Probabilistic Aspects of Harmonic Impedances

Alfredo Testa member, IEEE, Daniele Castaldo student member, IEEE and Roberto Langella member, IEEE
Seconda Universit degli Studi di Napoli, Dipartimento di Ingegneria dellInformazione Aversa (CE) - Italia Tel. +39 081 5010239, Fax +39 081 5037042, e-mail: daniele.castaldo@ieee.org, roberto.langella@ieee.org, alfredo.testa@ieee.org Abstract Probabilistic aspects of harmonic impedances are considered. Attention is devoted to the effects of statistic correlation among currents, impedances and voltages that exist in real cases. The IEEE industrial test system for harmonic modeling and simulation is considered. The system impedance probabilistic model taking into account parameter uncertainty and load and supply configuration variability, already developed in a previous paper, is recalled. Three methods to evaluate harmonic voltages, characterized by different complexity and accuracy, are compared among them. Index Terms Harmonic and Interharmonic Distortion, System Impedance, Probabilistic Modeling. I. INTRODUCTION II. CORRELATIONS AMONG CURRENTS, IMPEDANCES AND VOLTAGES

great attention has been devoted to probabilistic approaches for the prediction of the harmonic currents injected by loads and of the corresponding nodal harmonic voltages [1,2,3]. In this framework, minor importance has been devoted to the variability of the system impedances [4,5,6]. The network component parameter uncertainty and/or the network, supply and load configuration changing may cause significant variations of amplitude and phase of the nodal equivalent impedances. Parameter uncertainty is a consequence f.i. of their variability in time and with temperature or of the inherent difficulty in forecasting actual values in the designing stage for a new plant. Changing is a consequence of obvious operational needs; in particular the effect of supply or load changing is relevant mainly when resonances are present. Under these conditions, a voltage distortion evaluation [7,8], based on the distorted load current injection, even if probabilistically modeled, but referring to a single reference condition for impedances, may result incorrect and sometimes unacceptable. In this paper, the effects of correlations among currents, impedances and voltages actually existing in a system are discussed. Then, the system impedance probabilistic model developed in [6] and taking into account parameter uncertainty, and load and supply configuration variability is recalled. Finally, the effects of modeling accuracy are discussed with reference to three methods for evaluating voltage distortion: the first does not take into account impedance variability; the second neglects the actual correlation effects between currents and impedances; the third takes into account the actual behavior of currents and impedances.

The standards suggest to study the frequency dependent behaviour of the supply system impedances in opportune conditions. The most critical conditions are related to the presence of strong parallel resonances causing very high values of the impedances around given frequencies. Resonance condition characteristics are determined in distribution networks by different factors among which the power factor correction capacitors, together with the load demand, play a very relevant role. Thus, assuming invariant reference conditions to study the behaviour of the supply impedance means not to take into account the variability of the relevant quantities during time, which reflects on both resonance frequencies and impedance amplitude at resonant frequencies. On the other hand, it is well known that load variability in time requires tuning of the capacitors for the power factor correction. Then, assuming impedance variability uncorrelated with current and voltage variability means not to take into account dependences which couple the behaviour of all the involved quantities in time. Having again in mind the power factor correction, the higher the load demand is the higher the capacitance value and the lower the resonance frequencies, moreover, the higher the dumping effects of the loads, acting as R-X elements in parallel to supplying impedances, are. Furthermore, the higher the whole load demand, at a given node, is the higher the probability of having higher injected distorted currents and higher voltage back ground distortion. Fig. 1 represents the main links existing among the values assumed by the final quantity of interest (the harmonic voltage Vh) and the values of the quantities of direct influence (the harmonic current Ih, the supply harmonic impedance Zh and back ground voltage VhBG) and by quantities of indirect influence (the total active and reactive load current I1 at fundamental frequency, the supply fundamental voltage V1 .. and time t). Of course, in real cases further links do exist and their importance depends on the specific situation to analyse. To have an idea also of the quantitative influence on the statistic parameters of interest, different correlation conditions can be analysed with reference to a simple example. Both impedance and current are assumed uniformly distributed in a range of values between a minimum and a maximum value, Zhmin = 0, Zhmax = 1 and Ihmin = 0 and

