INFRARED (IR) MUSIC TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER ABSTRACT

In the present days people are used to use radio frequency (RF) technology to listen the music.RF technology is using rapidly because the communication i.e. data transfer is possible in the long distance cases also. But in our project we are using Infrared (IR) technology to transfer the music. Here we are using IR transmitter and IR receiver. In the transmitter side we have a music tones generator IC i.e. UM66. The output of this is fed to the IR driver stage to get the maximum range. Here the red LED (LED1) flickers according to the musical tones generated by UM66 IC, indicating modulation. For maximum sound transmission these should be oriented towards IR photo-transistor L14F1 (T3). The IR music receiver uses popular op-amp IC A741 and audio-frequency amplifier IC LM386 along with phototransistor L14F1. In the receiver side we are using photo transistor and its gain can be increased by potentiometers. The receiving music tones can be delivered through the loudspeaker.

This project will be very useful for short distance music transferring in low budjet.

CHAPTER 3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS

1. UM66 2. 741 OP-AMP 3. LM 386 4. L14F1 PHOTO TRANSISTOR 5. LS1 (8 ohm, 1w) loud speaker. 6. Transistors ,resistors ,capacitors.

3.1 TRANSMITTER SECTION

POWER SUPPLY

UM66 MELODY

DRIVER STAGE (TRANSIST OR)

TRANSMI TTING LEDS

3.2 RECEIVER SECTION

POWER SUPPLY

PHOTO TRANSISTOR

OPAMP

AUDIO FREQUE NCY AMPLIFIE

LOUD SPEAKER

3.3 DC BATTERY
A battery is a device that can store electricity. Some are rechargeable, and some are not. They store direct current (DC) electricity. A battery really means two or more wet or dry cells connected in series for more voltage, or in parallel for more current, although people often call a cell a battery. AA, AAA, C, and D batteries all have 1.5 volts. The voltage of a cell depends on the chemicals used while the amount of power or current it can supply also depends on how large the cell is; a bigger cell of a given type can supply more amps, or for a longer time. The chemical reactions that occur in a battery are exothermic reactions and, thus, produce heat. For example, if you leave your laptop on for a long time, and then touch the battery, it will be warm or hot. However, the batteries used in laptops are called lithium-ion batteries and they sometimes do have a fire hazard (A few years ago, dell laptops that that were powered by lithium batteries began to catch fire, though this event was rare.). Batteries come in lots of different shapes and sizes and voltages. It is possible, but not easy, to run wires to use an odd size battery for an odd purpose.

Batteries are always more costly/expensive than mains electricity. But mains electricity is not suitable for things that are mobile. Bicycles have tail-lights that can be operated by batteries, and sometimes by a little generator powered by the wheels. Hand and foot generators can be used to replace batteries in various devices, but they can be tiresome. Wind-up generators are now available to power small clockwork radios, clockwork torches, etc. Since clockwork clocks have been around for hundreds of years, and batteries for two hundred, it is amazing that no-one thought of a clockwork torch until recently. Rechargeable batteries are recharged by reversing the chemical reaction that occurs within the battery. But a rechargeable battery can only be recharged a given amount of time (recharge life). Even iPods, with built in batteries, cannot be recharged forever. Moreover, each time a battery is recharged , its ability to hold a charge is degraded a bit. Non-rechargeable batteries should not be charged as various caustic and corrosive substances can leak out, such as potassium hydroxide.

The very first batteries were invented in the middle east around 1000 B.C. Then they were buried and forgotten about. The first battery was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta. Nowadays, his battery is called the voltaic pile. Later batteries were bottles with a fluid and some metal rods in them. People had to be careful not to turn these batteries upside-down so the fluid would spill. In modern batteries, the fluid is "soaked up" in a kind of paste. And everything is put in a completely tight case: Because of this case, nothing can spill out of the battery. An exception is car batteries; they still have liquid inside.

Types of batteries

Alkaline battery, "alkaline", not rechargeable Leclanche battery, "super heavy duty", not rechargeable Nickel metal-hydride battery, "NiMH", rechargeable Nickel cadmium battery, "NiCd", rechargeable Lead acid battery, rechargeable, car battery Lithium battery, unrechargeable, "coin cell" Lithium-ion battery, rechargeable, used in cell phones and laptops Mercury battery, unrechargeable Silver oxide battery, unrechargeable, watch battery

Alternatives to Batteries

Solar cell

3.4 RESISTOR

A typical axial-lead resistor

Partially exposed Tesla TR-212 1 k carbon film resistor

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are formed and the part is inserted into the board.

Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum tube) radio A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law: Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

CHAPTER 5 WORKING
Ohm's law: The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law: Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated: This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) will flow through that resistor. ]series and parallel resistors In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given by NR. Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed: The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using: As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance, However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 56 of the individual resistance. More generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such a problem. One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series and/or parallel. This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.

Power dissipation The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is calculated as: The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral of the power over that period of time: Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. The vast majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and tend not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated

power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 C in free air. Inside an equipment case at 60 C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may prematurely fail. Construction A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm resistors. One end of each resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all connected together to the remaining (common) pin - pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot. Lead arrangements

Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting

ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode is a special kind of diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction same as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage." The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.

