Geometric dilution of precision computation (GDOP)

The concept of geometric dilution of precision was introduced in the section, error sources and analysis. Computations were provided to show how PDOP was used and how it affected the receiver position error standard deviation. When visible GPS satellites are close together in the sky (i.e., small angular separation), the DOP values are high; when far apart, the DOP values are low. Conceptually, satellites that are close together cannot provide as much information as satellites that are widely separated. Low DOP values represent a better GPS positional accuracy due to the wider angular separation between the satellites used to calculate GPS receiver position. HDOP, VDOP, PDOP and TDOP are respectively Horizontal, Vertical, Position (3-D) and Time Dilution of Precision. Figure 3.1 Dilution of Precision of [22] provide a graphical indication of how geometry affect accuracy. We now take on the task of how to compute the dilution of precision terms. As a first step in computing DOP, consider the unit vector from the receiver to satellite i with components , given by: , and where the distance from receiver to the satellite, , is

where denote the position of the receiver and denote the position of satellite i. These x, y, and z components may be components in a North, East, Down coordinate system a South, East, Up coordinate system or other convenient system. Formulate the matrix A as:

The first three elements of each row of A are the components of a unit vector from the receiver to the indicated satellite. The elements in the fourth column are c where c denotes the speed of light. Formulate the matrix, Q, as

This computation is in accordance with Chapter 11 of The global positioning system by Parkinson and Spilker where the weighting matrix, P, has been set to the identity matrix. The elements of the Q matrix are designated as:

The Greek letter is used quite often where we have used d. However the elements of the Q matrix do not represent variances and covariances as they are defined in probability and statistics. Instead they are strictly geometric terms. Therefore d as in dilution of precision is used. PDOP, TDOP and GDOP are given by , , and

in agreement with "Section 1.4.9 of PRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE POSITIONING". The horizontal dilution of precision, , and the vertical dilution of

precision, , are both dependent on the coordinate system used. To correspond to the local horizon plane and the local vertical, x, y, and z should denote positions in either a North, East, Down coordinate system or a South, East, Up coordinate system. [edit] Derivation of DOP equations The equations for computing the geometric dilution of precision terms have been described in the previous section. This section describes the derivation of these equations. The method used here is similar to that used in "Global Positioning System (preview) by Parkinson and Spiker" Consider the position error vector, , defined as the vector from the intersection of the four sphere surfaces corresponding to the pseudoranges to the true position of the receiver. where bold denotes a vector and , , and denote unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes respectively. Let denote the time error, the true time minus the receiver indicated time. Assume that the mean value of the three components of and are zero.

where are the errors in pseudoranges 1 through 4 respectively. This equation comes from linearizing the equation relating pseudoranges to receiver position, satellite there results positions, and receiver clock errors as shown in.[61] Multiplying both sides by

. Transposing both sides: . Post multiplying the matrices on both sides of equation (2) by the corresponding matrices in equation (3), there results

. Taking the expected value of both sides and taking the non-random matrices outside the expectation operator, E, there results:

Assuming the pseudorange errors are uncorrelated and have the same variance, the covariance matrix on the right side can be expressed as a scalar times the identity matrix. Thus

since Note: Substituting for since there follows

From equation (7), it follows that the variances of indicated receiver position and time are and

The remaining position and time error variance terms follow in a straightforward manner.

[edit] Selective availability

GPS includes a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds intentional, time varying errors of up to 100 meters (328 ft) to the publicly available navigation signals. This was intended to deny an enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision weapon guidance. SA errors are actually pseudorandom, generated by a cryptographic algorithm from a classified seed key available only to authorized users (the U.S. military, its allies and a few other users, mostly government) with a special military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is insufficient; it still needs the tightly controlled daily key. Before it was turned off on May 1, 2000, typical SA errors were about 50 m (164 ft) horizontally and about 100 m (328 ft) vertically.[62] Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area almost equally, a fixed station with an accurately known position can measure the SA error values and transmit them to the local GPS receivers so they may correct their position fixes. This

is called Differential GPS or DGPS. DGPS also corrects for several other important sources of GPS errors, particularly ionospheric delay, so it continues to be widely used even though SA has been turned off. The ineffectiveness of SA in the face of widely available DGPS was a common argument for turning off SA, and this was finally done by order of President Clinton in 2000. Another restriction on GPS, antispoofing, remains on. This encrypts the P-code so that it cannot be mimicked by an enemy transmitter sending false information. Few civilian receivers have ever used the P-code, and the accuracy attainable with the public C/A code is so much better than originally expected (especially with DGPS) that the antispoof policy has relatively little effect on most civilian users. Turning off antispoof would primarily benefit surveyors and some scientists who need extremely precise positions for experiments such as tracking the motion of a tectonic plate. DGPS services are widely available from both commercial and government sources. The latter include WAAS and the U.S. Coast Guard's network of LF marine navigation beacons. The accuracy of the corrections depends on the distance between the user and the DGPS receiver. As the distance increases, the errors at the two sites will not correlate as well, resulting in less precise differential corrections. During the 1990-91 Gulf War, the shortage of military GPS units caused many troops and their families to buy readily available civilian units. This significantly impeded the U.S. military's own battlefield use of GPS, so the military made the decision to turn off SA for the duration of the war. In the 1990s, the FAA started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently. This would save the FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own radio navigation systems. The amount of error added was "set to zero"[63] at midnight on May 1, 2000 following an announcement by U.S. President Bill Clinton, allowing users access to the error-free L1 signal. Per the directive, the induced error of SA was changed to add no error to the public signals (C/A code). Clinton's executive order required SA to be set to zero by 2006; it happened in 2000 once the U.S. military developed a new system that provides the ability to deny GPS (and other navigation services) to hostile forces in a specific area of crisis without affecting the rest of the world or its own military systems.[63] Selective Availability is still a system capability of GPS, and could, in theory, be reintroduced at any time. In practice, in view of the hazards and costs this would induce for U.S. and foreign shipping, it is unlikely to be reintroduced, and various government agencies, including the FAA,[64] have stated that it is not intended to be reintroduced. One interesting side effect of the Selective Availability hardware is the capability to add corrections to the outgoing signal of the GPS cesium and rubidium atomic clocks to an accuracy of approximately 2 1013 This represented a significant improvement over the raw accuracy of the clocks.[citation needed] On 19 September 2007, the United States Department of Defense announced that future GPS III satellites will not be capable of implementing SA,[65] eventually making the policy permanent.[66]

