ZOOLOGY 100 NOTES

INTRODUCTION TOPIC OUTLINE I. ZOOLOGY & SUBDIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY II. CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS A. PLANTS & ANIMALS B. LIVING & NON-LIVING THINGS III. RELATIONSHIP OF MAN TO OTHER ORGANISMS IV. THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE V. STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD & SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES VI. THE MICROSCOPE OBJECTIVES: 1. Define Zoology & enumerate the subdivisions of Zoology. 2. Differentiate plants to animals, and living things to non-living things. 3. Relate how man is related to other organisms. 4. Define scientific method & enumerate the steps of the scientific method 5. Make a concept map using the steps of the scientific method in solving scientific problem. 6. Portray the scientific attitudes that a scientific person should show in a given situation. 7. Enumerate the parts of the microscope & describe their functions. 8. Describe the different theories on the origin of life. FIELDS OF SCIENCE NATURAL SCIENCE: A. PHYSICAL B. BIOLOGICAL SOCIAL SCIENCE I. NATURAL SCIENCE A. Physical Sciences 1. Chemistry 2.Physics 3. Mathematics 4. Astronomy 5. Meteorology 6. Geology 7. Physiography B. Biological Sciences A. Botany B. Zoology II. Social Sciences 1. Sociology 2. History 3. Political Science 4. Philosophy BIOLOGY PROTISTA A. Euglena as a plant Chlorophyll Cellulose B. Euglena as an Animal - Has an eye spot - Locomotive - Has mouth - Loses its chlorophyll when in dark DIVISIONS OF ZOOLOGY I. STRUCTURAL ZOOLOGY A. MORPHOLOGY: morpho B. ANATOMY: ana; temno C. HISTOLOGY: histos D. CYTOLOGY: kytos II. DEVELOPMENTAL ZOOLOGY A. EMBRYOLOGY: en; bryo ANALOGY AND HOMOLOGY

A. ONTOGENY: ont; gen B. GENETICS: genesis

III. FUNCTIONAL ZOOLOGY A. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY B. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR WITH REGARDS TO STIMULI *** TYPES OF TAXIS OR TROPISM 1. THIGMOTAXIS/THIGMOTROPISM 2. THERMOTAXIS/THERMOTROPISM 3. PHOTOTAXIS/PHOTOTROPISM 4. GALVANOTAXIS/GALVANOTROPISM 5. GEOTAXIS/GEOTROPISM 6. RHEOTAXIS/RHEOTROPISM 7. HYDROTAXIS/HYDORTROPISM 8. CHEMOTAXIS/CHEMOTROPISM 9. CHROMOTAXIS/CHROMOTROPISM IV. SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY 1. PROTOZOOLOGY 2. ENTOMOLOGY: entomo 3. CONCHOLOGY: konche 4. MALACOLOGY: mala 5. ICTHTHYOLOGY: ichthyo 6. HERPETOLOGY: herpeton 7. ORNITHOLOGY: ornis 8. MAMMALOGY: mamma V. DISTRIBUTIONAL ZOOLOGY 1. ZOOGEOGRAPHY: zoon 2. ECOLOGY: oikos A. CONVERGENCE: condition-diff. classes of animals assume same shape/form due to similarities in envt. B. DIVERGENCE: same class of animals assume diff. shape/form due to differences in envt. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION - occurs when two or more groups that are not closely related come to resemble each other more and more as time passes. - usually the result of occupation of similar habitats and the adoption of similar environmental roles.