A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. In case of large forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the doping concentrations. A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications. The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides.[1] The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for commonly available zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200 volts. Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener

effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient. In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-critical applications. Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode.
All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term of "Zener diode".

ADVANTAGES:

Zener diode shown with typical packages. Reverse current iZ is shown. Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value.

In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, UIN, is regulated down to a stable output voltage UOUT. The intrinsic voltage drop of diode D is stable over a wide current range and holds UOUT relatively constant even though the input voltage may fluctuate over a fairly wide range. Because of the low impedance of the diode when operated like this, Resistor R is used to limit current through the circuit. In the case of this simple reference, the current flowing in the diode is determined using Ohms law and the known voltage drop across the resistor R. IDiode = (UIN - UOUT) / R The value of R must satisfy two conditions:
1. R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown.

The value of this current is given in the data sheet for D. For example, the common BZX79C5V6 device, a 5.6 V 0.5 W Zener diode, has a recommended reverse current of 5 mA. If insufficient current exists through D, then U OUT will be unregulated, and less than the nominal breakdown voltage (this differs to voltage regulator tubes where the output voltage will be higher than nominal and could rise as high as UIN). When calculating R, allowance must be made for any current through the external load, not shown in this diagram, connected across UOUT.
2. R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If

the current through D is ID, its breakdown voltage VB and its maximum power dissipation PMAX, then IDVB < PMAX. A load may be placed across the diode in this reference circuit, and as long as the zener stays in reverse breakdown, the diode will provide a stable voltage source to the load.

Shunt regulators are simple, but the requirements that the ballast resistor be small enough to avoid excessive voltage drop during worst-case operation (low input voltage concurrent with high load current) tends to leave a lot of current flowing in the diode much of the time, making for a fairly wasteful regulator with high quiescent power dissipation, only suitable for smaller loads. Zener diodes in this configuration are often used as stable references for more advanced voltage regulator circuits. These devices are also encountered, typically in series with a base-emitter junction, in transistor stages where selective choice of a device centered around the avalanche/Zener point can be used to introduce compensating temperature co-efficient balancing of the transistor PN junction. An example of this kind of use would be a DC error amplifier used in a regulated power supply circuit feedback loop system. Zener diodes are also used in surge protectors to limit transient voltage spikes. Another notable application of the zener diode is the use of noise caused by its avalanche breakdown in a random number generator that never repeats.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulators

Introduction A Zener diode is a PN junction that has been specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. Its characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the voltage across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator. Characteristics Figure 1 shows the current versus voltage curve for a Zener diode. Observe the nearly constant voltage in the breakdown region. Figure 1: Zener diode characteristics

The forward bias region of a Zener diode is identical to that of a regular diode. The typical forward voltage at room temperature with a current of around 1 mA is around 0.6 Volts. In the reverse bias condition the Zener diode is an open circuit and only a small leakage current is flowing as shown on the exaggerated plot. As the breakdown voltage is approached the current will begin to avalanche. The initial transition from leakage to breakdown is soft but then the current rapidly increases as shown on the plot. The voltage across the Zener diode in the breakdown region is very nearly constant with only a small increase in voltage with increasing current. At some high current level the power dissipation of the diode becomes excessive and the part is destroyed. There is a minimum Zener current, IZmin, that places the operating point in the desired breakdown Zener Diode Voltage Regulators bregion and there is a maximum Zener current, IZmax, at which the power dissipation drives the junction temperature to the maximum allowed (typically in the 125 to 150 C range). Beyond that current and the diode can be damaged or destroyed. There is no specific value for IZmin although it is typically taken to be ten percent of IZmax. It is possible that a lower value could be used particularly at Zener voltages greater than

around six. This insures that the diode operating current is in the breakdown region and not in the soft transition region. The ten percent value is also a historical rule-of-thumb for shunt voltage regulators in general. A shunt regulator has to conduct current in order to be in regulation. To prevent the current from going to zero, shunt regulators are often designed so that at the maximum load current there is at least ten percent of that current in the regulator. Zener diodes are available from about 2.4 to 200 volts typically using the same sequence of values as used for the 5% resistor series 2.4, 2.7, 3.0 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2, 9.1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, etc. All Zener diodes have a power rating, PZ. From Watts law the maximum current is IZmax = PZ / VZ. Zener diodes are typically available with power ratings of 0.25, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 5 watts although other values are available. The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless of variations in the applied input voltage and variations in the load current. A typical Zener diode shunt regulator is shown in Figure 2. The resistor is sized so that When the input voltage is at VINmin and the load current is at ILmax that the current through the Zener diode is at least IZmin. Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts the excess current thus maintaining a constant voltage across the load. The Zener conducts the least current when the load current is the highest and it conducts the most current when the load current is the lowest. Figure 2: Zener diode shunt regulator

Shunt regulators are normally only used for applications where the load power is not much (no more than a few watts) because under the worst case situation of no load the Zener has to dissipate the full load power. Shunt regulators have an inherent current Zener Diode Voltage Regulators limiting advantage under load fault conditions because the series resistor limits excess current. Design The following data must be known in order to design a voltage regulator using a Zener diode. VZ The desired regulated voltage rounded to the closest available Zener diode standard voltage. VINmin The minimum value of the applied input voltage. This must be higher than VZ, preferably at least twenty-five percent higher. VINmax The maximum value of the applied input voltage. ILmin The minimum value of load current which is often taken to be zero. ILmax The maximum value of load current. The design method will use the above data to determine the required power rating of the Zener and the ohmic value and required power rating of the series resistor, R. This is often an iterative process as with many design processes. 1. Estimate the power rating of the Zener by the equation {[(VINmax VZ)

