IPG Kampus Sultan Mizan Besut Terengganu

SCE3101

LIFE AND LIVING PROCESSES

Compiled by Aom

[2011]

SCE 3101 Life and Living Processes

TOPIC 2

FOOD AND YOUR WELL - BEING

Synopsis
A healthy balanced diet contains the right amount of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins, water and roughage in order to meet the bodys daily requirements. In this topic you will be learning about classes of food, a balanced diet, nutritious food, development in food technology and practical investigations concerning foods in the primary school science curriculum.

Learning Outcomes
1. List out the classes of food 2. Describe the importance of a balance diet and nutritious food 3. Write a report on the development in the food technology

Overview
Food and your wellbeing

Classes of food

Balanced Diet

Nutritious Food

Development in Food Technology

Practical investigations in the primary school science curriculum

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Figure 2.1: Overview of content

2.1

Classes of food

There are five main classes of foods. There are carbohydrates, fats and oils, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Carbohydrates are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen usually in the proportion 1:2:1 respectively. Carbohydrates include all starches, cellulose and sugars. Most foods contain carbohydrates include rice, potato, sugar, bread and banana. Carbohydrate is our main sources of energy to carry out daily activities such as walking, breathing and working. Each gram of carbohydrate provides 4 calories.

Figure 2.2: Structure of carbohydrate

Fats and oils (lipids) are organic compounds insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as alcohol, ether and chloroform. They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but the proportion of oxygen is lower than in carbohydrates. Fats pack a lot of energy. Each gram of fat provides nine calories. There are three kinds of fat: saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated. Animal and dairy fats, which remain solid at room temperature, are saturated fats. Saturated fat is often called "bad" fat. Unsaturated fats include vegetable fat and oils remain liquid at room temperature. The functions of fat include supplying energy, as an insulator of heat to reduce heat loss from the body, protecting the internal organs such as the kidneys and the heart and dissolving some vitamins in the body like vitamin A, D, E and K.

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Figure 2.3: Structure of fat

Proteins are organic macromolecules found in all living organisms. They are polymers form from condensation of amino acids joined by peptide linkages. Proteins contain the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Many proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus. Food rich in protein includes fish, milk, meat, egg white and nuts (groundnuts and soya bean). Proteins are required for building new cells. Proteins provide energy at four calories per gram, but they are more important as the body's building materials.Growing children required a lot of protein. Lack of protein will cause a disease known as kwashiorkor (stunted growth).

Figure 2.4: Structure of proteins

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Minerals are inorganic nutrients needed by the body. Some are macrominerals, needed in relatively large quantities, others which are called microminerals needed in small or trace amounts. Unlike vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, minerals are not made by plants and animals. Plants get minerals from water or soil, and animals get minerals by eating plants or plant-eating animals. The minerals the body needs in large amounts include calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and

sulfur. Other minerals, called trace elements, are needed in much smaller amounts. Trace elements include iron, copper, fluorine, iodine, selenium, zinc, chromium, cobalt, manganese, and molybdenum. Vitamins are organic molecules required in trace amounts. They are essential for many physiological functions in the body. If vitamins are lacking, they can cause deficiency diseases. There are 13 vitamins in all: vitamin A; the vitamin B complex, which includes thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folic acid, vitamin B12 pantothenic acid, and biotin; and vitamins C, D, E, and K.

SCE 3101 Life and Living Processes

Exercise (2 hours)

Refer to any relevant sources, list out examples of foods and its function in the Table 2.1 according to their classes.

Table 2.1: Food classes and its functions

Food Class Carbohydrate Food Examples Functions

Fats and oils

Proteins Minerals

Vitamins

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2.2

Balanced Diet

A diet is balanced when it contains the right amounts of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins, water and roughage in order to meet the bodys daily requirements. While a nutritious or a healthy diet should provide the body with all the substances necessary to maintain growth, to keep in good health, and to repair damaged tissues.

Each of the food nutrients your body requires varies with your lifestyle, gender, activities, and age. When a person takes in more calories than it can use for energy, the excess may be stored as fat. Obesity may result when excess fats are accumulated in the body.

Thinking (1 hour)

1.

We are what we eat. Discuss the meaning and significance of this statement.

2.

Europeans tend to eat 80 g of fatty food, while Eskimos eat up to 300 g daily. What are the reasons of this phenomena happening in both places?

3.

Students eat more than a teacher. Explain why.

Write your answers and send in to your lecturer.

Why dont you take a rest!