0-7803-7322-7/02/$17.00 2002 IEEE

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Vh VhBG Ih Zh

V1

I1

Fig.1: Main links existing among the harmonic voltage Vh, and quantities of direct influence ( harmonic current Ih, supply impedance Zh , back ground voltage VhBG) and of indirect influence (V1, I1, . and time t).

of the corresponding determination of Ih from its maximum value. The observations that can be made are trivial and the differences among the shapes are very evident; 95% percentile values are also very different (the distances from the minimum values are respectively : 0.95, 0.70, 0.90 and 0.25 times p.u.). Finally, the importance in principle of taking into account not only impedance variability but also the actual correlation among impedances and currents results evident. Of course, the higher the variations of the impedance are the higher their effects hence the importance of taking them into account. An idea of impedance variability in realistic condition is given in the following section III.
III. IMPEDANCE VARIABILITY

Ihmax =1 p.u., respectively; the absence of back ground voltage distortion is also hypothesised. The harmonic voltage behaviour can be obtained simply applying the Ohm law and utilising the Zh and Ih determinations obatained by means of a Monte Carlo simulation routine. Fig. 2 reports the distributions of the harmonic voltage obtained in four different reference conditions: a) constant value for the impedance, which means f.i.: Zhmax=Zh=1 p.u.; b) independence, which means that: P(Z |I )=P(Z ) and P(I |Z )=P(I ), for each determination of Zh and Ih; c) direct dependence given by: Zh Zh Ih Ih min min h h = h , otherwise =0, P(Z |I )=1 if h Z max Z h I max I h min min that means the determination of Z has a distance from its minimum value, which is proportional to the distance of the corresponding determination of Ih from its minimum value; d) cross dependence given by: Zh Zh Ih Ih min max , otherwise =0, = h P(Zh|Ih)=1 if h h Z max Z min I max I h min
h h h h h h h

Reference is made to the IEEE industrial test system proposed by the IEEE Task Force on Harmonic modeling and simulation in [9]. It consists of 13 buses and is representative of a medium-sized industrial plant. Due to the balanced nature of the system, only the unifilar scheme is presented (Fig.3); the positive sequence rated data are provided in [6] and are referred to 60 Hz fundamental frequency and to the 13.8 kV voltage.
G1
5 0 :G E N -1

G2
1 0 0 :U T IL-6 9 0 1 :6 9 -1 0 3 :M ILL-1

5 1 :A U X

0 5 :FD R F

2 6 :FD R G

0 6 :FD R H

4 9 :R E C T ASD

2 9 :T 1 1 S E C 3 9 :T 3 S E C

1 1 :T 4 S E C

1 9 :T 7 S E C

Fig.3: The IEEE industrial test system.

The plant is fed from a utility supply at 69 kV. Moreover, a local generator is directly connected to the local plant distribution system operating at 13.8 kV. The automatic that means the determination of Zh has a distance from its tuning of the power factor correction capacitor is minimum value, which is proportional to the distance hypotisezed. a) b) c) d)

pdf

pdf

pdf

pdf

cpf

cpf

cpf

Vh95%

Vh95%

Vh95%

Vh95%

Vhmin

Vhmax Harmonic Voltage

Vhmin

Harmonic Voltage

Vhmax

Vhmin Vhmax Harmonic Voltage

Vhmin

Harmonic Voltage

Vhmax

Fig.2: Pdf and Cdf of Harmonic Voltage for harmonic current and impedance uniformly distributed assuming: a) non variability of the impedance, b) Zh and Ih independence, c) Zh and Ih direct correlation and d) Zh and Ih cross correlation.