PZest = {[(------------------) * (1.1 * ILmax)] ILmin} * VZ {[(VINmin VZ ) Round the result up to the nearest higher available power rating, PZ. This is only a trial value and may have to be increased depending on the outcome of the following calculations. This estimate comes from substituting IZmin = 0.1 IZmax from step 2 into step 3 and then the resulting unrounded R into step 5. 2. Compute IZmin = 0.1 * maximum(PZ / VZ, ILmax). 3. Calculate Rcalc = (VINmin VZ) / (ILmax + IZmin). 4. Round Rcalc down (never up) to the nearest standard value, R. 5. Calculate the worst case (i.e. highest) power dissipation in the Zener at the Minimum load current (typically zero) as PZmax = [((VINmax VZ) / R) - ILmin] * VZ. Zener Diode Voltage Regulators 6. If Puma exceeds PZ then repeat steps 2 through 5 using the next higher available Power rating for the Zener voltage. 7. Calculate the maximum power dissipation of R as Rdiss = (VINmax VZ)2 / R. Common practice is to roughly double this power value and round up to the nearest standard resistor rating. However, depending on the environment an even higher power rating might be required that is thermal design which is separate From this article.

Light-emitting diode.

Parts of an LED. Although not directly labeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out from mechanical strain or vibration.

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more

precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

Practical use
The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal uses). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors grew widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As LED materials technology grew more advanced, light output rose, while maintaining efficiency and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and development of the high power white light LED led to use for illumination, which is fast replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting. (see list of illumination applications). Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with rising power output, it has grown increasingly necessary to shed excess heat to maintain reliability, so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.

Technology

The inner workings of an LED

I-V diagram for a diode. An LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is exceeded. Typical on voltages are 23 volts LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface

interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development.

Lifetime and failure

Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.

Types

LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package (red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at 80% of world production The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in SMT packages, such as those found on blinkies and on cell phone keypads (not shown).

The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

Application-specific variations

Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit which causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.

Calculator LED display, 1970s.

Bi-color LEDs are actually two different LEDs in one case. They consist of two dies connected to the same two leads anti parallel to each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. Alternating the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the appearance of a blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this fashion will color blend to emit a yellow appearance.

Tri-color LEDs are two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to separate leads so that the two LEDs can be controlled independently and lit simultaneously. A three-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode).RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can have either common positive or common negative leads. Others

however, have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.

Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.

Advantages

Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. Their efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards. On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times.

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.

Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current. Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.

Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs. Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 2,000 hours.

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile. Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.

Disadvantages

High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed.

Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat sinking is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and need low failure rates.

Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or currentregulated power supplies.[90]

Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to

metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs

Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a point source of light, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field. LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.

Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.105: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.

Applications

LED lighting in the aircraft cabin of an Airbus A320 Enhanced.

A large LED display behind a disc jockey.

LED destination signs on buses, one with a colored route number.

LED digital display that can display 4 digits along with points.

CERAMIC CAPACITOR
in electronics, a ceramic capacitor is a capacitor constructed of alternating layers of metal and ceramic, with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. The temperature coefficientdepends on whether the dielectric is Class 1 or Class 2. A ceramic capacitor (especially the class 2) often has high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of dissipation. Construction

A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical ceramic capacitor is the "disc capacitor". This device pre-dates the transistor and was used extensively in vacuum-tube equipment (e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 through the 1950s, and in

discrete transistor equipment from the 1950s through the 1980s. As of 2007, ceramic disc capacitors are in widespread use in electronic equipment, providing high capacity and small size at low price compared to other low value capacitor types. Ceramic capacitors come in various shapes and styles, including:

disc, resin coated, with through-hole leads multilayer rectangular block, surface mount

bare leadless disc, sits in a slot in the PCB and is soldered in place, used for UHF applications

tube shape, not popular now

CLASSES OF CERAMIC CAPACITOR

Class I capacitors: accurate, temperature-compensating capacitors. They are the most stable over voltage, temperature, and to some extent, frequency. They also have the lowest losses. On the other hand, they have the lowest volumetric efficiency. A typical class I capacitor will have a temperature coefficient of 30 ppm/C. This will typically be fairly linear with temperature. These also allow for high Q filtersa typical class I capacitor will have a dissipation factor of 0.15%. Very high accuracy (~1%) class I capacitors are available (typical ones will be 5% or 10%). The highest accuracy class 1 capacitors are designated C0G or NP0. Class II capacitors: better volumetric efficiency, but lower accuracy and stability. A typical class II capacitor may change capacitance by 15% over a 55 C to 85 C temperature range. A typical class II capacitor will have a dissipation factor of 2.5%. It will have average to poor accuracy (from 10% down to +20/-80%). Class III capacitors: high volumetric efficiency, but poor accuracy and stability. A typical class III capacitor will change capacitance by -22% to +56% over a temperature range of 10 C to 55 C. It will have a dissipation factor of 4%. It will have fairly poor accuracy (commonly, 20%, or +80/-20%). These are typically used for decoupling or in other power supply applications. At one point, Class IV capacitors were also available, with worse electrical characteristics than Class III, but even better volumetric efficiency. They are now rather rare and considered obsolete, as modern multilayer ceramics can offer better performance in a compact package.