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2.3

Nutritious food

Figure 2.5: Food pyramid

Food provides the body with the materials it needs for energy, growth, repair, and reproduction. These materials are called nutrients. Nutritionists divide nutrients into two main groups: macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients, so called because the body needs more of them. These include carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. These are the foods our bodies use for energy and growth. Micronutrients, or nutrients required in only small amounts, include vitamins and minerals. Most foods contain a combination of the two groups. Figure 2.5 shows the food pyramid of nutritious food.

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2.4

Developments in Food Technology Collecting Information (1 hour)

With the help of internet, books, journals and other resources, you are to gather all information on the developments in food technology. You are also to visit a food processing factory or access information on food industry from the internet. Organise and present your information about the steps in food canning and bottling using graphic organizers.

DO YOU AGREE! The advance in food technology provides us with more nutritious food.

2.5

Practical investigations in the primary school science curriculum

Exercise (1 hour)

Collect and compile information on methods of food preservations from internets, books, journals and other resources. Choose one method of food preservation, plan and prepare the materials and apparatus. Demonstrate it in your classroom. Send the report and evidences pictures, video-clip of your activity, students work, and the result. Write a reflection about the activity.

SCE 3101 Life and Living Processes

Reference

Campbell, N., Reese, J, Taylor, M, Simon, E. (2006). Biology concepts & connections. (5th Eds.). San Francisco: Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. Kaskel, Albert and Hummer, Paul.J. (2003). Biology an everyday experience. New York: GlencoeMcGraw Hill Lee S.C, Liew S.L, Choong N.M (2004). Success in Biology for STPM Vol.2. Kuala Lumpur:Fajar Bakti, Lum How Kee (2000) Biology The Living Science. Singapore:Pearson Mader, Sylvia S (2007) Biology. (9th eds.). New York:McGraw Hill

Reading Material

For further reading, you can visit websites:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_guide_pyramid http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate http://slimwithyoga.com/nutritious/index.html http://www.lifeclinic.com/focus/nutrition/food-pyramid.asp http:www.mbbe.com/raven7

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TOPIC 4
Synopsis

ANIMAL RESPIRATION

The general term respiration is the process of releasing energy from food. In this topic you will be learning about respiration in animal and how oxygen is transported in different animals.

Learning Outcomes
Name the respiratory organs for different animals Describe the mechanism of breathing in and breathing out in different animals and human Compare and contrast the structure and mechanism of breathing organ in different animals and human Describe oxygen transportation in different animals and human

Overview

Respiration

Respiration in animal

Oxygen Transportation

Figure 4.1: Overview of content

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Respiration

Organisms need energy to live.

We can get the energy from a process called

respiration. Respiration can be divided into external respiration or breathing and cell respiration. A wide variety of stored food reserves in our body such as starch, glycogen, oil, fats and proteins must be converted into simple sugar glucose before energy can be release from them.

In animal physiology, respiration is the transport of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. This is in contrast to the biochemical definition of respiration, which refers to cellular respiration: the metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy by reacting oxygen with glucose to give water, carbon dioxide and ATP (energy). Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place in individual cells of the animal, while physiologic respiration concerns the bulk flow and transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment.

Respiratory exchange surfaces have the following features in common in order for the process to be efficient. They are moist, permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, thin walled (usually comprise of single cells), total surface area is bigger than volume in many animals and richly supplied with blood. In unicellular organisms, simple diffusion is sufficient for gas exchange: every cell is constantly bathed in the external environment, with only a short distance for gases to flow across. Microscopic organisms such as Amoeba exchange gasses across their entire cell surfaces which are permeable. In contrast, complex multicellular animals such as humans have a much greater distance between the environment and their innermost cells, thus, a respiratory system is needed for effective gas exchange. Larger organisms like us need more complex system for gas exchange. This is because the larger the animal is, the less the ratio of surface area over volume it possess.The respiratory system works in concert with a circulatory system to carry gases to and from the tissues.

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4.1

Respiration in animal

Thinking (1 hour)

Do you notice what happen to your chest when you breathe in and out? What is happening?

Inhale and Exhale air

The air that we breathe in is called inhaled air. The process in which air is inhaled is called inhalation or inspiration. The air that we breathe out is called exhaled air. The process of exhaling air from our body is called exhalation or expiration.

Table 4.1 below shows the composition of inhaled and exhaled air. Observe the differences in composition of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour between the two kinds of air.

