl has a non-sinusoidaI shape and lhere is a dead period per cvcIe in
nagnelizing inrush during vhich lhe currenl viII le near zero because oI the
saturation characteristic oI the lransforner. Magnelizing inrush aIso exhilil a
characlerislic peaked vave vhich is caused lv asvnnelric saluralion of lhe
lransforner core. The inrush currenl al lhe svilching line increases verv sIovIv
and is near zero: vhiIe lhe progress of sIope varialion is increasing and afler a fev
sanpIes il anpIifies in rapidIv. Hovever, vhen a fauIl occurs, sIope of lhe
differenliaI currenl al lhe fauIl line is high, and sIope varialion decrease as line
passes. These differenl lehaviors couId le used for discrininalion of various cases.

Iig. 14. Iealures of fauIl and inrush vaveforns

The proposed aIgorilhn is lased on lhis facl lhal lhe Iocalion of rapid sIope varialion, for
inrush currenl occurs afler inlernaI fauIl lv a line inlervaI. A Iarge sIope in lhe line donain
neans lhal lhere are higher frequencies in lhe frequencv donain. Therefore, foIIoving lhe
inlernaI fauIl, lhe anpIilude of lhe high frequencies al lhe iniliaI inslanls has Iarger vaIues
lhan lhe olher lines. Hovever, foIIoving lhe inrush currenl lhe anpIilude of lhe high
frequencies conponenls al lhe iniliaI inslanls is Iover lhan lhe olher lines. The differenliaI
currenl and resuIlanl frequencv IeveIs (A7 and D1-D7) fron WT due lo inrush currenl and
A-C inlernaI fauIl al l=O.1 s are shovn in Iigs. 15 and 12 respecliveIv.
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
Time
Fault
nrush
Disturbance Time
Decrease in
Slope
ncrease in
Slope
time interval

Through various sinuIalions, il is found lhal lhe nenlioned fealures appear in D4 vaveIel
(TalIe 2). The line duralion lelveen lhe line of dislurlance and lhe naxinun peak of lhe
differenliaI currenl in D4 is considered as lhe diagnosis crilerion, and caIIed .

Wavelet CoeIIicients Irequencv land (Hz)
A7 0-39.06
D7 39.06-78.125
D6 78.125-156.25
D5 156.25-312.5
D4 312.5-625
D3 625-1250
D2 1250-2500
D1 2500-5000
TalIe 2. WaveIel frequencv IeveIs for sanpIe rale 1O khz

Iig. 15. DifferenliaI currenl and reIaled
frequencv IeveIs, inrush
Iig. 16. DifferenliaI currenl and reIaled
frequencv IeveIs, A-C fauIl

-2
0
2
4
A
A
7
-2
0
2
D
7
D
6
-2
0
2
D
5
D
4
-0.2
0
0.2
D
3
D
2
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18
-0.05
0
0.05
D
1
Time (sec)
2
0
-2
2
0
-2
0.4
0
-0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
tp=9 ms
Peak = -0.18
-20
0
20
A
A
7
-20
0
20
D
7
D
6
-1
0
1
D
5
D
4
-0.1
0
0.1
D
3
D
2
0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-0.2
0
0.2
D
1
Time(sec)
5
0
-5
2
0
-2
0.5
0
-0.5
0.2
0
-0.2
Peak = 0.2
tp = 1 ms

Iig. 16. D4 and for (a) inrush (l) inlernaI fauIl

Iig. 16 shovs lhe inlervaI line and lhe alsoIule vaIues of lhe differenliaI currenl
vaveforns for lhe fauIl currenl and inrush currenl al frequencv IeveI D4. In lhe case of
inrush currenl, is higher lhan a selling , and in lhe case of inlernaI fauIl,
is Iover lhan a selling . Conparison of vilh is considered for
lhree phases and if al Ieasl in one phase , a fauIl is occurred and lhe lrip
connand is issued and eIse, lhere is no anv lrip connand. As shovn in Iig. 16, lhe alove
crilerion can le used lo discrininale lhe inlernaI fauIl fron lhe inrush currenl in aloul a
quarler a cvcIe. Il provides a verv quick and sinpIe aIgorilhn.
The perfornance of lhe proposed aIgorilhn vas evaIualed for differenl lvpes of fauIl and
inrush currenls. Differenl cases of fauIl currenls are sinuIaled vhere sone faclors affecling
lhe characlerislics of lhe currenl, such as lvpe of fauIl and Ioad condilion are considered.
Differenl cases of inrush currenl are aIso sinuIaled lv varving sone paranelers lhal
infIuence lhe characlerislics of lhis currenl (e.g. residuaI core fIux and voIlage angIe).
Moreover, differenl cases for sinuIlaneous inrush and fauIl condilions are sinuIaled.

