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Objectives

Identify and describe the stages of the cell cycle Identify, using prepared slides, the phases of plant and animal mitosis. Describe the phases of mitosis Describe the events of karyokinesis and cytokinesis Identify and describe the phases of meiosis Compare and contrast mitosis with meiosis

MITOSIS
The Necessity for Cell Division in Living Thing 1. Cell division helps the body to produce new cells in order to replace cells that are worn out and damaged. 2. The continuous production of new cells for the growth and development of an organism is an essential process. 3. New cells are produced through a process called mitosis. 4. Mitosis involves nuclear division to produce two daughter cells, each containing the same number and genetically identical chromosomes as the parent cell. 5. Mitosis occurs in all somatic cell (all body cells except the reproductive cells). 6. In plant, mitosis occurs actively in the meristems at the tips of the roots and shoots.

Phases in the cell cycle The cell cycle divided into two major phases a. Interphase b. Mitosis Interphase is the period between division, divided into 3 sub phases (G1, S and G2) a. G1- cells grow rapidly and new organelle are synthesis b. S- synthesis of DNA and chromosomes are replicated c. G2- cells prepares for mitosis, synthesis protein and mitotic spindle begin to form

Stages of Mitosis
Prophase Early prophase Chomatids condense and become visible in a light microscope Nucleolus disappears Paired centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell Late prophase Nuclear membrane disappears Spindle form Metaphase Spindle fibres are fully form Sister cromatids line up at the spindle equator At the end of metaphase, the centromers divide Anaphase Anaphase begin with the separation of the centromers The sister cromatids are drawn to opposite poles of the cell by contraction of spindle fibres

Telophase Telophase begin when the two sets of daughter chromosomes have reached the two poles of the cell. The spindle fibres disintegrate, the nuclear membrane forms around each set of daughter chromosomes and the nucleoli reappear The chromosomes uncoil and become less visible under the light microscope In plant cells, the stages of mitosis are same. Only cytokinesis in plant cells is markedly different. A cleavage furrow does not form. Instead, membrane-enclosed vesicle gather at a plant cell s equator between the two nuclei. Vesicle fuse to form a cell plate.

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasmic division to form two daughter cells. Cytokinesis usually begins before nuclear division is completed. Cytokinesis in animal cells and plant cells are different. Animal cells, the cytoplasm contracts to pull the plasma membrane inwards, forming groove called a cleavage furrow

MEIOSIS
In a diploid cell, chromosomes occur as pairs (homologous chromosomes). Meiosis is a process to produce four daughter cells, each containing half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. nuclear division. Meiosis produces haploid gametes. Meiosis involves two successive nuclear division that produce four haploid cells. The first division (meiosis I) is the reduction division; the second division (meiosis II) separates the chromatids. During fertilization, fusion of two haploid gametes result in the formation of a diploid zygote. Human dipoid zygote otain 46 chromosomes. In animal and humans, meiosis occurs in a) Testes in males b) Ovaries in female In plants, meiosis occurs in a) Anthers of flowers b) Ovaries of flowers

Stages of Meiosis I
PROPHASE I o Chromosome begins to condense- they became shorter, thicker and visible. o Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. o Homologous chromosomes pair up through a process called sinapsis. o Each pair of homologous chromosome consisting of four chromatid is called a bivalent or a tetrad. o The non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes echange segments of DNA in a process called crossing over. o The points where the chromatids cross over are called chiasmata. Crossing over results in new combinations of genes and is an important source of variation. o Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear. o The two pairs of centrioles from which spindle fibres radiate move to opposite poles.

METAPHASE I o The pairs of homologous chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell.

ANAPHASE I o The chromosomes of each homologous pair move to opposite poles of the cell. o The spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes apart.

TELOPHASE I o o o o o The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibres disappear. Nuclear membrane reforms. Nucleolus reappears. Cytokinesis occurs to produce two haploid daughter cells because the nucleus contain only one sets of chromosomes.

Stages of Meiosis II
PROPHASE II o Nuclear membrane disintegrate. o Spindle fibres reforms. METAHASE II o The chromosomes, each made up of sister chromatids, line up at the equator. o The sister chromatids of each chromosomes face opposite poles. ANAPHASE II o The centromeres separate. o The chromatids separate and move towards the opposite poles of the cells. TELOPHASE II o o o o o The chromatids reach the pole. The chromatids become the chromosomes of daughter cells. Nucleoli reappear. Nuclear membrane reforms. Spindle fibres break down. Cytokineis takes place. Four haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, are produced.