Table 4.1: Composition of Inhaled and Exhaled Air AIR COMPOSITION Oxygen Carbon dioxide Nitrogen Water vapour INHALED AIR 20.96% 0.03% 79.01% Varies EXHALED AIR 16.4% 4.1% 79.5% Saturated

Rest

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Thinking (2 hours)

How does air being inhaled or exhaled? Make a summary about the mechanism in form of graphic organizer.

Inhalation and Exhalation Mechanism

The mechanism of breathing is controlled by the volume of our thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity is an airtight chamber enclosed by the body wall, supported by the ribs. The cavity is sealed posteriorly by a dome shape muscular diaphragm. Figure 4.2 illustrate the mechanism of breathing during inhalation and expiration.

Inhalation

Exhalation

Ribs move up

Ribs move down Diaphragm moves up

Diaphragm moves down

Volume of thoracic cavity increases

Volume of thoracic cavity decreases

Figure 4.2:

Inhalation and Exhalation Mechanism (Source: Lum How Kee, 2000)

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4.2

Oxygen Transportation

You have learnt about your breathing mechanism. Next, you are going to relate this knowledge with the gas exchange process in human, birds, insects and fish.

Exercise (2 hours)

Figure 4.3 shows the respiratory structures in human, birds, insect, and fish. Using relevant diagram, describe how oxygen is transported from the source until it enters the cells.

Figure 4.3: Respiratory structures in human, birds, insect, and fish

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Reference
Raven, P, H., Johnson, G. B., Losos, J.B. dan Singer, S.R.(2005). Biology. (7th eds.). Boston:McGraw Hill

For further reading, you can visit websites:

http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/curr/science/sciber00/7th/classify/living/2.htm http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookRESPSYS.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiration_(physiology) http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/characteristics.html .

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TOPIC 7
Synopsis

GROWTH

The growth of an organism is the progress of the organism from a lower or simpler to a higher or more complex form. In this topic you will be learning about the definition of growth, type of growth curve and the pattern of growth for animals and plants.

Learning Outcome
Explain the definition and pattern of growth of organisms Describe the growth of the seedlings in terms of the increase in height, number of leaves and size of trunk/stem Explain the factors affecting the pattern and rate of growth in plant and animal

Overview

Growth

Definition of growth

Type of growth curve

Pattern of growth for animals and plants

Figure 7.1: Overview of content

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7.1

Definition of growth

When we talk about growth, it always refers to an increase in some quantity over time. The quantity can be physical (e.g., growth in height, growth in an amount of money) or abstract (e.g., a system becoming more complex, an organism becoming more mature). It can also refer to the mode of growth, i.e. numeric models for describing how much a particular quantity grows over time.

In biology the growth of an individual organism (or of an organ) is the progress from a lower, simpler, or embryonic to a higher or more complex form that conduct to a full development or maturity. Growth brings to an increase, in size, number, value, strength, or intensity.

Plant growth is a phenomenon different from animal growth. Animals exhibit a growth pattern called determinate growth. (Most animals have a pre-programmed body form (e.g. four legs, two eyes, one nose and so on) and quit growing after a certain age) Plants, however, exhibit a growth pattern called indeterminate growth

The plant retains some areas where rapidly dividing, undifferentiated cells remain all through the life of the plant. These areas are called meristems (Figure 7.2)
o

Meristematic

tissue

continues

to

rapidly

divide

producing

undifferentiated cells which may eventually differentiate to form all the tissue and cell types.

Plants do not have a pre-programmed body plan

o

There are constants like leaf shape and branching patters (opposite, alternate, etc.) but you can never predict where a new branch will come about on a tree

Plants continue to grow throughout their life.

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Figure 7.2: Stem Structure showing the meristerms

(Source :http://scidiv.bcc.ctc.edu/rkr/Botany110/lectures/stems.html)

7.2

Type of growth curve

Growth curves can be obtained by using a variety of parameters of growth (such as mass, number, length, height, surface area) plotted against set intervals of time. For many populations, organisms or organs, the shape of these curves is usually sigmoid (Sshaped).

Sigmoid Growth Curve

Growth curve is made up of measurements of growth throughout the life of an organism. It also shows when most growth takes place. Growth curves are very similar for most organisms whether animals or plants. This pattern is known as continuous growth and it usually gives an S-shaped or sigmoid curve as shown in Figure 7.3. The sigmoid curve is a 'growth average' representing all organisms, where young organisms experience rapid accelerating growth to cope with their environment, followed by a continuous steady growth. Towards maturity, an organisms growth rate slows down until no growth occurs.

