List of topics / Practical Work deleted by the HKEAA in AL Biology syllabus:

Section 1 The cell

- Test of non-reducing sugar (Adding conc. HCl perform benedicts test brick red ppt
indicates it contains non-reducing and reducing sugar present)

In HKAL Biology, questions on testing non-reducing sugar are set by using enzyme
only.

- Test of cellulose
- Emulsion test
- Precipitation of protein by heat or ethanol
- Millons test
- Lignin Phloroglucinol and conc. HCl

In HKAL Biology, You are required to know that Calcium is used in formation of
pectin (Calcium pectate).

- Structure and function of microtubule and centriole
- Trilaminar structure of cell membrane
- Factors affecting membrane permeability

In HKAL examination you are required to know that effects of temperature and
chemicals e.g. ethanol, chloroform etc. on membrane permeability. For details,
please refer to question below (HKAL 1998 Paper 1 Question 4).

An experiment was set up to study the effects of chemicals on the permeability of the cell
membrane of beet root. Beet root discs were prepared, rinsed with water and blotted dry.
The same number of beet root discs were placed into three test-tubes labelled A, B and C
containing equal volumes of fluids :

tube A contains water,
tube B contains 30% ethanol, and
tube C contains 30% sucrose solution.

Indicate from which test tube(s) the following observations were made during the course
of the experiment. Give your reasons.

(a) Beet root discs sank. The liquid in the test-tube looked intensely red. (2.5 marks)
(b) Beet root discs floated initially and then sank. The liquid in the test tube looked the
same in colour as that in the control test-tube. (3.5 marks)

Marking Scheme:
(a) tube B(1) - beet root is denser than 30% alcohol (1), ethanol destroys cell
membrane (1) by dissolving the lipid component of the
membrane (1), membrane loses selective permeability, red
pigment leaks out (1) (21)

(b) tube C(1) - 30% sucrose solution is denser than the beet root(1), beet root
floated initially 30% sucrose solution has a lower osmotic potential /
lower water potential than the cell sap (1) of the beet root, water
diffuses out from the cells (1), density of the beet root tissue
increases (1), the discs sank eventually sucrose does not affect
membrane integrity (1) no pigment leakage (1) (31)
(6)

- Understanding of osmotic potential

- From 2002 onwards, candidates are required to know the term solute potential.
Meaning of solute potential equals to osmotic potential in A-level.

- Effect of inhibitors on enzyme activities
In HKAL examination, you need to interpret the graph on enzyme activities with
inhibitors. You also need to know the effect of inhibitor on structure of enzyme.
You are required to know that non-competitive inhibitor may be concentration
dependent.
You should be able to design experiment on effect of non-competitive inhibitor on
activity of enzyme (refer to HKAL Biology 2008 Paper 2 Question 2).

E In HKAL examination, you should know the concept of turnover number and Q
10

E Turnover number: measurement of enzyme activity
Number of substrate molecules turned into product in 1 minute by one molecule of
enzyme.
E Q
10
: temperature quotient / coefficient
Q
10
=

Section 2 Energetics
- Stomata and intercellular air space and their distribution in leaves

In HKAL exam, questions may be set on stomata and intercellular air space and their
distribution in leaves. You are required to answer these questions in CE knowledgey.

- Photosystem I and II

- Details of the metabolic pathways, name of intermediates (Ribulose biphosphate,
Phosphoglyceric acid) and individual enzyme in photosynthesis.

` From 2002 onwards, candidates can use short form 3-compound / PGA for
Phosphoglyceric acid, RuBP / 5-C compound for Ribulose biphosphate.
Spelling error are not accepted for Phosphoglyceric acid and Ribulose biphosphate.
` You need to know PGA is reduced by Reduced NADP (alternative names: reduced
NADP + H
+
, NADPH + H
+
, NADPH, NADPH
2
. Not Reduced NADPH as reduced means
NADPH molecules have already accept electrons, using the term reduced NADPH is
redundant ) to triose phosphate (PGAL / TP).)

- Metabolism pathway of triose phosphate to produce lipids and amino acids.

In HKAL examination, you are required to know that triose phosphate can be used
as a substrate to produce lipids and amino acids.

- Name of the individuals carriers of the electron transport chain.
- Concept of R.Q.
- Determination of R.Q. in at least two organisms with different respiratory substrates
- Resuscuitation

Section 3 Genetics and Evolution
- Details of structure of tRNA and ribosome
- Lethal genes (e.g. mouse yellow fur)
- Interaction of two gene loci (e.g. fowl combs)
- Calculation of crossover values
- Different types of gene mutation

In HKAL exam, you are required to know mutation cause change in DNA sequence
only. This results in change in conformation of protein synthesized change for
function of genes.