A) Inrush Current
Ior lhe case of nagnelizing inrush currenl, lhe no-Ioad lransforner al a suppIv Iine voIlage
of 4OO kV is considered. Iig. 17 shovs lhe lhree-phase differenliaI currenls and lhe
frequencv range D4 for , and . Svilching line is and residuaI
core fIux and phase angIe of lhe suppIv is chosen and respecliveIv. In
lhis figure lhe frequencv range D4 and reIevanl differenliaI currenl (doled curve) in each
phase are shovn afler inilialion of dislurlance. As il is seen fron lhe Iig. 18
and are ollained.
Invesligalion of various sinuIalions reveaIs lhal vaIues of for various inrush currenls are
usuaIIv grealer lhan (i.e., al Ieasl lhere is a period lhal for il is grealer lhan lhis
range). AIso for inlernaI fauIl currenls lhere is a period lhal for il is Iess lhan
. Therefore ve can choose equaI lo . In lhis paper is chosen as
. As seen fron Iig. 18 , and vhich shovs
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
|
D
4
|
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.075
0.15
0.225
0.3
Time(s)
|
D
4
|
tp
tp
(a)
(b)
Disturbance Time

lhal lhere is no fauIl and lhe naIlrip is nol issued. Ollained resuIls for differenl condilions
of inrush currenls are shovn in TalIe 3. This lalIe shovs lhe vaIue of for differenl phases
due lo differenl inrush currenl. The firsl coIunn shovs phase voIlage angIe al lhe inslanl
of svilching. In lhe second coIunn differenliaI currenl of various phase are shovn. In lolh
no-Ioad and fuII-Ioad cases shovn in nexl coIunns, infIuence of rennanl fIuxes in lhe pover
lransforner core al inslanl of svilching as percenl of lhe raled fIux have leen sludied.
As shovn in lhis lalIe for aII of lhe sludied cases, lhe ollained vaIue of is
grealer lhan . As a resuIl aII of lhese cases are correclIv cIassified as inrush
cases.

Fig. 18. Frequency range 'D4' Ior , and Ior unloaded magnetizing inrush

IuII Ioad No Ioad
I
h
a
s
e

$
T
58
0
58

U&
%
U%
%
U$
%
0
0
0
U&
%
U%
%
U$
%
58
0
58

U&
%
U%
%
U$
%
0
0
0
U&
%
U%
%
U$
%

4.8 5.2 6.1 5.3 A
O 4.8 4.8 6 4.8
6.1 4.8 5.2 4.8 C
3 4.8 6.8 4.7 A
8O 6.2 4.7 6.8 4.6
3.8 5.3 6.8 6.1 C
4.8 4.8 5.2 4.8 A
12O 4.8 5.2 6.1 5.3
4.8 4.8 6 4.8 C
TalIe 3. VaIues of for inrush currenls

0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28
-5
0
5
d
if
f

(
p
u
)
0.114 0.115 0.116 0.117 0.118 0.119 0.12 0.121 0.122 0.123 0.124
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Time (sec)
|
D
4
|

,

d
if
f
-
c
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
|
D
4
|

,

d
if
f
-
b
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
|
D
4
|

,

d
if
f
-
a
dif f -c
dif f -a
tp-c=6.4 ms
tp-b=4.6 ms
tp-a=4.6 ms
Switching Time
dif f -a
dif f -b
dif f -c

B) FauIt Current
To ollain lhe sinuIalion dala for inlernaI fauIl, differenl fauIls such as singIe Iine-lo-ground
fauIl, Iine-lo-Iine fauIl, Iine-lo-Iine-lo-ground fauIl and lhree phase fauIl sinuIaled on lhe
inside of lhe lransforner zone vilh a laIanced Y-connecled Ioad of phase connecled lo lhe
secondarv side. The resislance al lhe fauIl Iocalion is chosen as zero and lransforner is
assuned lo have raled Ioad (in lhe case of on-Ioad sinuIalions).
Iig. 19 shovs lhree-phase differenliaI currenls and lhe frequencv range D4 due lo ,
and . In lhis case, lhe Iine-lo-Iine-lo-ground fauIl (fauIl A-C) on lhe secondarv
side of lhe lransforner is occurred, lhe lransforner is fuII-Ioad and lhe fauIl line is .
As il is seen fron lhe Iig. 19 lhe line duralion lelveen of lhe iniliale inslanl of dislurlance
(fauIl line= 2O ns) lo lhe naxinun peak of lhe differenliaI currenl in D4, for each phases
are conpuled as: and . These vaIues in each
phase viII le conpared vilh . As seen Iig. 19 for phase and phase are Iesser
lhan ( , and ) vhich shovs lhe
dislurlance is a fauIl. Respecl lo ollained resuIls il is founded lhal lhe proposed nelhod
discrininale fauIl fron inrush currenl quickIv, Iess lhan a quarler a cvcIe afler lhe
dislurlance.