[edit] Relativity

Satellite clocks are slowed by their orbital speed but sped up by their distance out of the Earth's gravitational well. A number of sources of error exist due to relativistic effects [67] that would render the system useless if uncorrected. Three relativistic effects are the time dilation, gravitational frequency shift, and eccentricity effects. For example, the relativistic time slowing due to the speed of the satellite of about 1 part in 1010, the gravitational time dilation that makes a satellite run about 5 parts in 1010 faster than an Earth based clock, and the Sagnac effect due to rotation relative to receivers on Earth. These topics are examined below, one at a time. [edit] Special and general relativity According to the theory of relativity, due to their constant movement and height relative to the Earth-centered, non-rotating approximately inertial reference frame, the clocks on the satellites are affected by their speed. Special relativity predicts that the frequency of the atomic clocks moving at GPS orbital speeds will tick more slowly than stationary ground clocks by a factor of , or result in a delay of about 7 s/day, where the orbital velocity is v = 4 km/s, and c = the speed of light. The time dilation effect has been measured and verified using the GPS system. The effect of gravitational frequency shift on the GPS system due to general relativity is that a clock closer to a massive object will be slower than a clock farther away. Applied to the GPS system, the receivers are much closer to Earth than the satellites, causing the GPS clocks to be faster by a factor of 510^(-10), or about 45.9 s/day. This gravitational frequency shift is also a noticeable effect. When combining the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift, the discrepancy is about 38 microseconds per day; a difference of 4.465 parts in 1010.[68] Without correction, errors in position determination of roughly 10 km/day would accumulate. In addition, because GPS

satellite orbits are not perfectly circular, their elliptical orbits cause the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift effects to vary with time. This eccentricity effect causes the clock rate difference between a GPS satellite and a receiver to increase or decrease depending on the velocity orbital altitude of the satellite. To account for the discrepancy, the frequency standard on board each satellite is given a rate offset prior to launch, making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth; specifically, at 10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz.[69] Since the atomic clocks on board the GPS satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment.[70] Placing atomic clocks on artificial satellites to test Einstein's general theory was proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg in 1955.[71] [edit] Sagnac distortion GPS observation processing must also compensate for the Sagnac effect. The GPS time scale is defined in an inertial system but observations are processed in an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (co-rotating) system, a system in which simultaneity is not uniquely defined. A Lorentz transformation is thus applied to convert from the inertial system to the ECEF system. The resulting signal run time correction has opposite algebraic signs for satellites in the Eastern and Western celestial hemispheres. Ignoring this effect will produce an east-west error on the order of hundreds of nanoseconds, or tens of meters in position.[72]

[edit] Natural sources of interference

Since GPS signals at terrestrial receivers tend to be relatively weak, natural radio signals or scattering of the GPS signals can desensitize the receiver, making acquiring and tracking the satellite signals difficult or impossible. Space weather degrades GPS operation in two ways, direct interference by solar radio burst noise in the same frequency band[73] or by scattering of the GPS radio signal in ionospheric irregularities referred to as scintillation.[74] Both forms of degradation follow the 11 year solar cycle and are a maximum at sunspot maximum although they can occur at anytime. Solar radio bursts are associated with solar flares and their impact can affect reception over the half of the Earth facing the sun. Scintillation occurs most frequently at tropical latitudes where it is a night time phenomenon. It occurs less frequently at high latitudes or mid-latitudes where magnetic storms can lead to scintillation.[75] In addition to producing scintillation, magnetic storms can produce strong ionospheric gradients that degrade the accuracy of SBAS systems.[76]

[edit] Artificial sources of interference

In automotive GPS receivers, metallic features in windshields,[77] such as defrosters, or car window tinting films[78] can act as a Faraday cage, degrading reception just inside the car. Man-made EMI (electromagnetic interference) can also disrupt, or jam, GPS signals. In one well documented case, the entire harbor of Moss Landing, California was unable to receive GPS

signals due to unintentional jamming caused by malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers.[79][80] Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS receivers when they are within radio range, or line of sight. In 2002, a detailed description of how to build a short range GPS L1 C/A jammer was published in the online magazine Phrack.[81] The U.S. government believes that such jammers were used occasionally during the 2001 war in Afghanistan and the U.S. military claimed to destroy six GPS jammers during the Iraq War, including one that was destroyed ironically with a GPS-guided bomb.[82] Such a jammer is relatively easy to detect and locate, making it an attractive target for anti-radiation missiles. The UK Ministry of Defence tested a jamming system in the UK's West Country on 7 and 8 June 2007.[83] Some countries allow the use of GPS repeaters to allow for the reception of GPS signals indoors and in obscured locations, however, under EU and UK laws, the use of these is prohibited as the signals can cause interference to other GPS receivers that may receive data from both GPS satellites and the repeater. Due to the potential for both natural and man-made noise, numerous techniques continue to be developed to deal with the interference. The first is to not rely on GPS as a sole source. According to John Ruley, "IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction".[84] Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a feature now included in some receivers, which is designed to provide a warning to the user if jamming or another problem is detected. The U.S. military has also deployed their Selective Availability / AntiSpoofing Module (SAASM) in the Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR). In demonstration videos, the DAGR is able to detect jamming and maintain its lock on the encrypted GPS signals during interference which causes civilian receivers to lose lock.[85]

[edit] Accuracy enhancement and surveying

[edit] Augmentation
Main article: GNSS Augmentation Augmentation methods of improving accuracy rely on external information being integrated into the calculation process. There are many such systems in place and they are generally named or described based on how the GPS sensor receives the information. Some systems transmit additional information about sources of error (such as clock drift, ephemeris, or ionospheric delay), others provide direct measurements of how much the signal was off in the past, while a third group provide additional navigational or vehicle information to be integrated in the calculation process. Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System, Differential GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems and Assisted GPS.