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Figure 7.3: Sigmoid Growth Curve (Source: Lee et al., 2004)

In most animals and plants, the growth pattern follows an S-shaped curve. Slow early growth occurs from first emergence, or birth, which is followed by a long phase of rapid increase in body mass and maturation of organs, especially structural or somatic tissue that support the individual, up to about the time of puberty or reproductive maturity. Finally, growth slows, and in some species stops altogether after reproductive maturation as shown in Figure 7.4. In many animals and most plants, however, growth continues throughout life, so that the oldest individuals in the population are generally the largest. However, the growth curve of certain organisms may vary.

Figure 7.4: Changes in Growth Rates over Time

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7.3

Pattern of growth for animals and plants

There are five patterns of growth for animals and plants.

Allometric growth
Allos (Latin word) means other; metron means measure. In many animals and plants, the different parts of the body usually grow at different rate from each other and from the overall rate of the body. This produces a change in the size and form of the organism and is called allometric growth. For example the growth and development of the various parts of the organism body from fetus to adult.

Figure 7.5:

Computer color-enhanced X ray depicting the hand development of a two, six, and nineteen year old male.

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Isometric growth
Isometric growth occurs when an organ grows at the same mean rate as the rest of the body of the organism. There is no change in shape or external form when the size of the organism increases. For example, the growth in fish and some insects such as grasshoppers.

Intermittent growth
Arthropods such as insects and crustaceans undergo intermittent or discontinuous growth. The hard, inelastic exoskeletons of these animals restrict the growth of the organism but the period of shedding of the outer cuticle allows growth to occur for a short period of time. When the new cuticle hardens, growth is prevented. Moulting occur about four or five times before the adult stage reached.

Limited Growth
Limited growth also called as definite or determinate growth. In this type of growth, the organism does not continue grow throughout life. The organisms grow to a predetermined size within the normal range for the group of organism; there is then no further growth. Limited growth usually occurs in annual plants (in their fruits, seeds and dicotyledonous leaves).

Unlimited Growth
The growth of the organism continues throughout their life. For example, unlimited growth are found among woody plants, monocotyledonous leaves, fungi, algae, fish, reptiles and a few kind of invertebrates such as corals and sponges. As the growth of organism is continuous, there is an increase in mass, height or length. Growth will continue until the organism died or destroyed.

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Thinking (2 hours)

Do all the organisms follow the sigmoid growth curve? Find out which organisms have a slightly different growth curve. Write an essay to discuss your answers. Use specific diagrams to illustrate your points.

Exercise ( 6 hours)

What are factors affecting the pattern and rate of growth in plants and animals? Plan an experiment to measure the growth of a green pea (Vigna radiata) for a week. Discuss the steps that you would take, and collect the data that you would obtain from the experiment. Write a full and complete scientific report consisting of topic, aim of the investigation, materials and apparatus, method, results, discussion, conclusion and suggestions to improve the investigation.

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Reference

Lee Ching and Arunasalam,J. (2007). Pre-U text STPM Biology. Shah Alam: Pearson Malaysia. Sdn. Bhd. Raven, P.H. Johnson, G.B., Losos, J.B. and Singer, S.R. (2005). Biology. Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

For further reading, you can visit websites:

http://www.biologyreference.com/Gr-Hi/Growth.html http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/247218/growth http:www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/247218/growth http://www.cactus-art.biz/note-book/Dictionary/Dictionary_G/dictionary_growth.htm http://www.cdli.ca/courses/biol2201/unit04_org01_ilo02/b_activity.html http://www.demographic-research.org/Volumes/Vol15/12/15-12.pdf http://www.science.siu.edu/zoology/materials/zool466/fish7.pdf

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Topic 10

ANIMAL EXCRETION

Synopsis

Animals have evolved a variety of mechanism to cope with problems of water balance. In many animals, the removal of water or salts from the body is coupled with the removal of metabolic wastes through the excretory system. In this topic you will be learning about excretion in animal specific for organ of excretion for human (skin and kidney).

Learning Outcomes
1. Draw and label the structure of human skin 2. State the functions of human kidney 3. Explain the importance of excretion system in organisms Overview

Animal excretion

Excretion in Animal

The human skin

The human kidney

Figure 10.1: Overview of content

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10.1

Excretion in Animal

Excretion is the process of eliminating waste products of metabolism and other nonuseful materials. It is an essential process in all forms of life. It contrasts secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell.