DIVERGENT EVOLUTION "One ancestral stock evolves into two species, which continue to evolve and become less and less alike over time. with the extinction of the dinosaurs, the mammals were able to undergo extensive adaptive radiation to fill a wide range of ecological niches. VI. HISTORICAL ZOOLOGY 1. PALEONTOLOGY: palaios; ont 2. PHYLOGENY: phylon; gen 3. EVOLUTION: e; volvo/evolvo A. CONVERGENCE B. DIVERGENCE VII. ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS: sources of; FOOD CLOTHING ADHESIVES LEATHER MEDICINES NATURAL SPONGES EMPLOYMENT IMPORTANCE OF ZOOLOGY STRUCTURES OF DIFF GROUPS BODILY PROCESSES WAY OF LIFE OF ANIMALS GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION INHERITANCE DISTRIBUTION KNOWLEDGE USED IN: PHYSIOLOGY EMBYOLOGY GENETICS VIII. MEDICAL ZOOLOGY PARASITOLOGY: para; sitos A. ECTOPARASITES B. ENDOPARASITES PATHOLOGY: pathos CAUSE, NATURE,S & S MICROBIOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS LIFE ORIGIN OF LIFE THEORIES: 3 POSSIBLE WAYS THAT LIFE COULD HAVE COME TO EXISTENCE: 1. Random, natural unguided forces or processes 2. Designed and created by a designer 3. Self generation or ability to create, inherent or design into matter ORIGIN OF LIFE THEORIES: 3 POSSIBLE WAYS THAT LIFE COULD HAVE COME TO EXISTENCE: 1. Random, natural unguided forces or processes: a. Naturalistic theory: - life spores were transported to our planet, the earth - Some evolutionists speculate that matter has inherent or creative power built into it. If random chance cannot produce non-reproductive life from matter (nobody has shown that it can) how can the much, much more complex inherent creative ability of matter be credited to random chance? - a well-known clich. "Belief in chemical evolution of the first cell from lifeless chemicals is equivalent to believing that a tornado could sweep through a junkyard and form a Boeing 747." (Astrophysicists Alfred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe) - Even with all the correct chemicals present, life cannot be created. If we chopped some existing form of life in a blender, life cannot be generated from all those correct chemicals. Even if we have a real living configuration, we cannot recreate life. Dead or frozen bodies cannot be brought back to life after an extended lifeless time. b. Marine theory 2. Self generation or ability to create, inherent or design into matter a. the Panspermia theory: seeds of life are prevalent throughout the Universe and life on Earth began by such seeds landing on Earth and propagating. Currently, no evidence supports this

theory. Again, even if seeds of life are prevalent throughout the universe, that only raises the question of how did the seeds of life get there? b. Abiogenesis or spontaneous generation: life from non-life - disproved by: Redi (experiment with maggots on the meat) Pasteur (flask experiment) c. Cosmic evolution/Cosmozoic theory: the origin of space, time, energy and matter from nothing d. chemical evolution: development of higher elements from hydrogen e. Stellar & planetary evolution: origin of stars & planets f. organic evolution: origin of organic life from a rock g. macro evolution & micro evolution: origin of major kinds and variations within the kind ABIOGENESIS

EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

COSMOZOIC THEORY

3. Designed and created by a designer - We need to accept the explanation that God created the universe and all life and direct our beliefs and actions to be consistent with the acknowledgment of the creator and Jesus' revelation that He is the way, the truth, and the life. - Person/s or Scientist/s who refuted some of the theories on the origin of life BELIEVED IN GOD: 1. Louis Pasteur: he repeated the experiments (of Redi and Spellanzani) for: Spontaneous generation (life from non-life) and Biogenesis (life from life); - he demonstrated conclusively that decay was produced by air-borne microorganisms

- he didnt believe in the Evolution theory: because Darwin didnt base his ideas on experimental proof, Pasteur said do not put forward anything that you cannot prove by experimentation 1. Louis Pasteur: - his brilliant discoveries made him humble as he contemplated the marvels of divine creation. - He argued that the notion of spontaneous generation (like materialism) threatens the very concept of God the Creator. - he revered science, Pasteur always believed that there were spiritual values that transcend it. 2. George Wald: when it comes to the origin of life, there are only 2 possibilities: creation or spontaneous generation. Spontaneous Generation was disproved one hundred years ago, but that leads us to only one other conclusion, that of supernatural creation. - For more than one hundred years, biologists have taught that spontaneous generation of life from non-living matter was disproven by the work of Redi, Spallanzani, and ultimately Pasteur. - This work was so conclusive; that biology codified the "Law of Biogenesis," which states that life only comes from previously existing life. - it is just as solid as the Law of Gravity. Even though we accept the law of gravity, we cannot prove that if you continued to drop apples forever, that at one point, one apple may not fall. - Certainly what we see is consistent with the creation story in Genesis. The Scripture repeats the creation story for plants, for birds, sea creatures, and for land animals. It states that life will bring forth life after its own kind, that it was good and that life will be brought forth abundantly. That is exactly what we see, not spontaneous generation of life. DIFFERENCES OF LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS BASIS 1. FORM AND SIZE LIVING THINGS DEFINITE FORM & SIZE NON-LIVING THINGS NO DEFINITE FORM & SIZE SAME CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BUT NO PROTOPLASM NO DEFINITE ORGANIZATION NOT CAPABLE OF METABOLIC ACTIVITIES