[edit] Precise monitoring

The accuracy of a calculation can also be improved through precise monitoring and measuring of the existing GPS signals in additional or alternate ways. After SA, which has been turned off, the largest error in GPS is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but errors remain. This is one reason the GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well-defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency. Receivers with decryption keys can decode the P(Y)-code transmitted on both L1 and L2. However, these keys are reserved for the military and authorized agencies and are not available to the public. Without keys, it is still possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P(Y) codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. However, this technique is slow, so it is currently limited to specialized surveying equipment. In the future, additional civilian codes are expected to be transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS modernization). Then all users will be able to perform dual-frequency measurements and directly compute ionospheric delay errors. A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). The error, which this corrects, arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not instantaneous, and thus the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. The CPGPS approach utilizes the L1 carrier wave, which has a period of which is about onethousandth of the C/A Gold code bit period of , to act as an additional clock signal and resolve the uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to between 2 and 3 meters (6 to 10 ft) of ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition reduces this error to 3 centimeters (1 inch) of ambiguity. By eliminating this source of error, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally realizes between 20 and 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) of absolute accuracy. Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a precision of less than 10 centimeters (4 in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical testspossibly with processing in real-time (realtime kinematic positioning, RTK).

[edit] Timekeeping

While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time. The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections which are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI - GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed on the on-board clocks to correct relativistic effects and keep them synchronized with ground clocks. The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC, which as of 2009 is 15 seconds due to the leap second added to UTC December 31, 2008. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits) which, given the current rate of change of the Earth's rotation (with one leap second introduced approximately every 18 months), should be sufficient to last until approximately the year 2300. As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13bit field, which only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until the year 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero).

[edit] Carrier phase tracking (surveying)

Utilizing the navigation message to measure pseudorange has been discussed. Another method that is used in GPS surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier frequency times the speed of light gives the wave length, which is about 0.19 meters for the L1 carrier. With a 1% of wave length accuracy in detecting the leading edge, this component of pseudorange error might be as low as 2 millimeters. This compares to 3 meters for the C/A code and 0.3 meters for the P code. However, this 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phase, that is the total number of wave lengths plus the fractional wavelength. This requires specially equipped receivers. This method has many applications in the field of surveying. We now describe a method which could potentially be used to estimate the position of receiver 2 given the position of receiver 1 using triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called least squares. A detailed discussion of the errors is omitted in order to avoid detracting from the description of the methodology. In this description differences are taken in the order of differencing between satellites, differencing between receivers, and

differencing between epochs. This should not be construed to mean that this is the only order which can be used. Indeed other orders of taking differences are equally valid. The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles as described in CARRIER PHASE MEASUREMENT and CARRIER BEAT PHASE. Let denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by receiver i at time . This notation has been chosen so as to make it clear what the subscripts i, j, and k mean. In view of the fact that the receiver, satellite, and time come in alphabetical order as arguments of and to strike a balance between readability and conciseness, let so as to have a concise abbreviation. Also we define three functions, : which perform differences between receivers, satellites, and time points respectively. Each of these functions has a linear combination of variables with three subscripts as its argument. These three functions are defined below. If is a function of the three integer arguments, i, j, and k then it is a valid argument for the functions, : , with the values defined as , , and . Also if then are valid arguments for the three functions and a and b are constants is a valid argument with values defined as , , and . Receiver clock errors can be approximately eliminated by differencing the phases measured from satellite 1 with that from satellite 2 at the same epoch as shown in BETWEEN-SATELLITE DIFFERENCING. This difference is designated as Double differencing can be performed by taking the differences of the between satellite difference observed by receiver 1 with that observed by receiver 2. The satellite clock errors will be approximately eliminated by this between receiver differencing. This double difference is:

Triple differencing can be performed by taking the difference of double differencing performed at time with that performed at time . This will eliminate the ambiguity associated with the integral number of wave lengths in carrier phase provided this ambiguity does not change with time. Thus the triple difference result has eliminated all or practically all clock bias errors and

the integer ambiguity. Also errors associated with atmospheric delay and satellite ephemeris have been significantly reduced. This triple difference is:

Triple difference results can be used to estimate unknown variables. For example if the position of receiver 1 is known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be possible to estimate the position of receiver 2 using numerical root finding and least squares. Triple difference results for three independent time pairs quite possibly will be sufficient to solve for the three components of position of receiver 2. This may require the use of a numerical procedure such as one of those found in the chapter on root finding and nonlinear sets of equations in Numerical Recipes.[48] Also see Preview of Root Finding. To use such a numerical method, an initial approximation of the position of receiver 2 is required. This initial value could probably be provided by a position approximation based on the navigation message and the intersection of sphere surfaces. Although multidimensional numerical root finding can have problems, this disadvantage may be overcome with this good initial estimate. This procedure using three time pairs and a fairly good initial value followed by iteration will result in one observed triple difference result for receiver 2 position. Greater accuracy may be obtained by processing triple difference results for additional sets of three independent time pairs. This will result in an over determined system with multiple solutions. To get estimates for an over determined system, least squares can be used. The least squares procedure determines the position of receiver 2 which best fits the observed triple difference results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the sum of the square

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10. ^ Dietrich Schroeer, Mirco Elena (2000). Technology Transfer. Ashgate. p. 80. ISBN 075462045X. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&id=I7JRAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 11. ^ Michael Russell Rip, James M. Hasik (2002). The Precision Revolution: GPS and the Future of Aerial Warfare. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1557509735. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&id=_wpUAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 12. ^ United States Department of Defense. Announcement of Initial Operational Capability[dead link] Announcement of Initial Operational Capability at the Internet Archive. December 8, 1993. 13. ^ National Archives and Records Administration. U.S. Global Positioning System Policy. March 29, 1996. 14. ^ "3g.co.uk". 3g.co.uk. 2004-11-10. http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/November2004/8641.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-13. 15. ^ losangeles.af.mil 16. ^ "United States Naval Observatory (USNO) GPS Constellation Status". ftp://tycho.usno.navy.mil/pub/gps/gpstd.txt. Retrieved 2009-10-13. 17. ^ United States Naval Observatory. GPS Constellation Status. Retrieved December 20, 2008. 18. ^ Johnson, Bobbie (May 19, 2009). "GPS system 'close to breakdown'". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/may/19/gps-close-to-breakdown. Retrieved 2009-12-08. 19. ^ Coursey, David (May 21, 2009). "Air Force Responds to GPS Outage Concerns". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/AheadoftheCurve/story?id=7647002&page=1. Retrieved 2009-05-22. 20. ^ GPS signals travel at the speed of light, so computing the distance for a given elapsed time is almost a straightforward calculation. However, the speed of light varies slightly between the partial vacuum of space and the atmosphere. A receiver can approximate these effects and produce a reasonable estimate. Once a rough position is determined, some receivers carefully compute the amount of atmosphere the signal traveled through and adjust the distance accordingly. 21. ^ Georg zur Bonsen, Daniel Ammann, Michael Ammann, Etienne Favey, Pascal Flammant (2005-04-01). "Continuous Navigation Combining GPS with Sensor-Based Dead Reckoning". GPS World. http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=154870&pageID=6. 22. ^ a b c d e "NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction" (PDF). US Government. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf. 23. ^ "GPS Support Notes" (PDF). January 19, 2007. http://www.navmanwireless.com/uploads/EK/C8/EKC8zb1ITsNwDqWcqLQxiQ/Suppor t_Notes_GPS_OperatingParameters.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-10. 24. ^ It is also possible for a circle and a spherical surface to intersect at zero points, one point, or in the very special case in which the centers of the three spheres are colinear (i.e., all three on the same straight line) the sphere surface could intersect the entire circumference of the circle. 25. ^ The two intersections are symmetrical about the plane containing the three satellites. Unless they are all in the same orbital plane, the plane containing them will not be a