Excretion also can be defined as the transfer of substances out of a living organism into its environment. At its simplest, for single-cell forms of life, this involves extrusion across the cell membrane of the unwanted or potentially toxic by-products of respiration and metabolism. This is also what is happening continually in the individual cells of the animal body, but from their immediate environment substances must move into the blood to be carried away to the site of their ultimate disposal. In the animal body there is also another type of excretion: expulsion of the residue of substances which have not been absorbed into the body proper from the gut (which can be considered a tunnel through the body of the external world). Wastes from your bodys cells enter the bloodstream and are carried to specific excretory organs. The major excretory organs are the kidneys and the skin.

10.2

The Human Skin

The skin is often known as the largest organ of the human body. This applies to exterior surface, as it covers the body, appearing to have the largest surface area of all the organs. For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square meters (16.1-21.5 sq ft.), most of it is between 2-3 mm (0.10 inch) thick. The average square inch (6.5 cm) of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than a thousand nerve endings.

The principle role of the skin is to remove excess heat. When the body becomes too warm, blood vessels in the skin enlarge, increasing the flow of blood to the capillaries, which allows heat to be given off to the air. The enlargement of the blood vessels to the skin is called vasodilatation. Another way of which the body removed excess heat is through perspiration. Perspiration also excretes excess water and body wastes like sodium chloride, and urea through pores in the skin. As perspirations evaporate, it 26

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helps cool the body. Likewise when the body is too cold, the blood vessels to the skin constricted, thus decreasing the flow of blood to the capillaries. This will make the body losses less heat to the air. The constriction of blood vessels is called vasoconstriction.

Figure 10.2: Cross Section through Skin

Making Notes (2 hours)

Refer to any science textbook or website for the description and function of each component of the skin. Make a summary about it.

Rest

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10.3

The Human Kidney

In mammals the main organs of excretion are the kidneys and accessory urinary organs, through which urine is eliminated, and the large intestines, from which solid wastes are expelled. The kidneys are organs that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostatic balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting metabolites (such as urea) and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water, as urine. Because the kidneys are poised to sense plasma concentrations of ions such as sodium, potassium, hydrogen, and compounds such as amino acids, creatinine, bicarbonate, and glucose, they are important regulators of blood pressure, glucose metabolism, and erythropoiesis (the process by which red blood cells (erythrocytes) are produced). The medical field that studies the kidneys and diseases of the kidney is called nephrology.The prefix nephro- meaning kidney is from the Ancient Greek word nephros; the adjective renal meaning related to the kidney is from Latin rns, meaning kidneys.

The kidneys are bean shaped organs that lie on each side of the spine in the lower back. Each kidney is protected by a layer of fat. Blood containing wastes such as urea and mineral ions like sodium and chloride enters the kidneys and is divided into smaller and smaller amounts as the renal arteries transporting it branch into capillaries. From the capillaries the blood flows through filters that separate the wastes from the blood and combine them in urine. Urine is a liquid that contains, in addition to the bodys wastes by-products, water and excess mineral salts that have also been filtered from the blood by the kidneys. Tubes called ureters carry the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. This muscular organ expels the urine from the body through the urethras. Meanwhile, the cleansed blood exits the kidney through the renal veins and is circulated back to our heart.

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Checklist (2 hours)

Study Figure 10.3 below. Try to identify the different parts of the kidney. Make a list of the functions . Describe how the dirty blood is filtered as it moves through the kidney. Explain the importance of excretion system in organisms.

Figure 10.3: Different parts of a kidney

Reference
Campbell, N., Reese, J, Taylor, M, Simon, E. (2006). Biology concepts & connections. (5th Eds.). San Francisco: Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. Kaskel, Albert and Hummer, Paul.J. (2003). Biology an everyday experience. New York: GlencoeMcGraw Hill Lee S.C, Liew S.L, Choong N.M (2004). Success in Biology for STPM Vol.2. Kuala Lumpur:Fajar Bakti, Lum How Kee (2000) Biology The Living Science. Singapore:Pearson

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Mader, Sylvia S (2007) Biology. (9th eds.). New York:McGraw Hill

For further reading, you can visit websites:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excretion http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/Osmoregulatio n/Osmoregulation.htm

End

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Topic 10

ANIMAL EXCRETION

Synopsis

Animals have evolved a variety of mechanism to cope with problems of water balance. In many animals, the removal of water or salts from the body is coupled with the removal of metabolic wastes through the excretory system. In this topic you will be learning about excretion in animal specific for organ of excretion for human (skin and kidney).