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cpf

Explicit reference is made to the self-impedance of the bus 49:RECT supplying the unique non-linear load. Here and in the following sections, the impedance values are all referred to the 480V level. The behavior of this impedance, obviously, is representative of the behavior of all of the network buses except for the generation buses. Adequate equivalents to represent the system components for harmonic and interharmonic penetration analyses are needed. The authors refer to classical models adopted in literature [9] and fully described in [6] for supply, lines and cables, transformers and loads A. Parameter uncertainty The system component parameters L and C value uncertainty has been modeled in a Gaussian scenario. In particular, the majority of determinations (99.57%) of L and C fall in the intervals (Lr-5%Lr,Lr+5%Lr) and (Cr5%Cr,Cr+5%Cr), respectively, being Lr and Cr the rated values. The effects on the bus 49:RECT impedance magnitude are reported in Fig.4, for different values of L and C parameters versus frequency (zoom from 240 to 680Hz).
0.16 0.14 0.12
+5% -5%

their corresponding frequencies of occurrence, which can be considered as probability of occurrence in a generic instant of a working day. Fig.5 shows the effects of the different power consumption on the system equivalent impedance as seen from the bus 49:RECT. It can be observed that: - the resonance frequency varies in a wide range from a minimum value (450Hz) to a maximum value (1120Hz); such a variability depends basically on the adjustments of the capacitance combining with the equivalent inductance at the node 03:MILL-1 practically fixed by the generator equivalent inductances; - the impedance amplitude peak grows, as expected, as the load power consumption decreases; - the load variability strongly influences the system impedance at a given frequency, in a wide range of frequencies (f.i. from 500 to 800Hz).
0.35 0.3 [] 0.25 0.2

__T1 __T4 __T3 __T5

__T6 __T2

Ma g n i t u d e

0.15 0.1 0.05

Magnitude []

0.1 0.08
0

0.06 0.04 0.02 0 300 400 500 Lr,Cr 600

500 Fr e q u e n c y [ Hz ]

1000

1500

Fig.5: System impedance magnitude versus frequency, at node 49:RECT, for different power consumption values.

C. Supply time variability Supply characteristics and configuration may vary in time, f.i. according to duty cycles depending on different economic and technical reasons. Tab.II contains the local generator and the utility supply reliability parameters [10], in terms of failure rate, , unavailability, U, and of probability of outage in a generic time instant, P(GiOFF). For the sake of simplicity outages are here considered as the only cause of variability.
TABLE II G1 G2 [failures/year] 1.64 4.5 SUPPLY RELIABILITY PARAMETERS U [h/year] P(GiOFF) 2.4 410-3 32 0.3 10-3

Frequency [Hz] Fig. 4: System impedance magnitude versus frequency (zoom from 240 to 680Hz), at node 49:RECT, for different values of L and C.

B. Load time variability In order to take into account the effects of the load variations, all the loads present in the system have been modelled by means of a unique time varying equivalent circuit as described in [6]. The parameter values of the equivalent load are set according to the values of power consumption. The capacitor varies its capacitance exactly compensating the reactive power requested by the equivalent load.
TABLE I ACTIVE POWER CONSUMPTION, POWER FACTOR AND PROBABILITY FOR DIFFERENT TIME INTERVALS

P [pu] cos P(Ti)

3 4 5 6 1 2 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.7 1.05 0.6 0.83 0.82 0.77 0.83 0.75 0.80 0.459 0.125 0.125 0.083 0.125 0.083

For each time interval of a typical working day, Tab.I reports the active power consumption, the power factor and

Fig.6 shows the effects of the different supply configurations on the system equivalent impedance as seen from the bus 49:RECT. It can be observed how the supply configuration variability influences the equivalent system impedance much more than the other phenomena. Anyway, it must be considered that the probability of occurrence of the events G1OFFG2ON and G1ONG2OFF are very small, so, in practice, their mean influence is not relevant.

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0.45 0.4
[]

__

0.35 0.3

G1ONG2OFF

0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 100 200 300

G1OFFG2ON __ G1ONG2ON

400

500

600

700

Fr e q u e n c y [ Hz ]

Fig.6: System impedance magnitude versus frequency, at node 49:RECT, for different supply configurations.