2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION DEFINITE PROPORTION OF CHEMICALS-HAS PROTOPLASM 3. ORGANIZATION 4. METABOLISM HAS DEFINITE ORGANIZATION CAPABLE OF METABOLIC ACTIVITIES A. ANABOLISM B. CATABOLISM RESPOND TO STIMULI REPRODUCTIVE INTUSCEPTION HAS DEFINITE LIFE CYCLE ANIMALS - INVARIABLE INTERNAL ORGANS LACK DISTINCT CELL WALL - THIN, DELICATE - DIFFERENTIAL, CHANGES ARE PROPORTIONAL TO AGE - OCCUR IN CYTOPLASM IF PRESENT, ARE SMALL & CONTRACTILE or TEMPORARY VESICLE - TISSUES ARE BATHE WITH NaCl

5. IRRITABILITY 6. REPRODUCTION 7. GROWTH 8. LIFE CYCLE BASIS 1. STRUCTURE AND FORM A. ORGANS B. CELL WALL C. CELL MEMBRANE D. CHANGES D. LYSOSOME E. VACUOLE F. NaCl REACTION

NOT RESPONSIVE TO STIMULI NON-REPRODUCTIVE ACCRETION NO DEFINITE LIFE CYCLE PLANTS - VARIABLE -EXTERNAL ORGANS - HAS DISTINCT CELL WALL OF CELLULOSE - THICK,RIGID,HARD -TERMINAL GROWTH OR IS AT AGE OF THE ORGANS OR IS CONTINUOUS THROUGHOUT LIFE/PROCEEDS UNTIL DEATH - NOT USUALLY EVIDENT LARGE FILLED W/ CELL SAP - NaCl IS TOXIC TO MOST PLANTS

BASIS

ANIMALS

PLANTS

2. METABOLISM 3. IRRITABILITY

-CATABOLIC -QUICK RESPONSE -ADAPTIVE -LOCOMOTIVE

-ANABOLIC -SLOW RESPONSE -NOT ADAPTIVE -STATIONARY

LIFE PROCESSES 1. METABOLISM 2. RESPONSIVENESS 3. MOVEMENT 4. REPRODUCTION 5. SENSITIVITY 6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 7. RESPIRATION 8. EXCRETION 9. NUTRITION AND DIGESTION (MR & MRS GREN)

CONTINUATION OF ZOO 100 INTRO OBJECTIVES: Learn the attributes of living organisms Know the origin of life Express how man is related to other organisms Recall how the scientific method works I. A. LIFE = - From most dictionaries, LIFE is the property that distinguishes the living from the dead; dead = being deprived of life - From early mechanistic philosophers like Aristotle and Descartes, LIFE was wholly explicable in terms of the natural laws of chemistry and physics. - From the vitalist point of view, there was a special property, a vital force, that was absent in inanimate objects and thus unique to life. - The more we learn about living things, the clearer it becomes that lifes processes are based on the same chemical and physical laws we see at work in a stone or a glass of water. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS LIFE = special property of living things that distinguish them from the dead IF LIFE IS NOT A SPECIAL PROPERTY, WHAT IS IT? We can only describe some of the characteristics of living things and compare these with those of the nonliving things: 1. METABOLISM/ENERGY ACQUISITION and RELEASE 2. RESPONSIVENESS/DETECTION and RESPONSE TO STIMULI 3. MOVEMENT 4. REPRODUCTION and HEREDITY 5. SENSITIVITY/INTERACTION 6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 7. RESPIRATION 8. EXCRETION 9. NUTRITION AND DIGESTION (MR & MRS GREN) LIFE 1. Organization BIOSPHERE COMMUNITY POPULATION ORGANISM ORGAN SYSTEM ORGAN TISSUE CELL ORGANELLE MOLECULES ATOMS SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES 2. Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal environment in terms of pH, temperature, water concentrations - Muscles generate heat as a waste product, and is removed by sweating which helps the warmblooded animals (mammals and birds) to maintain their internal temperature. 3. Adaptation 4. Reproduction and heredity - Asexual and sexual reproduction - where in sexual reproduction is the wellspring of evolution and adaptation - DNA as physical carrier of genetic information and inheritance