- Different types of chromosome mutation and their genetic sequences

> In HKAL exam, you are required to know mutation cause change in DNA sequence
only. This results in change in conformation of protein synthesized change for
function of genes.

- Spontaneous and induced mutations mechanisms.

> In HKAL exam, you are required to know mutation is caused by radiation, chemicals
only.

- Students should not be distracted by too much information on genetic diseases, genetic
screening technique and gene therapy.
- Complicated technical details of recombinant DNA technology
- Students are not expected to exhaust the application of recombinant in all possible
fields.

In HKAL Examination, you should know the term and usage of gene / DNA probe,
DNA marker.
In HKAL Examination, you should know the source of restriction enzyme and DNA
ligase.

List of topic are actually required in teachers version of HKAL syllabus:
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Information adapted from Life the Science of Biology (7
th
Edition), W.H. Freeman:
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is essential to copy a short region of DNA many
times in a test tube. PCR is a cyclic process.

C Double-stranded fragments of DNA are separated into single strands by heating
(denatured).
C A short, artificially synthesized primer is added to the mixture, along with the
nucleotide and DNA polymerase.
C DNA polymerase catalyzes the production of complementary new strands.

A single cycle takes a few minutes to double the amount of DNA, leaving the new DNA in
the double-stranded state. Theoretically, repeating the cycle many times leads to an
exponential increase in the number of copies of the DNA sequence.

The PCR technique requires that the base sequences at the 3 end of each strand of the
target DNA sequence be known so that a primer, can be made. Usually only two primers
of this length will bind to only one region of DNA in an organisms.

One problem with PCR was its temperature requirements. To denature the DNA, it must
be heated to more than 90Ca temperature that denatures most DNA polymerases.
Use heat-resistant, including DNA polymerase and nucleotide in the hot springs
bacterium called, Thermus aquaticus which survives temperatures up to 95C that does
not denature at these high temperatures.


Section 4 Variety of Life and Relation of Organisms with their Environment
- Bacteria: nutritional types and multiplication
- Structure of flagellate
- Structure of unicellular algae

> In HKAL examination, you are required to know structure of prokaryotic cells.

- Structure of parasitic fungus and morphology of an agaric form.
- Morphology of a thalloid liverwort
- Morphology of a heterosporous pteridophytes
- Range of morphology exemplified by a local dicot tree.
- Morphology and body organization of a jelly fish and a sea anemone
- Morphology and body organization of a nematode
- Morphology and body organization of a free swimming polychaete and a leech
- Morphology of a sea urchin and a sea cucumber

In HKAL examination, all dichotomous keys are constructed based on morphology
only, ie external features.





Statements from HKAL Biology syllabus:
1. Learning Objectives:
> the relationship between the diversity of organisms and the variety of their ways of
life.
> To use a range of organisms found in two different local habitats (preferably, one
terrestrial habitat and one aquatic habitat) to illustrate how the organisms are
adapted to their habitats and ways of life.

Possible learning and teaching activities:
Study organisms (e.g. algae, ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms including
monocotyledonous plants and dicotyledonous plants, molluscs, annelids,
echinoderms, cnidarians, arthropods, vertebrates) in relation to their natural
habitats during field studies.
Use specimens or audiovisual materials to illustrate the diversity of organisms, and
their ways of life.

- Water cycle
- Economic significance of microorganisms:
Biodeterioration of food
The biological principles of food principles of food preservation using physical and
chemical methods.
Microorganisms as disease agents e.g. white rust
Cost to control the spread of disease crop protection
- Soil properties in relation to crop growth

Section 5 Human Activities and the Environment: (No any out-syl items)
Statements from HKAL Biology syllabus:
Learning objectives:
Students should learn
5.1 Human impact on the environment
5.1.1 Human population
The exponential growth of the human population and its control.
The impact of human population explosion on the environment.

5.1.2 Resource exploitation
the variety of resources exploited by humans: renewable (e.g. timber and fish) and
non-renewable resource (e.g. fossil fuel).
that human exploitation of natural resources has modified the environment.
the risk of renewable resources (e.g. timber) becoming a limiting resource.

5.1.3 The effects of agriculture
deforestation as a means to clear land for agriculture and animal grazing.
soil erosion as a consequence of inappropriate agricultural practices.
the undesirable effects of chemical control of pestsand weeds, and the excessive use
of chemical fertilisers.