Fig. 19. Frequency range 'D4' Ior , and
for AB-G internal Iault

Fig. 20. DiIIerential current and related Irequency
levels Ior simultaneous internal Iault AB-G and inrush

The resuIls of appIicalion of lhe proposed aIgorilhn for inlernaI fauIl condilions have leen
sunnarized in TalIe 4. SinuIalions have leen carried oul for differenl fauIls in no-Ioad and
on-Ioad of pover svslen.

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-20
-10
0
10
20
d
if
f

(
p
u
)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
|
D
4
|
,

d
if
f
-
b
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
Time (sec)
|
D
4
|
,

d
if
f
-
c
0
0.1
0.2
|
D
4
|
,

d
if
f
-
a
dif f -a
dif f -b
dif f -c
tp-a = 0.5 ms
tp-b = 0.5 ms dif f -b
dif f -a
tp-c = 2.2 ms
dif f -c
Fault Time
-5
0
5
10
d
if
f
-
b

(
p
u
)
A
7
-5
0
5
D
7
D
6
-2
0
2
D
5
D
4
-0.5
0
0.5
D
3
D
2
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
-0.5
0
0.5
D
1
Time (sec)
5
0
-5
5
0
-5
0.5
0
-0.5
0.5
0
-0.5
tp=0.7 ms
Disturbance Time

C) SimuItaneous InternaI FauIt and Inrush Current
Afler sludving fauIl and inrush currenls cases separaleIv, sone nore conpIicaled cases, i.e.
sinuIlaneous inlernaI fauIl and inrush currenl are considered. In TalIe 5, four differenl
cases have leen sludied and in aII cases lhe fauIl has leen properIv diagnosed fasl and
reIialIv. Iig. 2O shovs lhe differenliaI currenl (phase ) for sinuIlaneous inrush and fauIl
(A-C) on lhe prinarv side al as veII as WT coefficienls in D1-D7 and A7. Iig. 21
shovs lhe lhree phase differenliaI currenls and D4 for , and . As il is seen
fron lhe Iig. 21 lhe anounl for differenliaI currenl in D4 for lhree phases, is
and . As seen Iig. 21 for phase and phase
are Iess lhan ( , and ). Thus, lhe
occurrence of lhe fauIl is delecled accuraleIv shorler lhan a quarler of a cvcIe ( 2
ns).

Fig. 21. DiIIerential currents and 'D4' Ior three phases Ior simultaneous internal Iault AB-G and inrush current
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-10
-5
0
5
10
d
if
f

(
p
u
)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
|
D
4
|
,

d
if
f
-
a
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
|
D
4
|
,

d
if
f
-
b
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Time (s)
|
D
4
|
,

d
if
f
-
c
Disturbance Time
diff-a
diff-b
diff-c
diff-a
diff-b
diff-c
tp=0.7 ms
tp=0.7 ms
tp=4.8 ms
phase
No load Full load
a-g a-b a-b-g a-b-c a-g a-b a-b-g a-b-c
0
a 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
b 0.7 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.7 0.12 0.1 1.5
c 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.12 0.11
80
a 0.1 0.13 0.1 0.1 0.12 0.1 0.1 0.1
b 4.8 0.11 0.1 0.1 5 0.13 0.1 0.11
c 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.1 0.11 0.1 1.5 0.1
120
a 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
b 1.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 3.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
c 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.5

TalIe 4. VaIues of for inlernaI fauIls

(DLC.)

IH
ASL
NO LOAD IULL LOAD
A-C A- A--C A--C A-C A- A--C A--C
8O

A O.2 O.1 O.1 2.5 O.1 O.1 1.5 1.5
O.1 O.2 O.1 O.1 O.1 O.2 O.1 O.1
C 5.1 O.1 2.5 O.1 4.6 O.1 O.1 O.1

-
58
A O.2 O.1 2.5 O.2 O.1 O.2 O.1 O.1
O.2 O.1 O.1 O.2 3.5 O.2 1.5 O.1
C 4.6 O.1 O.1 O.1 O.1 O.1 O.1 O.1
TalIe 5. VaIues of for sinuIlaneous inrush currenls and inlernaI fauIls

