Magic Squares Report Introduction Chapter 1: The History of Magic Squares Chapter 2: What is a Magic Square? 2.

1: Odd Order 2.2: Doubly Even 2.3: Singly Even Chapter 3: Variations on Magic Squares 3.1: Panmagic 3.2: Anti-Magic Squares 3.3: Franklin Squares 3.4: Latin Squares 3.4.1: Graeco-Latin Squares Chapter 4: Applications of Magic Squares 4.1: Music 4.2: Sudoku Conclusion References

Introduction This report aims to explore the possible applications of magic squares in everyday life. In doing this, different types of magic squares will be investigated and the methods used to construct them. How magic squares have evolved and where they originally came from should also be considered. Also, variations on the basic magic square will be looked at to see if these have any practical applications. Chapter 1: The History of Magic Squares The earliest magic square known dates from around 2800 B.C. in China. A Chinese myth says that Emperor Yu found a tortoise with a pattern on its shell while walking along the Yellow River. He called this unique diagram, Loh-Shu (Anderson, 2001).

The Loh-Shu Tortoise

(Fig 1.1)

However, the first recorded magic square was described as the scroll of the river Loh or Loh-Shu by Fuh-Hi (Farrar, 1997 & Grogono, 2004). It is a 3x3 magic square with symbols rather than numbers (See fig 1.2). The Chinese scholars of today have only managed to trace the Loh-Shu back as far as the fourth century B. C. and from then until the tenth century it was seen as a symbol of great significance. This Loh-Shu was numerical, with the number of dots in each symbol representing a whole number (See fig 1.2). The even numbers were thought to represent the female principle, yin, and the odd numbers the male principle, yang. The 5 in the middle was thought to be the earth, around which lie the other four elements; metal, 4 and 9, fire, 2 and 7, water, 1 and 6 and wood 3 and 8 (Gardner, 1988).

The Loh-Shu Magic Square

(Fig 1.2)

There are also Greek writings relating to magic squares from around 1300 B.C. (Farrar, 1997). It is thought that from China, magic squares were introduced to Indian culture, and it was there that the first magic square of order four was discovered (Swaney, 2000). In India, magic squares were used not only in the traditional mathematical context, but also for other applications such as in recipes for making perfume and also in medical work, with a third order magic square appearing as a means of easing childbirth (Anderson, 2001). Islamic and Arabic mathematicians were aware of magic squares, probably from the Indians, by about the fifth century A.D. and are often attributed to using them in astrology and predictions. Their magic squares were of larger order & they compiled a list of magic squares up to order nine (Ballew, 2006). It was Islamic mathematicians who first made simple rules for creating magic squares. In around 1300, the Byzantine, Manual Moschopoulos, wrote a book based on the findings of Al-Buni, an Arab mathematician, about magic squares. It was Moschopoulos who introduced magic squares to Europe, where they were associated with divination, alchemy and astrology (Anderson, 2001). Since then, magic squares have been looked at in relation to planets and the sun, art and religion. Also in the past, magic squares were important in African culture. They held spiritual importance and were often inscribed on masks, clothes and religious artefacts and were influential in house design and building (Anderson, 2001).

Chapter 2: What is a Magic Square? A basic magic square of order n can be defined as an arrangement of numbers 1 to
n 2 in an

n n matrix, such that every row, column and diagonal add up to the same
1 n n 2 +1 (Ball, 1959). In general, 2

number (Adler, 1996). The magic sum, or the number that each row, column and diagonal add up to can be found by the formula

magic squares remain magic if the same positive integer is added to each number in the square or each number in the original square is multiplied by the same number (Kraitchik, 1960).

A basic 4x4 magic square

(Fig 2.1)

2.1: Odd Order An odd order magic square is of the form, n = 2m +1 . There are several methods of generating such magic squares for m 1 . With the most common being the known as the Siamese or staircase method (see fig 2.1.1). In this method the numbers are written in ascending numerical order as an upward diagonal to the right. When a filled square is reached the next number is placed vertically below its predecessor. This method was devised by De la Loubre when the 1 is placed in the middle column of the top row (Ball, 1959). If the 1 lies in the middle column on the row directly above the middle row it is known as the method of Bachet de Mziriac (Kraitchik, 1960).

The Siamese or staircase method for generating odd order magic squares

(Fig 2.1.1)

2.2: Doubly Even A doubly even magic square is in the form n = 4m . One method of constructing this type of magic square, for m 1 , is the cross method (See fig 2.2.1). By writing all the numbers in order from the top left of a square to the bottom right, then drawing a cross through every 4x4 square, or sub-square of a larger square, and swapping the numbers along the diagonals of the cross, will yield a magic square.