D. Model In order to obtain the probabilistic model of the system impedance, Z, all the impedance variability causes, analysed in subheadings A., B. and C., must be taken into account. A possibility is to take advantage of the Bayes formula [11] as described in [6]. In [6] probabilistic modelling was made for different time scenarios: i) the entire week (week), ii) the working day (day) and iii) the working-hours (w-hours) of the working day. For the weekend the power consumption was assumed equal to that of time interval T1 of a working day. Fig.7 shows the probability density function (pdf) and cumulative probability function (cpf) of the system impedance magnitude for different frequencies referred to only working day scenarios. In particular Fig. 7a) and 7b) refer to harmonic frequencies (5th and 11th) while Fig.7c) to the interharmonic frequency of 636Hz. It is possible to distinguish the contribution of the different time intervals, Ti, of the day: the colour characterising each time interval is chosen so that the darker the colour is the lower the power load consumption. It is evident how the 5th harmonic impedance has mono-mode behaviour, with a very low variance, due to its distance (left side) from the shifting resonance peak (see Fig.5 ): also a deterministic modeling

could give equivalent information. The 11th harmonic impedance presents a quadri-mode behaviour characterised - obviously - by a great dispersion, and reaches the greatest values for medium load condition (T4); this can be explained (see Fig.5) considering that the equivalent impedance resonance peak approaches and crosses the frequency of interest. The interharmonic impedance behaviour is similar to that outlighted for the 11th harmonic due to the short distance (24Hz) between the two frequencies. Tab. III reports some statistic parameters for the same aforementioned frequencies but with reference to a whole week. In the last column of the table also the rated value is reported, defined as that characterising the IEEE test system in the condition considered in [9]. The table confirms the considerations developed for Fig.7.
TABLE III 49:RECT BUS IMPEDANCE (WHOLE WEEK) Rated Mean Max Z95% Z300Hz [] 0.048 0.052 0.049 0.049 Z660Hz [] 0.106 0.199 0.152 0.087 Z636Hz [] 0.102 0.189 0.131 0.083

Ma g n i t u d e

IV. EFFECTS ON DISTORTION MODELING RESULTS

The result of section III together with the data characterising the ASD, which is the harmonic source connected to the bus 49:RECT, are utilised to perform the analysis of the plant harmonic voltage distortion with methods assuming different representations of time variability and correlations among currents and impedances. It has been assumed that the ASD changes its working point according to the same time intervals utilised for the plant power consumption reported in Tab.I. The corresponding asynchronous motor frequencies and active power consumption vary as described in [6]. This originates evident strong correlations between current and impedance.

a)

0.35 0.3 0.25 ZMAX=0.052 T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5 1

b)

0.35 0.3 0.25 ZMAX=0.199 1 T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5

c)

0.35 0.3 0.25 ZMAX=0.189 1 T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5

0.75 0.2 pdf cpf 0.5 0.15 0.1 0.25 0.05 0 0 20 40 60 80

0.75 pdf 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.25 0 100 0.05 0 0 20 40 60 80 Impedance magnitude at 636 Hz [%] cpf

0.75 cpf 0.5 0.25 0 100

pdf

0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0

0.5

20 40 60 80 Impedance magnitude at 300 Hz [%]

0 100

Impedance magnitude at 660 Hz [%]

Fig. 7: Pdf and cpf of the system impedance magnitude, at bus 49:RECT, [%] of its maximum value during a working day: 5th harmonic, b) 11th harmonic and c) interharmonic at 636Hz.

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a)

0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12

IMAX=260.20 A (VMAX=12.75 V)

b)

0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12

IMAX=81.74 A (VMAX=7.11 V)

c)

0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12

IMAX=11.3 A (VMAX=0.92 V)

_T1
T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5 cpf

_T1
T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5 cpf

_T5 _T1

0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0

0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0

0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0

T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5

pdf

pdf

_T2

_T3

_T4 _T5 _T6

_T2

_T3

pdf

_T4 _T5 _T6

_T3 _T6 _T 4

_T2

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

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100

10

20

30

40

50

60

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10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Current (voltage) magnitude at 300 Hz [%]

Current (voltage) magnitude at 660 Hz [%]

Current (voltage) magnitude at 636 Hz [%]

Fig. 8: Pdf and cpf of the current magnitude (and of voltage magnitude for constant impedances of rated values reported in Tab. III), at bus 49:RECT, [%] of its maximum value during a working day: a) 5th harmonic, b) 11th harmonic and c) interharmonic at 636Hz.