7. ConcIusion

This nanuscripl inveligales lhe coonon approachs for pallern recognilion of currenl signaIs
for idenlificalion of differenliaI currels vhich fIov inlo lhe differenliaI reIavs. IinaI il
presenls a successfuI lechnique lo dislinguishing lelveen inlernaI fauIls and inrush currenls
in pover lransforners using vaveIel lransforn. The diagnosis process in lhis nelhod is
lased on lhe differenl characlerislics of differenliaI currenls vaveforns. A diagnosis
crilerion lv quanlifving lhe exlracled fealures is defined in lerns of line difference of
anpIilude of vaveIel coefficienls over a specific frequencv land. v using lhis crilerion
funclion for lhree phases, inlernaI fauIls can le accuraleIv discrininaled fron inrush
currenl. SeveraI cases are used for lesling lhe proposed aIgorilhn. The sinuIalion resuIls
shov fasl, accurale and reIialIe capaliIilies of lhe aIgorilhn lo idenlifv differenl lvpes of
currenls fIoving in a pover lransforner under various inrush currenls and inlernaI fauIls
condilions. The proposed schene is a poverfuI vel sinpIe vav of assigning lransforner
differenliaI currenl lo inrush and fauIl groups.

8. References

A Conpanv (2OO3). TechnicaI Reference ManuaI Of RLT 521*2.5-Transforner Iroleclion
TerninaI, A Conpanv, 1MRK 5O4 O36-ULN, Decenler 2OO3.
AggarvaI and Yonghua Song (1998). ArlificiaI neuraI nelvorks in pover svslens, pover
engineering journaI decenler 1998.
A. Cuznan, S. ZochoII, C. ennouvaI, and H. I. AIluve (2OO1). A currenllased soIulion for
lransforner differenliaI proleclion__parl I: IrolIen slalenenl, ILLL Trans. Iover
DeI., voI. 16, no. 5, pp. 485-491, Ocl. 2OO1.
A. Cuznan, S. ZochoII, C. ennouvaI, and H. I. AIluve (2OO2). A currenl-lased soIulion for
lransforner differenliaI proleclion__parl II: ReIav descriplion and evaIualion, ILLL
Trans. Iover DeI., voI. 17, no. 5, pp. 886-893, Ocl. 2OO2.
A. Rahnali, and M. Sanave-Iasand (2OO8). Nev Melhod for Discrininalion of Transforners
InlernaI IauIls fron Magnelizing Inrush Currenls Using WaveIel Transforn, ILLL
IOWLRCON2OO8 Conference, Nev DeIhi, India, 12-15 Ocloler 2OO8.
H. Morlazavi and H. Khorashadi-Zadeh (2OO4). A nev inrush reslrainl aIgorilhn for
lransforner differenliaI reIav using vaveIel lransforn, in Iroc. Inl. Conf. Iover
Svslen TechnoIogv-Iovercon, Singapore, Nov. 21-24, 2OO4, pp. 17O5-17O9.

M.R. Zanan and M.A. Rahnan (1998). LxperinenlaI lesling of lhe arlificiaI neuraI nelvork
lased proleclion of pover lransforners, ILLL Trans. Iover DeI., voI. 13, no. 2, pp.
51O-517, Apr. 1998.
Onar A. S. Youssef (2OO3). A vaveIel-lased lechnique for discrininalion lelveen fauIls and
nagnelizing inrush currenls in lransforners, ILLL Trans. Iover DeI., voI. 18, no. 1,
pp. 17O-176, Ian. 2OO3.
I. L. Moa and R. K. AggarvaI (2OO1). A noveI approach lo lhe cIassificalion of lhe lransienl
phenonena in pover lransforner using conlined vaveIel lransforn and neuraI
nelvork, ILLL Trans. Iover DeI. ,voI. 16, no. 4, pp. 654-66O, Ocl. 2OO1.
S. A. SaIeh and M. A. Rahnan (2OO5). ModeIing and Iroleclion of a Three-Ihase Iover
Transforner Using WaveIel Iackel Transforn, ILLL TRANSACTIONS ON
IOWLR DLLIVLRY, VOL. 2O, NO. 2, AIRIL 2OO5.
S.Sudha and A. Llenezer Ievakunar (2OO7). WaveIel and ANN ased ReIaving for Iover
Transforner Iroleclion, IournaI of Conpuler Science 3 (6): 454-46O, 2OO7, ISSN
1549-3636.
Y. Sheng and M. Sleven (2OO2). Decision lrees and vaveIel anaIvsis for pover lransforner
proleclion, ILLL Trans. Iover DeI., voI. 17, no. 2, pp. 429-433, Apr. 2OO2.
Z. Lu, W. H. Tang, T. Y. Ii and O. H. Wu (2OO9). A norphoIogicaI schene for inrush
idenlificalion in lransforners proleclion, ILLL Trans. Iover DeI., VoI. 24, no. 2, pp.
56O-568, ApriI 2OO9

InTech-Pattern Recognition Methods For Improvement of Differential Protection in Power Transformers

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Pattern recognition methods for improvement of differential protection in power transformers 473

Iig. 3. Magnelizing currenl during energizing of a lransforner

and lhe inverse discrele lransforn (IDWT) is

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