vertical one passing through the center of the Earth, and one intersection will be nearer the earth than the other. 26. ^ John Pike. "GPS III Operational Control Segment (OCX)". Globalsecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/gps_3-ocx.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-08. 27. ^ Daly, P.. "Navstar GPS and GLONASS: global satellite navigation systems". IEEE. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel1/2219/7072/00285510.pdf?arnumber=285510. 28. ^ Dana, Peter H. (1996-08-08). "GPS Orbital Planes" (GIF). http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gif/oplanes.gif. 29. ^ What the Global Positioning System Tells Us about Relativity. Retrieved January 2, 2007. 30. ^ GPS Overview from the NAVSTAR Joint Program Office. Retrieved December 15, 2006. 31. ^ "USCG Navcen: GPS Frequently Asked Questions". http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/faq/gpsfaq.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-31. 32. ^ Agnew, D.C. and Larson, K.M. (2007). "Finding the repeat times of the GPS constellation". GPS Solutions (Springer) 11 (1): 7176. doi:10.1007/s10291-006-0038-4. This article from author's web site, with minor correction. 33. ^ Tis-pf-nisws. "Nanu 2008030". http://cgls.uscg.mil/pipermail/gps/2008March/001625.html. 34. ^ Massatt, Paul; Wayne Brady (Summer 2002). "Optimizing performance through constellation management". Crosslink: 1721. http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/summer2002/index.html. 35. ^ US Coast Guard General GPS News 9-9-05 36. ^ USNO NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. Retrieved May 14, 2006. 37. ^ Note that though there are many receiver manufacturers, they almost all use one of the chipsets produced for this purpose. An example: "GPS Receiver Chip Performance Survey". GPS Technology Reviews. http://gpstekreviews.com/2007/04/14/gps-receiverchip-performance-survey/. 38. ^ NMEA NMEA 2000 39. ^ "Publications and Standards from the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA)". National Marine Electronics Association. http://www.nmea.org/pub/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-27. 40. ^ "Interface Specification IS-GPS-200, Revision D: Navstar GPS Space Segment/Navigation User Interfaces" (PDF). Navstar GPS Joint Program Office. http://www.losangeles.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070803-059.pdf. Page 103. 41. ^ How GPS works. Konowa.de (2005). 42. ^ Fact Sheets - Global Positioning System. Los Angeles Air Force Base. August 2009. 43. ^ "GPS Almanacs, NANUS, and Ops Advisories (including archives)". GPS Almanac Information. US Coast Guard. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/almanacs.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-09. 44. ^ "George, M., Hamid, M., and Miller A. Gold Code Generators in Virtex DevicesPDF (126 KB) 45. ^ "GPS - explained (Signals)" 46. ^ a b ""How a GPS Receiver Gets a Lock"". Gpsinformation.net. http://gpsinformation.net/main/gpslock.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-13.

47. ^ "AN02 Network Assistance". http://www.navsync.com/notes2.html. Retrieved 200709-10. 48. ^ a b c d e Press, Flannery, Tekolsky, and Vetterling 1986, Numerical Recipes, The Art of Scientific Computing (Cambridge University Press). 49. ^ Noe, P.S.; Myers, K.A. (March 1976). "A Position Fixing Algorithm for the Low-Cost GPS Receiver". IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems AES-12 (2): 295297. doi:10.1109/TAES.1976.308310. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4101635. 50. ^ a b c Richard Langley (July/August 1991). "The Mathematics of GPS" (PDF). GPS World. http://gauss.gge.unb.ca/gpsworld/EarlyInnovationColumns/Innov.1991.07-08.pdf. 51. ^ a b Lundberg, J.B. (2001). "Alternative algorithms for the GPS static positioning solution". Applied Mathematics and Computation (Elsevier) 119 (1): 21--34. doi:10.1016/S0096-3003(99)00219-2. 52. ^ a b Bancroft, S. (1985). "An Algebraic Solution of the GPS Equations". Aerospace and Electronic Systems, IEEE Transactions on aes-21: 5659. doi:10.1109/TAES.1985.310538. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4104017. 53. ^ Jay Farrell, Matthew Barth (1999). The global positioning system and inertial navigation. McGraw-Hill. p. 145. ISBN 007022045X. 54. ^ Krause, L.O. (March 1987). "A Direct Solution to GPS-Type Navigation Equations". Aerospace and Electronic Systems, IEEE Transactions on AES-23 (2): 225232. doi:10.1109/TAES.1987.313376. 55. ^ a b Yang Yong and Miao Lingjuan (2004-07-06). "GDOP results in all-in-view positioning and in four optimum satellites positioning with GPS PRN codes ranging". Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 2004. PLANS 2004. pp. 723727. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1309065. 56. ^ Peter H. Dana. "Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP) and Visibility". University of Colorado at Boulder. http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html#Gdop. Retrieved 2008-0707. 57. ^ Peter H. Dana. "Receiver Position, Velocity, and Time". University of Colorado at Boulder. http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html#PosVelTime. Retrieved 2008-07-07. 58. ^ The same principle, and the math behind it, can be found in descriptions of pulsar timing by astronomers. 59. ^ SNT080408. "Ephemeris Server Example". Tdc.co.uk. http://www.tdc.co.uk/index.php?key=ephemeris. Retrieved 2009-10-13. 60. ^ "Unit 1 - Introduction to GPS". http://seismo.berkeley.edu/~battag/GAMITwrkshp/lecturenotes/unit1/unit1.html#3. 61. ^ esky. "Global Positioning System - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia". En.wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System#multi_nr. Retrieved 2009-10-13. 62. ^ Grewal, Mohinder S.; Weill, Lawrence Randolph; Andrews, Angus P. (2001), Global positioning systems, inertial navigation, and integration, John Wiley and Sons, p. 103, ISBN 047135032X, 9780471350323, http://books.google.be/books?id=ZM7muB8Y35wC, Chapter 5, p. 103