These correspond roughly to low K, medium K, and high K. Note that none of the classes are "better" than any othersthe relative performance depends on application. Class I capacitors are physically larger than class III capacitors, and for bypassing and other nonfiltering applications, the accuracy, stability, and loss factor may be unimportant, while cost and volumetric efficiency may be. As such, Class I capacitors are primarily used in filtering applications, where the main competition is from film capacitors in low frequency applications, and more esoteric capacitors in RF applications. Class III capacitors are typically used in power supply applications. Traditionally, they had no competition in this niche, as they were limited to small sizes. As ceramic technology has improved, ceramic capacitors are now commonly available in values of up to 100 F, and they are increasingly starting to compete.

With electrolytic capacitors, where ceramics offer much better electrical performance at prices that, while still much higher than electrolytic, are becoming increasingly reasonable as the technology improves.

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume

than other types. They are often referred to in electronics usage simply as "electrolytics". They are used in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical circuits, particularly in power supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and current fluctuations in rectifier output. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not. There are two types of electrolytics; aluminum and tantalum. Electrolytic capacitors are capable of providing the highest capacitance values of any type of capacitor but they have drawbacks which limit their use. The standard design requires that the applied voltage must be polarized; one specified terminal must always have positive potential with respect to the other. Therefore they cannot be used with AC signals without a DC polarizing bias. However there are special non-polarized electrolytic capacitors for AC use which do not require a DC bias. Electrolytic capacitors also have relatively low breakdown voltage, higher leakage current and inductance, poorer tolerances and temperature range, and shorter lifetimes compared to other types of capacitors.

The principle of the electrolytic capacitor was discovered in 1886 by Charles Pollak, as part of his research into anodizing of aluminum and other metals. Pollack discovered that due to the thinness of the aluminum oxide layer produced, there was a very high capacitance between the aluminum and the electrolyte solution. A major problem was that most electrolytes tended to dissolve the oxide layer again when the power is removed, but he eventually found that sodium perborate (borax) would allow the layer to be formed and not attack it afterwards. He was granted a patent for the borax-solution aluminum electrolytic capacitor in 1897. The first application of the technology was in making starting capacitors for single-phase alternating current (AC) motors. Although most electrolytic capacitors are polarized, that is, they can only be operated with direct current (DC), by separately anodizing aluminum plates and then interleaving them in a borax bath, it is possible to make a capacitor that can be used in AC systems.

Nineteenth and early twentieth century electrolytic capacitors bore little resemblance to modern types, their construction being more along the lines of a car battery. The borax electrolyte solution had to be periodically topped up with distilled water, again reminiscent of a lead acid battery. The first major application of DC versions of this type of capacitor was in large telephone exchanges, to reduce relay hash (noise) on the 48 volt DC power supply. The development of AC-operated domestic radio receivers in the late 1920s created a demand for large capacitance (for the time) high voltage capacitors, typically at least 4 microfarads and rated at around 500 volts DC. Waxed paper and oiled silk capacitors were available but devices with that order of capacitance and voltage rating were bulky and prohibitively expensive.

Construction
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are constructed from two conducting aluminum foils, one of which is coated with an insulating oxide layer, and a paper spacer soaked in electrolyte. The foil insulated by the oxide layer is the anode while the liquid electrolyte and the second foil acts as the cathode. This stack is then rolled up, fitted with pin connectors and placed in a cylindrical aluminum casing. The two most popular geometries are axial leads coming from the center of each circular face of the cylinder, or two radial leads or lugs on one of the circular faces. Both of these are shown in the picture.

Polarity
In aluminum electrolytic capacitors, the layer of insulating aluminum oxide on the surface of the aluminum plate acts as the dielectric, and it is the thinness of this layer that allows for a relatively high capacitance in a small volume. This oxide has a dielectric constant of 10, which is several times higher than most common polymer insulators. It can withstand an electric field strength of the order of 25 megavolts per meter which is an

acceptable fraction of that of common polymers. This combination of high capacitance and reasonably high voltage result in high energy density. Most electrolytic capacitors are polarized and require one of the electrodes to be positive relative to the other; they may catastrophically fail if voltage is reversed. This is because a reverse-bias voltage above 1 to 1.5 V will destroy the center layer of dielectric material via electrochemical reduction (see redox reactions). Following the loss of the dielectric material, the capacitor will short circuit, and with sufficient short circuit current, the electrolyte will rapidly heat up and either leak or cause the capacitor to burst, often in spectacularly dramatic fashion. To minimize the likelihood of a polarized electrolytic being incorrectly inserted into a circuit, polarity is very clearly indicated on the case. A bar across the side of the capacitor is usually used to indicate the negative terminal. Also, the negative terminal lead of a radial electrolytic is shorter than the positive lead and may be otherwise distinguishable. On a printed circuit board it is customary to indicate the correct orientation by using a square through-hole pad for the positive lead and a round pad for the negative. Special capacitors designed for AC operation are available, usually referred to as "nonpolarized" or "NP" types. In these, full-thickness oxide layers are formed on both the aluminum foil strips prior to assembly. On the alternate halves of the AC cycles, one of the foil strips acts as a blocking diode, preventing reverse current from damaging the electrolyte of the other one. Modern capacitors have a safety valve, typically either a scored section of the can, or a specially designed end seal to vent the hot gas/liquid, but ruptures can still be dramatic. An electrolytic can withstand a reverse bias for a short period, but will conduct significant current and not act as a very good capacitor. Most will survive with no reverse DC bias or with only AC voltage, but circuits should be designed so that there is not a constant reverse bias for any significant amount of time.