The effects of uncontrolled mitosis in living things Mutation is the change in the DNA structure of the cell. This change in the DNA corrupts the coded genetic instructions for mitosis control. This leads to uncontrolled mitosis, which is the non-stop division of cells, producing a mass of new daughter cells, called tumour.

Cause of cancer 1. Genetic- some forms of cancer like prostate, colon, breast, skin, ovary are suspected to be inherited from the parents 2. Carcinogens- these are chemicals which affect genetic activity and cause cancer, e.g. of carcinogen a diesel exhaust, cigarette smoke, hair dyes, soot, arsenic, benzene and formaldehyde. 3. Radiation- excess exposure to x-ray, gamma-rays and ultra violet rays lead to increase cancer risk. 4. Age- some cancers are found primarily in young people (e.g. leukemia), while some cancers (e.g. colon cancers) are found mostly in older adults. 5. Viruses- some viruses (such as the EB and HIV-1) cause cancer.

Cloning
1. Cloning is the process of the making Clones are genetically identical cells produced from a single parent cell by mitotic division, or through asexual reproduction. 2. Genetically identical copies of an original plant or animal. 3. We shall study the application of knowledge on mitosis the cloning of a) microbes b) plants c) animals

Cloning of microbes Clone microbes using cells culture and fermenters, Cell culture a) You can easily clone microbes (bacteria and some fungi) in you science laboratory through natural asexual reproduction. b) First, grow a sample of microbial cells on a solid nutrient medium in an agar plate. c) Then identify, isolate and select strain from the agar plate and grow it in liquid medium in a culture flask. Fermenters a) Fermenters are vessels use in biotechnology to grow microbes on a large scale. b) Microbes, like yeast are mixed with a culture medium and left in a fermenters to grow by mitosis. c) The fermenters is constantly stirred, and aerated. d) The environmental conditions ( such as pH, oxygen, pressured and temperature) are constantly monitored using proves ti ensure the maximum growth of the microbes.

Cloning in plant tissues culture


1. Plants can be cloned using tissue culture. 2. Tissue culture is the process of growing cells artificially in the laboratory, it is a modern and efficient way of cloning plants. 3. Tissue culture produces genetically identical clones.

The main principals of tissue culture: a) A pieces of tissue, called explants, its taken from a parents plant (e.g. carrot root or stem tissue,) b) The pieces of tissues are sterilised with dilute sodium hypochlorite solution to prevent the growth of pathogens (such as bacteria and fungus). c) Each sterile tissue piece is placed on to a growth medium (gel containing nutrients and growth regulators). d) The tissues cells divided by mitosis to produce a mass of loosely arranged undifferentiated cells called callus. e) Callus is stimulated with shoot-stimulating hormone to form multiple shoots. f) The shoots are separated and each is placed in nutrient medium with root-stimulating hormone to encourage rooting g) Once the roots grow, the plantlets (little plants) are planted in sterile compost to grow.

Cloning of animal
There are two types of animal cloning according to purpose: 1. Reproductive cloning Producing an entire animal that is genetically identical to the parent animal The entire animal is produced from a single cell by asexual reproduction through mitosis. 2. Therapeutic cloning Is a branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of diseases. Parts of a person skin, heart, liver or even just a few cells are duplicated to produce a clone. The clone tissue is used to replace a damaged or diseases tissue without the risk of tissue rejection.

Application of Knowledge on Mitosis in Cloning


a) Cloning is the process of producing clones or genetically identical organisms through asexual reproductions. Tissue Culture  Tissue culture is the growth of tissues of living organisms in a suitable and sterile culture medium, containing nutrients and growth hormones to produces new organisms that are identical to the parents.  The new organisms produced are called clones.  Various parts of plants such as young shoot, leaves, roots, seeds, embryos, protoplasm and meristematic tissues can be cultured.  Animal cloning involves the replacement f the nucleus of an unfertilized egg cell with the nucleus from the somatic cell. The embryo is produced by mitosis which develops into a clone.

Comparison Between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis which involves one nuclear division to produce two identical diploid daughter cells. Meiosis which involves two nuclear divisions to produce four haploid daughter cells which are not identical.

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