5.1.4 The effects of urbanisation and industrialisation
5.1.4.1 Land clearance and reclamation
the impact of land clearance and reclamation (for residential and urban
infrastructure development) on the environment.

5.1.4.2 Pollution
some major atmospheric pollutants (e.g. sulphur dioxide and particulates) and their
effects.
global issues: ozone depletion, global warming and acid rain.
how inadequate treatment of sewage may lead to the deterioration of water quality
and microbial hazards.
eutrophication and algal bloom.
some water pollutants (e.g. oil and detergent).
the use of organisms as pollution indicators.

5.2 Human responsibility for environmental conservation
the concept of sustainable development and the need for the conservation of
natural resources.
afforestation in Hong Kong as a means of restoring degraded or devegetated land.
the management of natural resources (e.g. fish, timber).
the recycling of wastes (e.g. paper, aluminium).
the need to maintain biodiversity: conservation of wildlife and their habitats;
ecological, aesthetic and moral considerations.
the protection of endangered species in Hong Kong with reference to at least two of
the following examples: Chinese White Dolphin, Romers Tree Frog, Black-faced
Spoonbill, and Pitcher-plants.
the pollution control measures: sewage treatment, the control of agricultural wastes
and industrial effluents.
the relationship between economic development and conservation of the
environment.
the importance of environmental education and legislation.

Possible learning and teaching activities:
Discuss or carry out project work on the human population explosion and its impact
on the environment; the world food problem as a biological and social issue.
Discuss the need and the strategies for human population control.
Ask students to make a list of renewable and non-renewable resources.

Search for information on how human exploitation of natural resources has
modified the environment.
Ask students to suggest examples of renewable resources that have become limiting
due to human exploitation.

Collect newspaper clippings on cases of soil erosion and desertification as a result of
land clearance, overgrazing and over-harvesting.
Carry out a case study to illustrate the effect of land clearance or reclamation on the
environment.
Debate on the pros and cons of the development of a local infrastructure.
Search for information about the Air Pollution Index (API).
Conduct a small project or investigation on atmospheric pollution (e.g. acid rain,
global warming, greenhouse effect, lichen distribution as an indicator of air
pollution by sulphur dioxide).
Identify the most air-polluted area in Hong Kong based on the available information
from the Environmental Protection Department.
Search for information and evidence on ozone depletion, global warming and acid
rain.
Discuss the controversial views of global warming.
Conduct a survey of a freshwater stream or seaside on the types, sources and effects
of pollutants.
Compare the oxygen content of clean and polluted water using data loggers or other
means.
Study the grading of beach water quality prepared by the Environmental Protection
Department.
Show some indicator organisms found in polluted stream.
Discuss the biological principles behind which some organisms can be used as
pollution indicators.
Use data to review and assess the status of air and water pollution in local
environment.
Read reports from different sources (e.g. newspaper, TV, Internet) on a particular
ecological issue.
Ask students to develop action plans to reduce environmental pollution.
Carry out a project on human responsibility for environmental conservation.
Search for information on the wastes recycling industry in Hong Kong.
Ask students to cite examples of 4R: reduce, recycle, reuse and replace.
Search for information on biodiversity and how it affects the life on Earth.
Visit one conservation area in Hong Kong (e.g. Nature Reserves, Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSI), country parks, marine parks, artificial reefs and Ramsar
site).
Show specimens or pictures of endangered species.

Visit the Endangered Species Resource Centre of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Conservation Department.
Visit a local sewage treatment plant.
Ask students to propose a list of pollutants found in the effluents produced from a
number of local industries or those of the Pearl Delta.
Debate on the dilemma between urbanisation, industrialisation and conservation.
Research on some local examples which illustrate the conflicting interests between
economic development and the conservation of the environment.
Create and then role-play a scenario in which a major industry in an area decides to
move the factory to Mainland, rather than installing pollution measures which are
mandatory and expensive. Roles can include factory owner, workers, spouses or
children of the workers, government officials, local residents etc.
Discuss the existing policies on environmental conservation.
Find out the work done and the contribution of a variety of environmentally
concerned groups in Hong Kong.