The cross method for generating doubly even magic squares

(Fig 2.2.1)

2.3: Singly Even

A singly even magic square is of the form 4m + 2 , when m 1 . One method of construction is that of Ralph Strachey, to divide the square up into equal quarters. For example, in a 6x6 square, this will give four 3x3 squares. Each of these can then be formed using De la Loubres method for odd order squares (Ball, 1959).

8 3 4 3 5 3 0 3 1

1 5 9 2 8 3 2 3 6

6 7 2 3 3 3 4 2 9

2 6 2 1 2 2 1 7 1 2 1 3

1 9 2 3 2 7 1 0 1 4 1 8

24 25 20 15 16 11 (Fig 2.3.1)

Strachey Method

Another method for generating singly even magic squares was found by J. H. Conway and is called the LUX method. Create m +1 rows of L followed by one row of U and then m 1 rows of X at the bottom. Then swap the middle U with the L directly above it. The rows of letters form an odd order square, so starting at the top middle L, put in the numbers working through the letters using the De la Loubre method (Weisstein, 2003).

LUX method

(Fig 2.3.2)

Chapter 3: Variations on Magic Squares There are many variations of magic squares such as border squares, magic stars, cubes, rectangles and other shapes, alphamagic squares, reversible and complimentary magic squares among others. It was felt that looking into Franklin squares, Latin squares and panmagic squares would give the most insight to possible applications. 3.1: Panmagic Squares Panmagic squares, also known as pandiagonal and diabolic squares, have the same properties as normal magic squares except that all the broken diagonals of the square must also equal the magic sum (Ball, 1959), therefore the square must be magic along all rows, columns, the two full diagonals and all broken diagonals (See Fig 3.1.1). Panmagic squares do not exist for order 3 or for order 4m + 2 , where m is any integer. The Siamese method for generating odd order magic squares will produce panmagic squares for order 6m 1 when using vector (2, 1) and break vector (1, -1) (Weisstein, 2006). Where the vector is the number of cells moved across and down respectively. The break vector is how the pattern changes when a filled cell is reached again.

Broken diagonals

(Fig 3.1.1)

3.2: Antimagic Squares An antimagic square is the complete opposite of a magic square in that all the rows, columns and diagonals equal different values. They contain the same numbers, 1 to
n 2 , just in a different arrangement. Antimagic squares of order 1, 2 and 3 are

impossible to create (Weisstein, 2002).

Examples of antimagic squares

(Fig 3.2.1)

3.3: Franklin Squares Benjamin Franklin produced several magic squares during the mid 1700s, many of which were only partial Latin squares since their diagonal totals did not add up to the

magic sum. However, they had other properties which made them of interest to mathematicians.

260 52 14 53 11 55 9 50 16 61 3 60 6 58 8 63 1 4 62 5 59 7 57 2 64 13 51 12 54 10 56 15 49 20 46 21 43 23 41 18 48

260 29 35 28 38 26 40 31 33 36 30 37 27 39 25 34 32 45 19 44 22 42 24 47 17

292 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 228

260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 Franklins original 8x8 square 130 130 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 228 52 14 53 11 55 9 50 16 130 Franklins original 8x8 square 61 3 60 6 58 8 63 1 4 62 5 59 7 57 2 64 13 51 12 54 10 56 15 49 20 46 21 43 23 41 18 48 29 35 28 38 26 40 31 33 36 30 37 27 39 25 34 32

(Fig 3.3.1)

45 19 44 22 42 24 47 17

(Fig 3.3.2)

As fig 3.3.1 shows, Franklin was interested in looking at bendy rows which also sum to the same constant as each row and column. From fig 3.3.2, it is clear that in an 8x8 Franklin square, all the half rows and half columns and any 2x2 sub-square within it total half of the magic sum (Morris, 2005). When considering Franklins 16x16 square (see fig 3.3.3), the bendy rows and columns and any half rows or colums add up to half the row or column total, but there are no sub-squares which do. This is because half a row would be 8 cells, no subsquare can contain 8 cells because there is no value for

n such that

n2 = 8 .