Capacitor

Polarized Capacitor

Variable Capacitor

The above are the most common schematic symbols for electrolytic capacitors. Some schematic diagrams do not print the "+" adjacent to the symbol. Older circuit diagrams show electrolytic capacitors as a small positive plate surrounded below and on the sides by a larger dish-shaped negative electrode, usually without "+" marking.

Electrolyte
The electrolyte is usually boric acid or sodium borate in aqueous solution, together with various sugars or ethylene glycol which are added to retard evaporation. Getting a suitable balance between chemical stability and low internal electrical resistance is not a simple matter; in fact, the exact compositions of high-performance electrolytes are closely guarded trade secrets. It took many years of painstaking research before reliable devices were developed. The electrolytic solvent has to have high dielectric constant, high dielectric strength, and low resistivity; a solute of ionic conductivity facilitators is mixed within.

Electrolytes may be toxic or corrosive. Working with the electrolyte requires safe working practice and appropriate protective equipment such as gloves and safety glasses. Some very old tantalum electrolytics, often called "Wet-slug", contain corrosive sulfuric acid; however, most of these are no longer in service due to corrosion. There are three major types of water-based electrolytes for aluminium electrolytic capacitors: standard water-based (with 40-70% water), and those containing ethylene glycol or dipropyl ketone (both with less than 25% water). The water content helps lowering the equivalent series resistance, but can make the capacitor prone to generating gas, especially if the electrolyte formulation is faulty; this is a leading cause of capacitor plague, to which the high water content electrolytes are more susceptible. The lower voltage ratings (thinner oxide layer) and lower operating voltage (slower regeneration of oxide layer) are further aggravating factors. There are a number of non-aqueous electrolytes, which use only a small amount of water. The electrolytes are generally composed of a weak acid, a salt of weak acid, and a solvent, and optional thickening agent and other additives. The electrolyte is usually soaked into an electrode separator. The weak acids are usually organic acid (glacial acetic acid, lactic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, crotonic acid, acrylic acid, phenol, cresol, etc.) or boric acid. The salts employed are often ammonium or metal salts of organic acids (ammonium acetate, ammonium citrate, aluminium acetate, calcium lactate, ammonium oxalate, etc.) or weak inorganic acids (sodium perborate, trisodium phosphate, etc.). Solvent-based electrolytes may be based on alkanolamines (monoethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine,...) or polyols (diethylene glycol, glycerol, etc.).

Electrical behavior of electrolytics

A common modeling circuit for an electrolytic capacitor has the following schematic:

where Rleakage is the leakage resistance, RESR is the equivalent series resistance (ESR), LESL the equivalent series inductance (L being the conventional symbol for inductance). RESR must be as small as possible since it determines the loss power when the capacitor is used to smooth voltage. Loss power varies with the square of the ripple current flowing through it and proportionally to RESR. Low ESR capacitors are imperative for high efficiencies in power supplies. Low ESR capacitance can sometimes lead to destructive LC voltage spikes when exposed to voltage transients. This is only a simple model and does not include dielectric absorption (soakage) and other non-ideal effects associated with real electrolytic capacitors.

Capacitance
The capacitance value of any capacitor is a measure of the amount of electric charge stored per unit of potential difference between the plates. The basic unit of capacitance is a farad; however, this unit has been too large for general use until the invention of the double-layer capacitor, so microfarad (F, or less correctly uF), nanofarad (nF) and picofarad (pF) are more commonly used. Many conditions determine a capacitor's value, such as the thickness of the dielectric and the plate area. In the manufacturing process, electrolytic capacitors are made to conform to a set of preferred numbers. By multiplying these base numbers by a power of ten, any practical capacitor value can be achieved, which is suitable for most applications.

Passive electronic components, including capacitors, are usually produced in preferred values (e.g., IEC 60063 E6, E12, etc. series). The capacitance of aluminum electrolytic capacitors tends to change over time, and they usually have a tolerance range of 20%. Some have asymmetric tolerances, typically 20% but with much larger positive tolerance as many circuits merely require a capacitance to be not less than a given value; this can be seen on datasheets for many consumer-grade capacitors. Tantalum electrolytics can be produced to tighter tolerances and are more stable.

Types

Electrolytic capacitors of several sizes

Unlike capacitors that use a bulk dielectric made from an intrinsically insulating material, the dielectric in electrolytic capacitors depends on the formation and maintenance of a microscopic metal oxide layer. Compared to bulk dielectric capacitors, this very thin dielectric allows for much more capacitance in the same unit volume, but maintaining the integrity of the dielectric usually requires the steady application of the correct polarity of voltage or the oxide layer will break down and rupture, causing the capacitor to lose its ability to withstand applied voltage (although it can often be "reformed"). In addition, electrolytic capacitors generally use an internal wet chemistry and they will eventually fail if the water within the capacitor evaporates.