63. ^ a b "Statement by the President regarding the United States' Decision to Stop Degrading Global Positioning System Accuracy". Office of Science and Technology Policy. May 1, 2000. http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/statement.html. Retrieved 2009-02-02. 64. ^ "GNSS - Frequently Asked Questions - GPS: Will SA ever be turned back on?". FAA. June 13, 2007. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navs ervices/gnss/faq/gps/index.cfm#ad3. Retrieved 2007-12-17. 65. ^ "DoD Permanently Discontinues Procurement Of Global Positioning System Selective Availability". DefenseLink. September 18, 2007. http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=11335. Retrieved 2008-0220. 66. ^ "Selective Availability". National space-based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Executive Committee. http://pnt.gov/public/sa/. Retrieved 2008-02-20. 67. ^ Stephen Webb (2004). Out of this world: colliding universes, branes, strings, and other wild ideas of modern physics. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 0387029303. http://books.google.com/books?id=LzQcsSCdeLgC&pg=PA32. 68. ^ Rizos, Chris. University of New South Wales. GPS Satellite Signals. 1999. 69. ^ The Global Positioning System by Robert A. Nelson Via Satellite, November 1999 70. ^ Pogge, Richard W.; Real-World Relativity: The GPS Navigation System. Retrieved 25 January 2008. 71. ^ "Astronautica Acta II, 25 (1956).". 1956-08-10. http://bourabai.kz/winter/satelliten.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-23. 72. ^ Ashby, Neil Relativity and GPS. Physics Today, May 2002. 73. ^ Cerruti, A., P. M. Kintner, D. E. Gary, A. J. Mannucci, R. F. Meyer, P. H. Doherty, and A. J. Coster (2008), Effect of intense December 2006 solar radio bursts on GPS receivers, Space Weather, doi:10.1029/2007SW000375, October 19, 2008 74. ^ Aarons, Jules and Basu, Santimay, Ionospheric amplitude and phase fluctuations at the GPS frequencies, Proceedings of ION GPS, v 2, 1994, p 1569-1578 75. ^ Ledvina, B. M., J. J. Makela, and P. M. Kintner (2002), First observations of intense GPS L1 amplitude scintillations at midlatitude, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(14), 1659, doi:10.1029/2002GL014770 76. ^ Tom Diehl, Solar Flares Hit the Earth- WAAS Bends but Does Not Break, SatNav News, volume 23, June 2004 77. ^ "I-PASS Mounting for Vehicles with Special Windshield Features". http://www.illinoistollway.com/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/TW_CONTENT_REPOSITORY/ TW_CR_IPASS/LPT-SPECIALWINDSHIELDLIST.PDF. 78. ^ "3M Automotive Films". http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/WF/3MWindowFilms/Products/ProductC atalog/?PC_7_RJH9U5230GE3E02LECFTDQG0V7_nid=9928QS9MGHbeT4DCJBL6 BVgl.. Note that the 'Color Stable' films are specifically described as not interfering with satellite signals. 79. ^ The Hunt for RFI. GPS World. 1 January 2003. 80. ^ "EMC compliance club "banana skins" column 222". Compliance-club.com. http://www.compliance-club.com/archive/bananaskins/201-225.asp. Retrieved 2009-1013.

81. ^ Low Cost and Portable GPS Jammer. Phrack issue 0x3c (60), article 13. Published December 28, 2002. 82. ^ American Forces Press Service. Centcom charts progress. March 25, 2003. 83. ^ "MoD's tests will send satnav haywire so take a road atlas". The Daily Mail. 2007-0606. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-460279/MoDs-tests-send-satnav-haywireroad-atlas.html. 84. ^ Ruley, John. AVweb. GPS jamming. February 12, 2003. 85. ^ Commercial GPS Receivers: Facts for the Warfighter. Hosted at the Joint Chiefs website, linked by the USAF's GPS Wing DAGR program[dead link] website. Retrieved 10 April 2007. 86. ^ Commanders Digital Assistant explanation and photo[dead link] 87. ^ "Latest version Commanders Digital Assistant" (PDF). http://peosoldier.army.mil/factsheets/SWAR_LW_CDA.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-13. 88. ^ Soldier Digital Assistant explanation and photo[dead link] 89. ^ Sinha, Vandana (2003-07-24). "Commanders and Soldiers' GPS-receivers". Gcn.com. http://www.gcn.com/print/22_20/22893-1.html. Retrieved 2009-10-13. 90. ^ "XM982 Excalibur Precision Guided Extended Range Artillery Projectile". GlobalSecurity.org. 2007-05-29. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/m982-155.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-26. 91. ^ Sandia National Laboratory's Nonproliferation programs and arms control technology. 92. ^ Dr. Dennis D. McCrady. "The GPS Burst Detector W-Sensor". Sandia National Laboratories. http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10176800S2tU7w/native/10176800.pdf. 93. ^ Arms Control Association.Missile Technology Control Regime. Retrieved May 17, 2006. 94. ^ United States Naval Research Laboratory. National Medal of Technology for GPS. November 21, 2005 95. ^ New York Times 96. ^ "Spacedaily.com". Spacedaily.com. http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Russia_And_India_Sign_Agreements_On_Glonass_ Navigation_System_999.html. Retrieved 2009-10-13. 97. ^ "ASM, News on GIS, GNSS, spatial information, remote sensing, mapping and surveying technologies for Asia". Asmmag.com. http://www.asmmag.com/news/india-tolaunch-1st-irnss-satellite-by-december. Retrieved 2009-10-13.