2168

2040 199 57 197 59 200 54 202 52 204 50 206 2040 48 195 61 193 63

216 38 218 36 215 41 213 43 211 45 209 47 220 34 222 32

231 25 229 27 232 22 234 20 236 18 238 16 227 29 225 31

248 6 250 4 247 9 245 11 243 13 241 15 252 2 254 0

7 249 5 251 8 246 10 244 12 242 14 240 3 253 1 255

24 230 26 228 23 233 21 235 19 237 17 239 28 226 30 224

39 217 37 219 40 214 42 212 44 210 46 208 35 221 33 223

56 198 58 196 55 201 53 203 51 205 49 207 60 194 62 192

71 185 69 187 72 182 74 180 76 178 78 176 67 189 65 191

88 166 90 164 87 169 85 171 83 173 81 175 92 162 94 160

103 153 101 155 104 150 106 148 108 146 110 144 99 157 97 159

120 134 122 132 119 137 117 139 115 141 113 143 124 130 126 128

135 121 133 123 136 118 138 116 140 114 142 112 131 125 129 127

152 102 154 100 151 105 149 107 147 109 145 111 156 98 158 96

167 89 165 91 168 86 170 84 172 82 174 80 163 93 161 95

184 2040 70 68 73 75 77 79 66 64 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 186 2040 183 2040 181 2040 179 2040 177 2040 188 2040 190 2040

2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 2040 1912 Franklins original 16x16 square

(Fig 3.3.3)

3.4: Latin Squares A Latin square differs from a normal magic square in that it is an containing only the numbers 1 to

n n matrix

n rather than 1 to

n 2 . They are written in such a

way that each row and column contain every number only once. Latin squares can be

formed for any order, for example there is one Latin square of order 1, two of order 2 (See fig 3.4.1), twelve of order 3 (See fig 3.4.2) and 576 of order 4 (Weisstein, 2006).

Latin squares of order 2

(Fig 3.4.1)

Latin squares of order 3

(Fig 3.4.2)

3.4.1: Graeco Latin Squares Graeco Latin squares are so called because it is customary to use Latin letters as the symbols in one square and Greek letters for the symbols of a second square. They are also known as Euler squares and exist for all 1995).

n , except

n = 2 and n = 6 (Beezer,

A Graeco-Latin square of order 10

(Fig 3.4.3)

Chapter 4: Applications of Magic Squares Modern day applications of magic squares are difficult to find. There seems to be some sort of link between magic squares and music and the Latin squares along with the Greaco Latin squares are used in the popular puzzle, Sudoku. Apart from that, other applications found were from mathematicians in history which no longer apply. 4.1: Music The main area of the application of magic squares to music is in rhythm, rather than notes. Indian musicians seem to have applied them to their music and they seem to be useful in time cycles and additive rhythm. In this case it is not the usual magic properties of a square that are important, but the relationship of the central number to the total sum of all the numbers in the magic square. This is because for rhythm, consecutive numbers 1 to n 2 are not used to fill the cells of the This relationship is: The total sum of the magic squares numbers = central number x 9. This is important to music as it shows the size of the magic square, which is how many pulses or sub-divisions there are in the sequence, this will indicate how and where to apply it. 3 5 5 8 7 1 1
Magic Square for Rhythm

n n magic square.

7 11 15 (Fig 4.1.1)

Using fig 4.1.1 as an example, 8x9=72 gives the size of the magic square. This can therefore be applied to a piece of music with 18 crotchet beats since 18x4=72. Rests can also be added between the first and second or second and third rows to create a feeling of the music building towards a cadence. By choosing different values for the rests, the same magic square can create many different musical passages (Dimond, 2006).

4.2: Sudoku Sudoku was first introduced in 1979 and became popular in Japan during the 1980s (Pegg & Weisstein, 2006). It has recently become a very popular puzzle in Europe, but it is actually a form of Latin square. A Sudoku square is a 9x9 grid, split into 9 3x3 sub-squares. Each sub-square is filled in with the numbers 1 to

n where

n =9 ,

so that the 9x9 grid becomes a Latin square. This means each row and column contain the numbers 1 to 9 only once. Therefore each row, column and sub-square will sum to the same amount.

An Example of a Sudoku Square

(Fig 4.2.1)

Conclusion Mathematicians today do not need to speculate and attach meaning to magic squares to make them important, as has been done in the past with Chinese and other myths. The squares were thought to be mysterious and magic, although now it is clear that they are just ways of arranging numbers and symbols using certain rules. They can be applied to music and Sudoku as has been discussed but are mainly of interest in mathematics for their magic properties rather than their practical applications.

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http://www.pballew.net/magsquar.html [Accessed 7th December 2006]. Beezer, R. (1995). Graeco-Latin squares [online]. Available from

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http://www.jonathandimond.com/downloadables/Magic%20Squares.pdf [Accessed 8th December 2006]. Farrar, M. S. (1997). History of magic squares [online]. Available from http://www.markfarrar.co.uk/msqhst01.htm [Accessed 6th December 2006].

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