Figure 8 shows the pdf and the cpf of the 300, 660 and 636Hz currents obtained referring to a working day. Tab. IV reports the same statistic parameters previously adopted, for the frequency components analysed for impedances.
TABLE IV I300Hz [A] I660Hz [A] I636Hz [A] ASD CURRENTS (WHOLE WEEK) Mean Max I95% 80.80 260.20 249.11 25.35 81.74 78.13 1.21 11.3 11.10

A. Distortion models Three different methods were utilised to evaluate the harmonic and interharmonic voltages at bus 49:RECT: - the first takes into account only current variability, assuming the rated value for the impedances; - the second is the simplified procedure which takes into account impedance variability but applies the product V=ZI to the homologous statistic parameters (mean, max, etc.), so ignoring the actual correlation effects; - the third applies the Ohm law to all the determinations of Z and I and utilizes Bayes relations to obtain the voltage probability, taking into account the actual behaviour of the involved quantities. B. Results For the sake of brevity, the resulting voltages reported in the following once again refer only to 49:RECT bus. a) 0.05
0.137 0.04 0.03 pdf 0.02 0.01 0 T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5 VMAX=13.55 V 1

Anyway, the behaviour of the other bus voltages is very similar to this. Figure 8 can be still utilized for the results of the first method, considering that the voltages are obtained from the currents simply applying a constant scale factor. Pdf and cpf can not be obtained by the second method. Figure 9 reports the pdf and cpf of harmonic and interharmonic voltage magnitude, in percentage of their maximum values, in a working day, obtained by means of the third procedure, that gives the actual values due to the absence of simplifying assumptions. The differences among the histograms of fig. 8 and fig. 9 are evident. It is clear how taking into account impedance variability gives rise to an increase in the dispersion of the results; the values of the main statistic parameters result heavily influenced. A comparison between the values of the statistic parameters, with reference to a whole week, obtained by means of the three methods, can be done with reference to fig. 10. It suggests the following considerations: mean values are close enough for the harmonics (no more than 20% of difference), very different for the interharmonic (reaching 60% of differences); th harmonic is the maximum value for the 11 underestimated by the first procedure, overestimated by the second; 95% percentile values behave similarly to the maximum values. c)
1 T1 T2 T6 T4 T3 T5 0.05 0.225 0.04 0.03 cpf pdf 0.02 0.01 0 VMAX=2.13 V 1 T1 T2 0.75 T6 T4 T3 T5 0.5

b)

0.05 VMAX=16.26 V 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0 0.137

0.75 cpf pdf

0.75

0.5

0.5

0.25 0 100

0.25 0 100

0.25 0 100

20

40 60 80 Voltage Magnitude at 300 Hz [%]

20 40 60 80 Voltage Magnitude at 660 Hz [%]

20 40 60 80 Voltage Magnitude at 636 Hz [%]

Fig. 9: Pdf and cpf of the voltage magnitude, at bus 49:RECT, [%] of its maximum value during a working day by means of the third procedure: a) 5th harmonic, b) 11th harmonic and c) interharmonic at 636Hz.

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cpf

cpf

a)
actual Zh&Ih d. corr. Zh constant
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

b)
actual Zh&Ih d. corr. Zh constant
16
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

c)
actual Zh&Ih d. corr. Zh constant
0,0 0,3 0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,4

Voltage magnitude at 300Hz [V]

Voltage magnitude at 660Hz [V]

Voltage magnitude at 636Hz [V]

95% mean ), obtained Zh constant by Fig. 10: Comparison of the statistic parameters of the voltage at bus 49:RECT during a whole week ( max h h th th the first method, Z &I directly correlated by the second method and actual by the third method: a) 5 harmonic, b) 11 harmonic and c) interharmonic at 636Hz.