Expected learning outcomes
Students should be able to
Describe the pattern of human population growth.
evaluate the impact of rapid human population growth on the environment.
appreciate the need for human population control.
give examples of renewable and non-renewable resources.
distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources.
point out the impact of human activities on natural resources.
adopt appropriate attitude and practice in the wise use of natural resources.
point out the diminution of forest as an effect of agriculture.
state and explain the undesirable effects of certain agricultural practices on the
ecosystem.
explain the ecological impact of land clearance and reclamation.
analyse the pros and cons of urban and industrial developments on the ecosystem.
state the major atmospheric pollutants and their effects.
explain the causes and effects of ozone depletion, global warming and acid rain.
state the roles of the individual in overcoming these problems.
explain the problems of inadequate sewage treatment.
explain the effects of eutrophication and algal bloom on marine or aquatic life.
explain the effects of oil and detergent on marine or aquatic life.
recognise that some organisms can be used as pollution indicators.
assess the status of air and water pollution through data analysis interpretation.
develop scepticism towards the reporting of ecological issues by mass media.
make justified decisions about environmental issues and to develop personal
environmental ethics.
formulate action plans to reduce environmental pollution.
explain the concept of sustainable development and state its importance.
appreciate the need for the conservation of natural resources.
develop a commitment to live an environmentally friendly life.
state the importance of wastes recycling.
develop an awareness of the importance of maintaining biodiversity.
appreciate the need to protect endangered species.
suggest ways to protect endangered species.
show respect for life.
explain how control measures can alleviate environmental problems.
explain the principles of sewage treatment.
explain the need to control agricultural wastes and industrial effluents.
appreciate that science and technology is a double-edged sword in improving or
polluting our environment.
consider various aspects to make logical and rational decisions on environmental
issues.
apply problem-solving skills to resolve environmental issues.
appreciate that solutions to environmental problems involve contributions from
many subject areas and compromise between different parties.
appreciate the importance of environmental education and legislation.

Section 6 Health and Diseases
- Life cycle of malaria
- A simple check for breast cancer by women themselves
- Different stages of breast cancer

Section 7 Nutrition
- Details of iron bacteria and colourless sulphur bacteria are not required.
- Mammalian tooth structure and tooth type
- Care of teeth
- Mastication and swallowing
- Other feeding method: filter feeding in bivalves, piercing and sucking in mosquitoes.

E In HKAL examination, you need to know filter feeder feed on phytoplankton and
zooplankton. Detailed mechanisms of filter feeding are not required in current HKAL
syllabus

- Feeding in a protozoan, a biting insect and a coelenterate
- Mouthparts of a biting insect and a sucking insect
- Ingestion of yeast by Paramecium
- Feeding of Hydra
- Filterfeeding in Daphnia or clam
- Action of saliva amylase
- Nervous and endocrine control of digestion
- Histology of liver
- Digestion of cellulose in ruminants
- The worlds food problem
- The structure and life cycle of a plant parasite

Section 8 Gas Exchange and Transport
- Gas exchange on a fish
- Gross examination of the gills of a fish
- Effectr of low oxygen concentration on rate and depth of breathing.

` In HKAL examination, you need to know that partial pressure of oxygen affects the
rate and depth of breathing in terms of chemical control.

- Gaseous exchange in a protozoan and an insect
- Gross examination of the tracheal system of an insect
- An outline of the process of blood clotting
- Capillary beds (e.g. grog web)
- Pulse rates under various condition
- The role of blood pressure
- Complete double circulatory system (mammal) compared with single circulatory system
(fish) and open blood system (terrestrial insects).
- Factors affecting absorption of mineral salts.
- The mechanism of stomatal monement
- Brief reference to evapo-transpiration and irrigation

Section 9 Support and Movement
- Spongy bone
- Details of compact bone
- Locomotion and movement of amoeba, paramecium, earthworm, insects, squid, birds

Section 10 Sensitivity, Response and Coordination
- Shape of cone and rod cells
- Cytokinetin
- Abscisic acid (for reference)
- Names of visual pigments
- Refractory period
- The synaptic transmission between neurons and at neuromuscular junction without
mentioning the role of calcium, spatial summation and temporal summation.
- Organisation and structure of autonomic nervous system
- Behaviour in animals-concept of instinctive and learned behaviours.
- Nature of an endocrine gland
- Role of hormones: gastrin, parathyroid hormone, secretin, aldosterone, cortiosterone

Section 11 Homeostasis
- Role of control of sodium ions by aldosterone

Section 12 Continuity of life, Growth and Development
- Function of clitoris, labia majora, labia minora
- Spermatogenesis
- Oogenesis
- Isogametes and heterogametes
- Fetilization in earthworm
- Histological details of sections of mammalian testis and ovary
- Function of extra embryonic membranes
- Details of sexual cycles in relations to breeding of domesticated animals (e.g. pig)
- Details of anatomy of range of stem, root and leaf propagules in angiosperms
- Construction of floral diagram and floral formulae
- Fruit and seed utilization by man
- Examination of some common edible fruits
- Development of a dicot embryo
- Detailed mechanisms of seed dormancy