GPS (Global Positioning System) adalah sebuah sistem navigasi berbasiskan radio yang menyediakan informasi koordinat posisi, kecepatan, dan waktu kepada pengguna di seluruh dunia. Jasa penggunaan satelit GPS tidak dikenakan biaya. Pengguna hanya membutuhkan GPS receiver untuk dapat mengetahui koordinat lokasi. Keakuratan koordinat lokasi tergantung pada tipe GPS receiver. GPS terdiri dari tiga bagian yaitu satelit yang mengorbit bumi (Satelit GPS mengelilingi bumi 2x sehari), stasiun pengendali dan pemantau di bumi, dan GPS receiver (alat penerima GPS). Satelit GPS dikelola oleh Amerika Serikat. Alat penerima GPS inilah yang dipakai oleh pengguna untuk melihat koordinat posisi. Selain itu GPS juga berfungsi untuk menentukan waktu.

Satelit GPS memancarkan dua sinyal yaitu frekuensi L1 (1575.42 MHz) dan L2 (1227.60 MHz). Sinyal L1 dimodulasikan dengan dua sinyal pseudo-random yaitu kode P (Protected) dan kode C/A (coarse/aquisition). Sinyal L2 hanya membawa kode P. Setiap satelit mentransmisikan kode yang unik sehingga penerima (GPS Receiver) dapat mengidentifikasi sinyal dari setiap satelit. Pada saat fitur Anti-Spoofing diaktifkan, maka kode P akan dienkripsi dan selanjutnya dikenal sebagai kode P(Y) atau kode Y. Penghitungan posisi dilakukan dengan 2 cara yaitu dengan kode

C/A dan kode P(Y). GPS receiver menghitung jarak antara GPS receiver dengan satelit (pseudorange) Ada tiga jenis alat GPS. Tipe pertama adalah GPS Navigasi, GPS Navigasi biasanya memiliki tingkat kesalahan dibawah 10 m (rata-rata GPS tipe ini memiliki kesalahan 3 sampai dengan 6 meter), Harga GPS Navigasi berkisar dari Rp 750 ribu sampai dengan Rp 10 juta-an). Tipe kedua adalah tipe GPS Geodesi single frekuensi, GPS Geodesi single frekuensi biasanya digunakan untuk pemetaan, tingkat kesalahan dibawah 1 m, GPS Geodesi tipe ini dijual sekitar 20 -30 jutaan. GPS tipe terakhir adalah GPS tipe Geodetik dual frekuensi, GPS ini memiliki tingkat ketelitian yang tinggi dan tingkat kesalahannya di bawah 1 cm. GPS Geodesi dual frekuensi digunakan untuk mengukur pergerakan tanah. GPS receiver tipe navigasi sudah cukup untuk pemula. GPS receiver paling murah adalah tipe GPS receiver dengan bluetooth, perangkat ini sekitar Rp 700.000 dan harus memiliki PDA/Ponsel/Komputer/Laptop yang memiliki koneksi bluetooth serta software seperti GarminXT, nusamap, mapking atau nokiamap. GPS tipe handheld seperti GPSMap 76CSx biasanya digunakan untuk orang yang hobi memancing di laut. Sayangnya GPSMap 76CSx ini cenderung kehilangan sinyal bila sedang berada di bawah pohon/di dalam gedung. Bagi pemancing, hal ini tidak perlu dirisaukan karena di tengah laut, langit tidak ada halangan (kecuali sedang mendung). Keunggulan GPSMap 76CSx adalah kemampuannya untuk mengapung, hal ini mungkin dibutuhkan saat alat secara tidak sengaja terjatuh ke laut. Pengguna kendaraan roda 4 sering membutuhkan panduan jalan, terutama di tempat yang belum pernah dikunjungi. Penggunaan peta sangat kurang praktis dan mengganggu perjalanan. Untuk keperluan penunjuk arah jalan umumnya digunakan Garmin Nuvi yang sudah dilengkapi dengan city navigator. Pendaki gunung / hobi berburu di hutan dapat menggunakan Garmin etrex Vista tipe HCx atau Garmin Rino 530 HCx. Garmin etrex Vista HCx dijual dengan harga +/- Rp 3.850.000 dilengkapi dengan peta gratisan dalam memori mikro sd 256 MB. Garmin Rino 530 HCx dilengkapi dengan 2 way radio dan bisa mengirim dan menerima posisi sesama pengguna Rino, harganya sekitar Rp 4.600.000. Kode H menunjukkan alat tersebut high sensitif, C artinya layar berwarna. Kode x mungkin artinya alat ini bisa menggunakan expandable memori (memori SD mikro). Kedua alat ini dilengkapi dengan gasket yang melindungi alat dari benturan dan air (IPX7). Bagi pembeli alat GPS di Indonesia perlu memperhatikan basemap-nya, Basemap yang digunakan adalah Pacific recreational routeable basemap, bukan America recreational GPS yang built in pada ponsel seperti nokia N95 biasanya kurang sensitif sehingga untuk lock satelit diperlukan waktu yang lama dan harus dilakukan di tempat yang agak terbuka. Salah satu masalah bagi pengguna GPS adalah kurang lengkapnya peta, peta asli misalnya city navigator jasamarine memiliki kelebihan dalam detail dan rute. Peta gratisan yang didapatkan di internet (misalnya dari navigasi.net, catatan: pada tanggal 17 agustus 2008 kabarnya Bos Buyung dkk akan merelease peta indonesia yang lebih lengkap dan routeable di www.navigasi.net)

biasanya kurang lengkap dan tidak routeable. Pengguna GPS harus mengeluarkan uang sekitar Rp 700.000 Rp 1.000.000 untuk membeli peta asli. Situs yang membahas GPS http://www.navigasi.net http://developer.garmin.com/forum/index.php http://www.fishyforum.com http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System http://en.wikipedia.o

Catatan Gps Indonesia: Global Positioning System (-Gps-)

Catatan Gps Indonesia Apa itu GPS.? GPS (Global Positioning System) merupakan sistem navigasi satelit yang dikembangkan oleh Departemen Pertahanan Amerika Serikat (US DoD = United States Department of Defense). GPS memungkinkan kita mengetahui posisi geografis seperti ( lintang, bujur, ketinggian dan kecepatan di atas permukaan laut ). Jadi dimanapun kita berada di muka bumi ini, kita dapat mengetahui posisi kita dengan tepat dan akurat. Sistem ini dikembangkan oleh Departemen Pertahanan Amerika Serikat, dengan nama lengkapnya adalah "NAVSTAR GPS" kesalahan umum bahwa ''NAVSTAR" adalah sebuah singkatan ini adalah salah, "NAVSTAR" adalah nama yang diberikan oleh John Walsh, seorang penentu kebijakan penting dalam program GPS. Sistem navigasi satelit lainnya yang sedang dikembangkan oleh negara lain adalah: * Beidou Sistem lokal di RRC yang akan dikembangkan menjadi sistem internasional bernama COMPASS. * Galileo Sistem yang sedang dikembangkan oleh Uni Eropa, dengan bantuan dari RRC, Israel, India, Moroko, Arab Saudi, Korea Selatan, dan Ukraina. * GLONASS Sistem milik Rusia yang sedang diperbaiki. * Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) Sistem yang dikembangkan India. Ada pun kegunannya adalah sebagai berikut :