V. CONCLUSIONS

[3] A. Cavallini, R. Langella, F. Ruggiero, A. Testa, Gaussian Modeling [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

Probabilistic aspects of harmonic impedances have been considered. Attention has been devoted to the effects of statistic correlation among currents, impedances and voltages that exist in real cases. The IEEE industrial test system for harmonic modelling and simulation has been considered. The system impedance probabilistic model taking into account parameter uncertainty, and load and supply configuration variability, already developed in a previous paper, has been recalled. Three methods to evaluate harmonic voltages, characterized by different complexity and accuracy, have been compared. The first does not take into account impedance variability, the second neglects the actual correlations between currents and impedances and the third takes into account the actual behavior of currents and impedances. The main outcomes of the paper are: - it is necessary to take into account system impedance variability; - procedures taking into account impedance time variability but neglecting the actual correlation among impedances and currents, that are particularly relevant in an industrial system, give unreliable results; - assuming direct correlations among impedances and currents, in particular the same behaviour in time - as done with the second method -, gives precautionary (sometimes too pessimistic) results; - interharmonics require the most accurate analyses also due to their ability in producing immediately perceptible damages (light flicker) once a certain level has been reached.
VI. REFERENCES
independent random harmonic components, 7th ICHQP, Las Vegas (USA), 1996. [2] R. Langella, P. Marino, F. Ruggiero and A. Testa, Summation of random harmonic vectors in presence of statistic dependences, 5th PMAPS, Vancouver (CA), 1997.

[11]

of Harmonic Vectors in Power Systems, 8th ICHQP, Athens (GR), 1998. P. Caramia, G. Carpinelli, F. Rossi, P. Verde.: "Probabilistic iterative harmonic analysis of power systems", IEE Proc. on general Transmission Distribution., Vol. 141, N4, July 1994. R. Carbone, D. Castaldo, R. Langella, P. Marino, A. Testa, "Network Impedance Uncertainty in Harmonic and Interharmonic Distortion Studies", IEEE Budapest Power Tech '99, Budapest (UG), 1999. R. Carbone, D. Castaldo, R. Langella, A. Testa, Probabilistic Modeling of Industrial Systems for Voltage Distortion Analysis 9th ICHQP, Orlando (USA), 2000. IEC 1000-3-6, Electromagnetic compatibility, assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power systems. IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems, IEEE Standard 519-1992,1993. Task Force on Harmonics Modelling and Simulations: Test Systems for Harmonics Modelling and Simulations, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 14 2, pp 579587, April 1999. G. Carpinelli, V. Mangoni, S. Oliva, M. Russo, A. Testa: Scelta dello schema elettrico e funzionamento di un sistema elettrico industriale con cogenerazione, Autoproduzione e Cogenerazione nellIndustria, Febbraio 1995, Cassino (I). A. Papoulis, Probability, Random Variables and Stochastic Processes, 3rd edition, 1991, McGraw Hill.

VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Daniele Castaldo was born in Cercola, Italy on October 26, 1972. He received the degree in Computer Science Engineering from the University of Naples, in 1998. He is working towards the Ph.D. degree in Static Conversion of Energy at the Second University of Naples, Aversa, Italy. Dr. Castaldo is a student member of IEEE Power Engineering Society. Roberto Langella was born in Naples, Italy, on March 20, 1972. He received the degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Naples, in 1996, and the Ph.D. degree in Electrical Energy Conversion at the Second University of Naples, in 2000. Dr. Langella is currently assistant professor in Electrical Power Systems at Second University of Naples, Aversa, Italy. Dr. Langella is a member of IEEE Power Engineering Society. Alfredo Testa was born in Naples, Italy, on March 10, 1950. He received the degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Naples, in 1975. He is a professor in Electrical Power Systems at the Second University of Naples, Aversa, Italy. He is engaged in researches on electrical power systems reliability and harmonic analysis. Dr. Testa is a member of IEEE Power Engineering Society and of AEI (the Italian Institute of Electrical Engineers).

[1] P. Marino, F. Ruggiero and A. Testa, On the vectorial summation of

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