5. Growth and development - single-celled organisms grow and develop in a simple manner - multi-cellular organisms undergo a complex differentiation and organogenesis 6. Energy acquisition and release - life for every organism is a struggle from acquiring energy from the sunlight, inorganic chemicals, or another organism and release it in the form of ATP 7. Detection and response to internal and external stimuli (TAXIS and TROPISM) 8. Interactions: symbiosis (organisms interaction with one another) LIVING THINGS HAVE CAPACITY TO EVOLVE evolution refers to the changes that should occur in the organisms so that they adapt to the changes of the environment. SURVIVAL NEEDS 1. NUTRIENTS 2. OXYGEN 3. WATER 4. BODY TEMPERATURE 37 o C 5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - the force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air - high altitude thin air, lower atm pressure - low altitude thick air , higher atm pressure HOMEOSTASIS The process by which a nearly stable environment is maintained in the body so that cellular metabolic functions can proceed at maximum efficiency. Components: 1. Receptors recipients of aspirants 2. Integrators control and trigger response 3. Effectors carry- out responses 4. Set points records or signals of acceptable ranges of conditions. - monitors how things should be TYPES OF FEEDBACK MECHANISMS 1. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM -the most common form of maintaining stability of the human system - the activity alters the condition ,the response reverses the altered condition 2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM - the least common response associated with instability within the system. - the activity alters the condition, the response intensifies the condition. EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM Regulation of body temperature Regulation of blood glucose level Regulation of hormonal level Homeostasis of blood pressure Accumulation of platelets in the blood clot Reabsorption of susbtances in the blood

Two types of lipoproteins and their quantity in the blood are main factors in heart disease risk: Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)--This "bad" cholesterol is the form in which cholesterol is carried into the blood and is the main cause of harmful fatty buildup in arteries. The higher the LDL cholesterol level in the blood, the greater the heart disease risk. High-density lipoprotein (HDL)--This "good" cholesterol carries blood cholesterol back to the liver, where it can be eliminated. HDL helps prevent a cholesterol buildup in blood vessels. Low HDL levels increase heart disease risk. EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM CHILDBIRTH A. Dilation stage B. Expulsion stage C. Placental Stage SEXUAL INTERCOURSE A. Excitation stage B. Orgasm C. Resolution Stage

LIVING THINGS HAVE CAPACITY TO EVOLVE DARWINIAN EVOLUTION: four main points of his radical new hypothesis: all organisms 1. Adaptation: tend to adapt 2. Variation : variable in their traits