* Militer GPS digunakan untuk keperluan perang, seperti menuntun arah bom, atau mengetahui posisi pasukan berada. Dengan cara ini maka kita bisa mengetahui mana teman mana lawan untuk menghindari salah target, ataupun menetukan pergerakan pasukan. * Navigasi GPS banyak juga digunakan sebagai alat navigasi seperti kompas. Beberapa jenis kendaraan telah dilengkapi dengan GPS untuk alat bantu nivigasi, dengan menambahkan peta, maka bisa digunakan untuk memandu pengendara, sehingga pengendara bisa mengetahui jalur mana yang sebaiknya dipilih untuk mencapai tujuan yang diinginkan. * Sistem Informasi Geografis Untuk keperluan Sistem Informasi Geografis, GPS sering juga diikutsertakan dalam pembuatan peta, seperti mengukur jarak perbatasan, ataupun sebagai referensi pengukuran. * Sistem pelacakan kendaraan Kegunaan lain GPS adalah sebagai pelacak kendaraan, dengan bantuan GPS pemilik kendaraan/pengelola armada bisa mengetahui ada dimana saja kendaraannya/aset bergeraknya berada saat ini. * Pemantau gempa Bahkan saat ini, GPS dengan ketelitian tinggi bisa digunakan untuk memantau pergerakan tanah, yang ordenya hanya mm dalam setahun. Pemantauan pergerakan tanah berguna untuk memperkirakan terjadinya gempa, baik pergerakan vulkanik ataupun tektonik. GPS terdiri dari 3 segmen: Segmen angkasa, kontrol/pengendali, dan pengguna: Segmen angkasa: terdiri dari 24 satelit yang beroperasi dalam 6 orbit pada ketinggian 20.200 km dan inklinasi 55 derajat dengan periode 12 jam (satelit akan kembali ke titik yang sama dalam 12 jam). Satelit tersebut memutari orbitnya sehingga minimal ada 6 satelit yang dapat dipantau pada titik manapun di bumi ini. Satelit tersebut mengirimkan posisi dan waktu kepada pengguna seluruh dunia. Segmen Kontrol/Pengendali: terdapat pusat pengendali utama yang terdapat di Colorodo Springs, dan 5 stasiun pemantau lainnya dan 3 antena yang tersebar di bumi ini. Stasiun pemantau memantau semua satelit GOS dan mengumpulkan informasinya. Stasiun pemantau kemudian mengirimkan informasi tersebut kepada pusat pengendali utama yang kemudian melakukan perhitungan dan pengecekan orbit satelit. Informasi tersebut kemudian dikoreksi dan dilakukan pemuktahiran dan dikirim ke satelit GPS. Segmen Pengguna: Pada sisi pengguna dibutuhkan penerima GPS (selanjutnya kita sebut perangkat GPS)yang biasanya terdiri dari penerima, prosesor, dan antena, sehingga memungkinkan kita dimanapun kita berada di muka bumi ini (tanah, laut, dan udara) dapat menerima sinyal dari satelit GPS dan kemudian menghitung posisi, kecepatan dan waktu.

Bagaimana cara kerja GPS? Setiap satelit mentransmisikan dua sinyal yaitu L1 (1575.42 MHz) dan L2 (1227.60 MHz). Sinyal L1 dimodulasikan dengan dua sinyal pseudo-random yaitu kode P (Protected) dan kode C/A (coarse/aquisition). Sinyal L2 hanya membawa kode P. Setiap satelit mentransmisikan kode yang unik sehingga penerima (perangkat GPS) dapat mengidentifikasi sinyal dari setiap satelit. Pada saat fitur Anti-Spoofing diaktifkan, maka kode P akan dienkripsi dan selanjutnya dikenal sebagai kode P(Y) atau kode Y. Perangkat GPS yang dikhususkan buat sipil hanya menerima kode C/A pada sinyal L1 (meskipun pada perangkat GPS yang canggih dapat memanfaatkan sinyal L2 untuk memperoleh pengukuran yang lebih teliti. Perangkat GPS menerima sinyal yang ditransmisikan oleh satelit GPS. Dalam menentukan posisi, kita membutuhkan paling sedikit 3 satelit untuk penentuan posisi 2 dimensi (lintang dan bujur) dan 4 satelit untuk penentuan posisi 3 dimensi (lintang, bujur, dan ketinggian). Semakin banyak satelit yang diperoleh maka akurasi posisi kita akan semakin tinggi. Untuk mendapatkan sinyal tersebut, perangkat GPS harus berada di ruang terbuka. Apabila perangkat GPS kita berada dalam ruangan atau kanopi yang lebat dan daerah kita dikelilingi oleh gedung tinggi maka sinyal yang diperoleh akan semakin berkurang sehingga akan sukar untuk menentukan posisi dengan tepat atau bahkan tidak dapat menentukan posisi. Bagaimana GPS digunakan? Perangkat GPS menerima sinyal dari satelit dan kemudian melakukan perhitungan sehingga pada tampilan umumnya kita dapat mengetahui posisi (dalam lintang dan bujur), kecepatan, dan waktu. Disamping itu juga informasi tambahan seperti jarak, dan waktu tempuh. Posisi yang ditampilkan merupakan sistem referensi geodetik WGS-84 dan waktu merupakan referensi USNO (U.S. Naval Observatory Time). Siapa yang dapat menggunakan GPS? GPS dipergunakan pada berbagai bidang antara lain, sistem navigasi pesawat, laut dan darat, pemetaan dan geodesi, survei, sistem penentuan lokasi, pertanian, eksplorasi sumber daya alam, dan masih banyak lagi. Apakah GPS itu gratis? Teknologi GPS dapat digunakan oleh siapa saja, yang kita butuhkan hanya membeli perangkat penerima GPS dan selanjutnya informasi posisi dapat kita dapatkan tanpa membayar apapun. Bagaimana akurasi GPS? GPS memiliki dua tingkat ketelitian: Sistem posisi standar (standard positioning system / SPS) SPS merupakan yang disediakan untuk umum (sipil). Tingkat akurasi yang dihasilkan adalah 100 m untuk posisi horisontal dan 150 meter untuk posisi vertikal.