Electrolytic capacitance values are not as tightly-specified as with bulk dielectric capacitors. Especially with aluminum electrolytics, it is quite common to see an electrolytic capacitor specified as having a "guaranteed minimum value" and no upper bound on its value. For most purposes (such as power supply filtering and signal coupling), this type of specification is acceptable. As with bulk dielectric capacitors, electrolytic capacitors come in several varieties:

Aluminum electrolytic capacitor: compact but lossy, these are available in the range of <1 F to 1 F with working voltages up to several hundred volts DC. The dielectric is a thin layer of aluminum oxide. They contain corrosive liquid and can burst if the device is connected backwards. The oxide insulating layer will tend to deteriorate in the absence of a sufficient rejuvenating voltage, and eventually the capacitor will lose its ability to withstand voltage if voltage is not applied. A capacitor to which this has happened can often be "reformed" by connecting it to a voltage source through a resistor and allowing the resulting current to slowly restore the oxide layer.[9] Bipolar electrolytics (also called Non-Polarised or NP capacitors) contain two capacitors connected in series opposition and are used when one electrode can be either positive or negative relative to the other at different instants. Bad frequency and temperature characteristics make them unsuited for high-frequency applications. Typical ESL values are a few nanohenries.

Tantalum: compact, low-voltage devices up to several hundred F, these have a lower energy density and are produced to tighter tolerances than aluminum electrolytics. Tantalum capacitors are also polarized because of their dissimilar electrodes. The cathode electrode is formed of sintered tantalum grains, with the dielectric electrochemically formed as a thin layer of oxide. The thin layer of oxide and high surface area of the porous sintered material gives this type a very high capacitance per unit volume. The cathode electrode is formed either of a liquid electrolyte connecting the outer can or of a chemically deposited semi-conductive layer of manganese dioxide,

which is then connected to an external wire lead. A development of this type replaces the manganese dioxide with a conductive plastic polymer (polypyrrole) that reduces internal resistance and eliminates a self-ignition failure.[11]

Compared to aluminum electrolytics, tantalum capacitors have very stable capacitance, little DC leakage, and very low impedance at high frequencies. However, unlike aluminum electrolytics, they are intolerant of positive or negative voltage spikes and are destroyed (often exploding violently) if connected in the circuit backwards or exposed to spikes above their voltage rating. Tantalum capacitors are more expensive than aluminum-based capacitors and generally only available in low-voltage versions, but because of their smaller size for a given capacitance and lower impedance at high frequencies they are popular in miniature applications such as cellular telephones.

RELIABILITY AND LENGTH OF LIFE

Aluminum, and to a lesser extent tantalum, electrolytics have worse noise, leakage, drift with temperature and ageing, dielectric absorption, and inductance than other types of capacitor. Additionally, low temperature is a problem for most aluminum capacitors: for most types, capacitance falls off rapidly below room temperature while dissipation factor can be ten times higher at 25 C than at 25 C. Most limitations can be traced to the electrolyte. At high temperature, the water can be lost to evaporation, and the capacitor (especially the small sizes) may leak outright. At low temperatures, the conductance of the salts declines, raising the ESR, and the increase in the electrolyte's surface tension can

cause reduced contact with the dielectric. The conductance of electrolytes generally has a very high temperature coefficient, +2%/C is typical, depending on size. The electrolyte, particularly if degraded, is implicated in various reliability issues as well. High-quality aluminum electrolytics (computer-grade) have better performance and life than consumer-grade parts. High temperatures and ripple currents shorten life. Typical basic electrolytics are rated to work at temperatures up to 85 C, and are rated for a worst-case life of about 2000 hours (a year is about 9000 hours); commonly available higher-temperature units are available for temperatures of 105 C, and a working temperature of 175 C is possible. One of the effects of ageing is an increase in ESR; some circuits can malfunction due to a capacitor with correct capacitance but elevated ESR, although a capacitance meter will not find any fault (an ESR meter will). Runaway failure is possible if increased ESR increases heat dissipation and temperature. Since the electrolytes evaporate, design life is most often rated in hours at a set temperature, for example, 2000 hours at 105 C, which is the highest commonly used working temperature, although parts working up to 175 C are available. Standard inexpensive consumer-grade electrolytic capacitors are rated for 85 C maximum working temperature. Life in the operational environment is dictated by the Law of Arrhenius, which dictates that the capacitor life is a function of temperature and DC voltage. As a rule of thumb, the life doubles for each 10 C lower operating temperature. In our example, it reaches 15 years at 45 C (for caps rated at 105 C). The operating temperature however is not just the ambient temperature. Ripple currents can increase it significantly. The actual operating temperature is a complex function of ambient temperature, air speed, ripple current frequency and amplitude, and also affected by material thermal resistance and the surface area of the can case.[14] In general, high amplitude ripple currents shorten the life expectancy, whereas low frequency ripple is more detrimental than high frequency. The EIA IS-749 is a standard for testing electrolytic capacitor life.