3. (Thomas Malthus who studied how populations of organisms tended to grow geometrically until they encountered a limit on their population size) Over-reproduction: tend to reproduce beyond their environment's capacity to support them. 4. Natural Selection/Survival of the fittest: not equally well adapted to their environment, some will survive and reproduce better than others. Unlike the upper-class Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) came from a different social class. Wallace spent many years in South America, publishing salvaged notes in Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro in 1853. In 1854, Wallace left England to study the natural history of Indonesia, where he contracted malaria. During a fever Wallace managed to write down his ideas on natural selection. In 1858, Darwin received a letter from Wallace, in which Darwin's as-yet-unpublished theory of evolution and adaptation was precisely detailed. Darwin arranged for Wallace's letter to be read at a scientific meeting, along with a synopsis of his own ideas. To be correct, we need to mention that both Darwin and Wallace developed the theory, although Darwin's major work was not published until 1859 (the book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, considered by many as one of the most influential books written). While there have been some changes to the theory since 1859, most notably the incorporation of genetics and DNA into what is termed the "Modern Synthesis" during the 1940's, most scientists today acknowledge evolution as the guiding theory for modern biology. I.B. BIOLOGY: The Science of Our Lives or the Study of Life HOW DO SCIENTISTS CATEGORIZE THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE? Biology covers the study of all the living beings and their interactions into the biosphere. Biology also investigate the environmental factors that surrounds the living being by means of conservationism, it seeks for more effective ways to understand the variations or new conditions of the environment that can threaten the existence of living beings on our planet. A simple phylogenetic representation of three domains of life" Archaea, Bacteria (Eubacteria), and Eukaryota (all eukaryotic groups: Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia). Methods of Environmental Organization Examples Nutrition Significance Photosynthesis Single-celled, Monerans play various Bacteria (E. coli), , filament, or roles in almost all food cyanobacteria Monera chemosynthesi colony of chains, including (Oscillatoria), (in the s, decomposer, cells; all producer,consumer, and methanogens, and broadest parasitic. prokaryotic. decomposer. thermacidophiles. sense, Cyanobacteria are including important oxygen organisms producers. usually Many Monerans also placed in produce nitrogen, the vitamins, antibiotics, Domain and are important Archaea). compoents in human and animal intestines. Photosynthesis Single-celled, Important producers in Plankton (both , absorb food filamentous, ocean/pond food chain. phytoplankton and from colonial, and Source of food in some zooplankton), algae environment, multicelled; all human cultures. (kelp, diatoms, Protista or trap/engulf eukaryotic. Phytoplankton dinoflagellates),and smaller component that is one Protozoa (Amoeba, organisms. of the major producers Paramecium). of oxygen Absorb food Single-celled, Decomposer, parasite, Mushrooms from a host or filamentous, and consumer. (Agaricus from their to multicelled; Produce antibiotics,help campestris, the environment. all eukaryotic. make bread and alcohol. commercial All Crop parasites (Dutch mushroom), molds, Fungi heterotrophic. Elm Disease, Karnal mildews, rusts and Bunt, Corn Smut, etc.). smuts (plant parasites), yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisae, the brewer's yeast). Kingdom

Almost all All multicelled, Food source, medicines and Angiosperms photosynthetic photosynthetic drugs, dyes, building (oaks, tulips, , although a , autotrophs.. material, fuel. cacti),gymnosper few parasitic Producer in most food ms (pines, spuce, plants are chains. fir), mosses, Plantae known. ferns,liverworts, horsetails (Equisetum, the scouring rush) All Multicelled heterotrophic. heterotrophs capable of movement at Animalia some stage during their life history (even couch potatoes). Consumer level in most foodSponges, chains worms,molluscs, (herbivores,carnivores,omni insects, vores). starfish,mammal Food source, beasts of s, burden and transportation, amphibians,fish, recreation, and birds, reptiles, companionship. and dinosaurs, and people.

HOW DID THE SCIENTISTS BEEN ABLE TO DISCOVER LIVING BEINGS?

II. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Science is an objective, logical, and repeatable attempt to understand the principles and forces operating in the natural universe. It provides a systematic and rational approach for answering the questions raised in a way that can be duplicated or repeated. In order to conduct science, one must know the rules of the game (which is one does when buying computer or video games) Humans seem innately interested in the world we live in. Young children drive their parents batty with constant "why" questions. Science is a means to get some of those whys answered. When we shop for groceries, we are conducting a kind of scientific experiment. If you like Brand X of soup, and Brand Y is on sale, perhaps you try Brand Y. If you like it you may buy it again, even when it is not on sale. If you did not like Brand Y, then no sale will get you to try it again. The scientific method is a guide/step/rule/process that can be modified. In some sciences, such as taxonomy and certain types of geology, laboratory experiments are not necessarily performed. Instead, after formulating a hypothesis, additional observations and/or collections are made from different localities. The Basic steps in the scientific method commonly include: 1. Observation: defining the problem you wish to explain. 2. Hypothesis: one or more falsifiable explanations for the observation. 3. Experimentation: Controlled attempts to test one or more hypotheses.

4. Conclusion: was the hypothesis supported or not? After this step the hypothesis is either
modified or rejected, which causes a repeat of the steps above. After a hypothesis has been repeatedly tested, a hierarchy of scientific thought develops. Hypothesis is the most common, with the lowest level of certainty. A theory is a hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested with little modification, e.g. The Theory of Evolution. A Law is one of the fundamental underlying principles of how the Universe is organized, e.g. The Laws of Thermodynamics, Newton's Law of Gravity. Science uses the word theory differently than it is used in the general population. Theory to most people, in general nonscientific use, is an untested idea. Scientists call this a hypothesis.