 Sistem posisi presisi (precision positioning system / PPS) PPS digunakan oleh Departemen Pertahanan AS dan tidak disediakan untuk umum. Sejak Mei 2000, Pemerintah AS telah meningkatkan akurasi untuk SPS dengan menon-aktifkan SA (selective availability) hingga 20 meter untuk posisi horisontal. Apa saja perangkat GPS itu? Perangkat GPS ada bermacam-macam dan umumnya tergantung dari tujuan dan aktivitas yang akan kita lakukan. GPS untuk udara (aviation GPS) akan berbeda arsitekturnya dengan yang akan kita gunakan untuk navigasi di darat/mobil. Secara umum perangkat GPS dibagi menjadi 3 (tiga) fungsi yaitu navigasi udara (aviation), laut (marine) dan darat (land). Apakah GPS juga Kompas? GPS itu bukan Kompas magnetik, kecuali disebutkan bahwa perangkat GPS tersebut memiliki fungsi sebagai kompas magnetik sehingga anda tahu dimana arah Utara. Namun demikian GPS dapat memberitahu arah mana kita BERGERAK, sehingga kita dapat mengetahui dimana arah Utara. Apabila anda tidak bergerak, maka arah yang ditnjukkan kemungkinan benar SALAH. Perangkat GPS apa yang cocok buat saya? Mulai saja dengan perangkat GPS yang sederhana. Selain harganya terjangkau dan anda bisa membiasakan diri menggunakan GPS dan mengerti kebutuhan anda yang sebenarnya. Ada beberapa vendor GPS yang tersedia, diantaranya Garmin, Magellan, Trimble, dan Leica. Hal yang paling penting adalah, apapun perangkat GPS yang anda beli, pastikan bahwa perangkat tersebut memiliki 12 channel penerima untuk mendapatkan hasil yang memuaskan. Saya memiliki GPS dan saya tetap tersesat!! Masalahnya bukan pada GPS-nya, tetapi cara anda menggunakannya. Anda harus memahami cara kerja perangkat GPS anda dengan baik. Luangkan waktu untuk membaca manual dan petunjuk pemakaian. Saya memiliki PDA, apakah dapat memiliki fungsi GPS juga? Anda dapat menambahkan perangkat GPS pada PDA anda. Anda dapat memilih perangkat GPSCF atau Bluetooth GPS, atau bahkan perangkat GPS biasa. Masing-masing memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangannya. Silahkan googling aja dech kalo mau tau banyak . Intinya, PDA anda ditambahkan perangkat GPS dan instalasi perangkat lunak yang mendukung dan selanjutnya silahkan bergembira dengan GPS anda. Bagaimana menyambungkan perangkat tersebut dengan PDA anda, semuanya diterangkan dengan jelas dalam manual perangkat GPS yang bluetooth atau CF yang anda beli.

Tipe Gps Geodetic Untuk Mengetahui Pergerakan Tanah.. Magellan Gps Promark 3

Tipe Gps Untuk Navigasi Handheld (-Genggam -) Garmin Gps 60i http://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=175640014344

Sistem Navigasi Dengan Global Positioning System (Gps) Gps adalah suatu sistem navigasi yang memanfaatkan satelit sehingga gps dapat memberikan informasi posisi dan waktu suatu tempat dibumi dengan akurat. Penerima gps memperoleh sinyal dari beberapa satelit yang mengorbit bumi yang terdiri dari 24 susunan satelit, dengan 21 satelit aktif dan 3 buah satelit sebagai cadangan. Dengan susunan orbit tertentu, maka satelit gps bisa diterima diseluruh permukaan bumi dengan penampakan antara 4 sampai 8 buah satelit. Kehadiran teknologi ini salah satunya digunakan untuk navigasi dalam beberapa jenis kendaraan seperti yang digunakan dalam film ini. Kelebihan gps: Dengan sistem yang mampu mengetahui lokasi, arah, kecepatan dan rute yang dilalui oleh kendaraannya, gps sangat berguna untuk memandu pengendara. Dengan alat ini, pengendara bisa mengetahui rute mana yang sebaiknya dipilih untuk mencapai tujuan yang diinginkan dengan hanya menyebutkan lokasi tujuan yang ia ingin tuju, ini menunjukkan akurasi gps yang cukup tinggi. Kelebihan gps yang digunakan dalam kendaraan ini mampu mengetahui jalur-jalur tertentu untuk mencapai tempat tujuan dengan lebih cepat dan menghindari macet ini merupakan salah satu kelebihan gps nah untuk kelebihan lainnya anda bisa liat di toko gps. Kekurangan gps: Penggunaan gps untuk mengetahui posisi yang mengandalkan setidaknya tiga satelit ini tidak selamanya akurat. Terkadang, dibutuhkan satu satelit untuk memperbaiki sinyal yang diterima. Ketidakakuratan posisi yang ditunjukkan gps ini dipengaruhi oleh posisi satelit yang berubah dan adanya proses sinyal yang ditunda. Kecepatan sinyal gps ini juga seringkali berubah karena dipengaruhi oleh kondisi atmosfer yang ada. Selain itu, sinyal gps juga mudah berinteferensi dengan gelombang elektromagnetik lainnya. Kesimpulan: Seperti dua sisi mata uang, perkembangan teknologi yang ada sekarang ini juga memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan. Dari dua contoh diatas, kehadiran global positioning system (gps) yang ada di toko gps, memang sangat membantu kehidupan manusia. Dengan kehadiran dua alat ini, kehidupan manusia menjadi lebih praktis dan efisien. Tetapi, ada kalanya sistem dalam alat-alat tersebut tidak berfungsi dengan baik. Contohnya, malfungsi delacroy voting systems yang menyebabkan proses perhitungan kandidat yang salah. Sebagai alat buatan manusia, kehadiran electronic voting machines yang kita anggap sangat hebat ternyata tak lepas dari eror/malfungsi.

http://id.88db.com/id/Knowledge/Knowledge_Detail.page/Buy_Sell/?kid=27193&lang=en-us http://www.waena.org/