UM66(MELODY GENERATOR)

This is the simplest ever musical calling bell that can be easily built. It uses the musical 3 pin IC UM66 and a popularly known Transistor BC548b. The circuit can be made even without soldering and the ideal for the first electronic project for newbies. Here the musical IC UM66 generates the music when it receives supply and drives a small speaker through a class c amplifier using silicon transistor BC548b.

Fig-1 : Connection Diagram The connection diagram is shown below. The component details with cost is also with this. The battery supply should be kept in a battery container to ensure the connection. The volume of the sound of this circuit is so much that it can be used as a calling bell. If anyone want to reduce the volume of the circuit then insert a resistance () in place of the blue line connection. In this circuit please don't give the supply beyond 3 volt without modification as the IC may got damaged. It is better that you should not run this circuit in Eliminator as most of the available eliminator don't have a good filter built in and have no precision over voltage protection. The circuit should not be run in Rechargeable battery also if the Speaker resistance is less than 8 Ohm and may burn the Transistor. UM 66

Points of importance:
1. Never connect the IC in reverse supply connection. 2. The music depends on the part number of the IC . 3. The transistor are should be connected in proper pin configuration. 4. The recommended power supply is battery of 3 volt. 5. The speaker and resistance has no terminal polarity and connection points can be interchanged

Modifications
1. For supply voltage difference. The IC positive point should be biased with potential divider such that the voltage at the positive in should not exceed 2.5 volt. For example it should be 68k and 10k and the terminal voltage will be 1.82 volt. Sometimes the IC is supplied only through a very high value series resistance like 220k from 12 volt, but the output bias current of the IC will not be sufficient then to drive and works as a signal and can only be driven through preamplifier or using Darlington pair/Zhikli pair as buffer. 2. To limit speaker current/reduce volume. The speaker current can be limited using series resistance in blue line such that the base current as well as collector current (i. e. Speaker current also). The formula is R={(Vcc-

Vee)-.05}*[ratio of potential divider if used]*b/Ispk. Ispk=Speaker Current, b= hFE of the transistor 3.to Increase volume/Protection of Transistor. The current carrying capacity can be increased using Darlington pair with power transistor to increase volume.

PHOTOTRANSISTORS Like diodes, all transistors are light-sensitive. Phototransistors are designed specifically to take advantage of this fact. The most-common variant is an NPN bipolar transistor with an exposed base region. Here, light striking the base replaces what would ordinarily be voltage applied to the base -- so, a phototransistor amplifies variations in the light striking it. Note that phototransistors may or may not have a base lead (if they do, the base lead allows you to bias the phototransistor's light response. For phototransistor selection and comparison information, see the phototransistor section of the BEAM Reference Library's BEAM Pieces collection. Note that photodiodes also can provide a similar function, although with much lower gain (i.e., photodiodes allow much less current to flow than do phototransistors). You can use this diagram to help you see the difference (both circuits are equivalent):

For an illuminating comparison of the various photo-sensitive devices, make sure to check out "Choosing the Detector for your Unique Light Sensing Application."

PHOTOTRANSISTOR FREQUENCY RESPONSE

All silicon photosensors (phototransistors, etc.) respond to the entire visible radiation range as well as to infrared. In fact, all diodes, transistors, Darlingtons, triacs, etc. have the same basic radiation frequency response. This response peaks in the infrared range. This is why manufacturers offer infrared-emitting diodes. Their goal is to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio, by using an emitter with the best match to the phototransistor response. However, note the response is very broad and virtually any light source will work. Basically, a phototransistor can be any bipolar transistor with a transparent case. There are some variations provide advantages. For example, a focusing lens can be built into the case for directional sensitivity. Coatings can be applied to block some higher or lower wavelengths. The transistor itself may provide higher gain, or higher frequency, or lower capacitance, etc.

The diagram above illustrates the frequency response of silicon phototransistor junctions, along with the spectral output of an infrared LED.

A PHOTOTRANSISTOR EXPERIMENT
As an experiment, remove the metal top on a fairly large power transistor. You should use a hacksaw or Dremel tool. Cut carefully around the transistor until you can lift the metal top off the transistor. Don't destroy what's inside the case! This is the silicon chip and it is what you need for this experiment. Connect your current-reading meter to two of the transistor terminals. Set the meter to a low current value, say, a few milliamps. Then shine a strong flashlight directly into the exposed chip. Or, better yet, place the chip and meter hookup in direct hot sunshine. You should see a current reading on the meter. If not, change your meter leads to two other terminals on the transistor. In some cases, you may need to use a small flame as a light source, such as a kitchen match or candle. The reason for suggesting strong sunlight or a small flame is that when light of the proper wavelength hits a semiconductor material such as a PN or NP junction, it increases the concentration of charge carriers. Bright sunlight has both visible and infrared frequencies over a wide spectrum, and a burning object (such as a match) also radiates visible and infrared frequencies.

How It Works
The actual operation of a phototransistor depends on the biasing arrangement and light frequency. For instance, if a PN junction is forward biased, the increased current through the junctions due to incident light will be relatively insignificant. On the other hand, if the same junction is reverse biased, the increase in current flow will be considerable and is a function of the light intensity. Therefore, reverse bias is the normal mode of operation.