Learning Outcomes
1. Draw and label the structure of human skin 2. State the functions of human kidney 3. Explain the importance of excretion system in organisms Overview

Animal excretion

Excretion in Animal

The human skin

The human kidney

Figure 10.1: Overview of content

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10.1

Excretion in Animal

Excretion is the process of eliminating waste products of metabolism and other nonuseful materials. It is an essential process in all forms of life. It contrasts secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell.

Excretion also can be defined as the transfer of substances out of a living organism into its environment. At its simplest, for single-cell forms of life, this involves extrusion across the cell membrane of the unwanted or potentially toxic by-products of respiration and metabolism. This is also what is happening continually in the individual cells of the animal body, but from their immediate environment substances must move into the blood to be carried away to the site of their ultimate disposal. In the animal body there is also another type of excretion: expulsion of the residue of substances which have not been absorbed into the body proper from the gut (which can be considered a tunnel through the body of the external world). Wastes from your bodys cells enter the bloodstream and are carried to specific excretory organs. The major excretory organs are the kidneys and the skin.

10.2

The Human Skin

The skin is often known as the largest organ of the human body. This applies to exterior surface, as it covers the body, appearing to have the largest surface area of all the organs. For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square meters (16.1-21.5 sq ft.), most of it is between 2-3 mm (0.10 inch) thick. The average square inch (6.5 cm) of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than a thousand nerve endings.

The principle role of the skin is to remove excess heat. When the body becomes too warm, blood vessels in the skin enlarge, increasing the flow of blood to the capillaries, which allows heat to be given off to the air. The enlargement of the blood vessels to the skin is called vasodilatation. Another way of which the body removed excess heat is through perspiration. Perspiration also excretes excess water and body wastes like sodium chloride, and urea through pores in the skin. As perspirations evaporate, it 32

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helps cool the body. Likewise when the body is too cold, the blood vessels to the skin constricted, thus decreasing the flow of blood to the capillaries. This will make the body losses less heat to the air. The constriction of blood vessels is called vasoconstriction.

Figure 10.2: Cross Section through Skin

Making Notes (2 hours)

Refer to any science textbook or website for the description and function of each component of the skin. Make a summary about it.

Rest

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10.3

The Human Kidney

In mammals the main organs of excretion are the kidneys and accessory urinary organs, through which urine is eliminated, and the large intestines, from which solid wastes are expelled. The kidneys are organs that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostatic balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting metabolites (such as urea) and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water, as urine. Because the kidneys are poised to sense plasma concentrations of ions such as sodium, potassium, hydrogen, and compounds such as amino acids, creatinine, bicarbonate, and glucose, they are important regulators of blood pressure, glucose metabolism, and erythropoiesis (the process by which red blood cells (erythrocytes) are produced). The medical field that studies the kidneys and diseases of the kidney is called nephrology.The prefix nephro- meaning kidney is from the Ancient Greek word nephros; the adjective renal meaning related to the kidney is from Latin rns, meaning kidneys.

The kidneys are bean shaped organs that lie on each side of the spine in the lower back. Each kidney is protected by a layer of fat. Blood containing wastes such as urea and mineral ions like sodium and chloride enters the kidneys and is divided into smaller and smaller amounts as the renal arteries transporting it branch into capillaries. From the capillaries the blood flows through filters that separate the wastes from the blood and combine them in urine. Urine is a liquid that contains, in addition to the bodys wastes by-products, water and excess mineral salts that have also been filtered from the blood by the kidneys. Tubes called ureters carry the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. This muscular organ expels the urine from the body through the urethras. Meanwhile, the cleansed blood exits the kidney through the renal veins and is circulated back to our heart.

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Checklist (2 hours)

Study Figure 10.3 below. Try to identify the different parts of the kidney. Make a list of the functions . Describe how the dirty blood is filtered as it moves through the kidney. Explain the importance of excretion system in organisms.

Figure 10.3: Different parts of a kidney

Reference
Campbell, N., Reese, J, Taylor, M, Simon, E. (2006). Biology concepts & connections. (5th Eds.). San Francisco: Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. Kaskel, Albert and Hummer, Paul.J. (2003). Biology an everyday experience. New York: GlencoeMcGraw Hill Lee S.C, Liew S.L, Choong N.M (2004). Success in Biology for STPM Vol.2. Kuala Lumpur:Fajar Bakti, Lum How Kee (2000) Biology The Living Science. Singapore:Pearson

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SCE 3101 Life and Living Processes

Mader, Sylvia S (2007) Biology. (9th eds.). New York:McGraw Hill

For further reading, you can visit websites:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excretion http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/Osmoregulatio n/Osmoregulation.htm

End

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