Now, if the PN junction is the collector-base diode of a bipolar transistor, the lightinduced current effectively replaces the base current. The physical base lead of the transistor can be left as an open terminal, or it can be used to bias up to a steady state level. It is the nature of transistors that a change in base current can cause a significant change (increase) in collor current. Thus, light stimulation causes a change in base current, which in turn causes a bigger increase in collector current and, considering the current gain (hfe), a rather large increase at that.

LM386 (AUDIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER)

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications. The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the addition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value from 20 to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 milliwatts when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation.

APPLICATION HINTS
GAIN CONTROL To make the LM386 a more versatile amplifier, two pins (1and 8) are provided for gain control. With pins 1 and 8 open the 1.35 k resistor sets the gain at 20 (26 dB). If a capacitor is put from pin 1 to 8, bypassing the 1.35 k resistor, the gain will go up to 200 (46 dB). If a resistor is placed in series with the capacitor, the gain can be set to any value from 20 to 200. Gain control can also be done by capacitively coupling a resistor (or FET) from pin 1 to ground. Additional external components can be placed in parallel with the internal feedback resistors to tailor the gain and frequency response for individual applications. For example, we can compensate poor speaker bass response by frequency shaping the feedback path. This is done with a series RC from pin 1 to 5

(paralleling the internal 15 k resistor). For 6 dB effective bass boost: R . 15 k, the lowest value for good stable operation is R = 10 k if pin 8 is open. If pins 1 and 8 are bypassed then R as low as 2 k can be used. This restriction is because the amplifier is only compensated for closed-loop gains greater than 9.

INPUT BIASING
The schematic shows that both inputs are biased to ground with a 50 k resistor. The base current of the input transistors is about 250 nA, so the inputs are at about 12.5 Mv when left open. If the dc source resistance driving the LM386 is higher than 250 k it will contribute very little additional offset (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). If the dc source resistance is less than 10 k, then shorting the unused input to ground will keep the offset low (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). For dc source resistances between these values we can eliminate excess offset by putting a resistor from the unused input to ground, equal in value to the dc source resistance. Of course all offset problems are eliminated if the input is capacitively coupled. When using the LM386 with higher gains (bypassing the 1.35 k resistor between pins 1 and 8) it is necessary to bypass the unused input, preventing degradation of gain and possible instabilities. This is done with a 0.1 F capacitor or a short to ground depending on the dc source resistance on the driven input.

FEATURES
1. Battery operation 2. Minimum external parts 3. Wide supply voltage range: 4V12V or 5V18V 4. Low quiescent current drain: 4mA 5. Voltage gains from 20 to 200

6. Ground referenced input 7. Self-centering output quiescent voltage 8.Available in 8 pin MSOP package

APPLICATIONS
1. AM-FM radio amplifiers 2. Portable tape player amplifiers 3. Intercoms 4. TV sound systems 5. Line drivers 6. Ultrasonic drivers 7. Small servo drivers 8. Power converter

LM741 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER General Description

The LM741 series are general purpose operational amplifiers which feature improved performance over industry standards like the LM709. They are direct, plug-in replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in most applications. The amplifiers offer many features which make their application nearly foolproof: overload protection on the input and output, no latch-up when the common mode range is exceeded, as well as freedom from oscillations. The LM741C is identical to the

LM741/LM741A except that the LM741C has their performance guaranteed over a 0C to +70C temperature range, instead of 55C to +125C.

Features

Short-Circuit Protection Offset-Voltage Null Capability Large Common-Mode and Differential Voltage Ranges No Frequency Compensation Required Low Power Consumption No Latch-Up Designed to Be Interchangeable With Fairchild uA741

WORKING PROCEDURE
Using this circuit, audio musical notes can be generated and heard up to a distance of 10 metres. The circuit can be divided into two parts: IR music transmitter and receiver. The IR music transmitter works off a 9V battery, while the IR music receiver works off regulated 9V to 12V. First diagram shows the circuit of the IR music transmitter. It uses popular melody generator IC UM66 (IC1) that can continuously generate musical tones. The output of IC1 is fed to the IR driver stage (built across the transistors T1 and T2) to get the maximum range. Here the red LED (LED1) flickers according to the musical tones generated by UM66 IC, indicating modulation. IR LED2 and LED3 are infrared transmitting LEDs. For maximum sound transmission these should be oriented towards IR photo-transistor L14F1 (T3). The IR music receiver uses popular op-amp IC A741 and audio-frequency amplifier IC LM386 along with photo-transistor L14F1 and some discrete component. The melody generated by IC UM66 is transmitted through IR LEDs, received by phototransistor received by phototransistor T3 and fed to pin 2 of IC A741 (IC2). Its gain can be varied using potmeter VR1. The output of IC A741 is fed to IC LM386 (IC3) via capacitor C5 and potmeter VR2. The melody produced is heard through the receivers loudspeaker. Potmeter VR2 is used to control the volume of loudspeaker LS1 (8-ohm, 1W). Switching off the power supply stops melody generation.

RESULT
Assemble the circuit on the bread board and general board. After assembling the circuit on the boards check it for proper connections before switching on the power supply. The implementation of IR MUSIC TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER is done successfully. The communication is properly done without any interference between different modules in the design. Design is done to meet all the specifications and requirements.

It can be concluded that the design implemented in the present work provide portability, flexibility and the data transmission is also done with low power consumption.