Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Chapter 2

Environment

Project appraisal
Ch

Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage Traffic Subgrade

Ch

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Problem Soils Pavement Materials

Pavement DesignNew Roads Pavement Rehabilitation Bituminous Surfacings Gravel Roads

Comparison of alternatives and selection of design Refinement of design, if required

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2.0 General
This manual describes procedures which enable pavements to be designed to withstand load-associated distress. Circumstances in which environmentally induced distress is the major distress mode are not specifically discussed although such cases have been noted elsewhere, particularly in /Chapter 6 -Problem Soils/. The environmental factors having the greatest effect on pavement performance are: n moisture regime in the pavement structure n pavement temperature n unfavourable subgrade conditions related to the environment The purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and the procedure for its commissioning and implementation, is briefly described in this chapter. The inclusion of EIA has been made in order to highlight the importance of EIA in all stages of road design and construction, to ensure that projects do not achieve their own goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience to non-beneficiaries or future generations.

2.1 Climatic Zones

For the purpose of pavement design, Tanzania can be divided into three climatic zones: n a dry zone in the interior n a large moderate zone n several wet zones, mainly at high altitudes
The length of time a pavement is exposed to a surplus of moisture is a better indicator of the likelihood of moisture ingress into the structure and associated risks of failures than rainfall alone. This parameter has been expressed as the duration of the period when rainfall exceeds the potential evaporation from an open surface of water.

The three climatic zones are shown on a map in Figure 2.1. The climatic zones are demarcated on the basis of the number of months in a year with surplus of rainfall over potential evaporation as presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Climatic zones
C limatic z one D ry Moderate Wet N umber of months per y ear with higher rainfall than ev aporation Less than 1 month 1 to 3 months More than 3 months

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2.2 Moisture Regime

2.2.0
The moisture regime has a major influence on a pavements performance as the stiffness and strength of subgrade soils and granular materials vary with their moisture content. The map reflects the macro-climate significant to pavement moisture conditions. Within each climatic zone there may be localised areas with different moisture conditions.

Comments:

General

Figure 2.1 Map showing climatic zones

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Comments: /Chapter 3 - Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage/

Moisture changes in pavements usually ensue from one or more of the following sources: A. relative permeability of pavement layers and subgrade, and B. infiltration from the surface and shoulders
Both can be controlled through appropriate design of the cross section and internal drainage of the pavement layers

C. seepage from higher ground, and D. fluctuation in the water table

Both can be controlled by adequately installed subgrade and pavement drains.

E. transfer of moisture within the structure due to differences in moisture content or temperature
Cannot normally be controlled other than by attempting to keep the moisture content near constant.

2.2.1

Design moisture

New roads Nominal CBRdesign values of subgrade and pavement materials shall be specified at the specimen moistures presented in Table 2.2. For dry climatic zones, where nominal CBRdesign values are specified at OMC, there are additional requirements for minimum CBR after 4 days soaking. These limits are presented in the respective chapters where the material requirements are set out.
Table 2.2 Design moisture
L ay er Subgrade C BRDESIGN OMC D ry Subbase OMC B a se course OMC Soaked Gravel wearing course

C limatic z one

Addi ti onal requi rements are gi ven for mi ni mum C BR after 4 days soaki ng. Both C BR requi rements, soaked and un-soaked, shall be met. Soaked Soaked Soaked Soaked

Moderate Soaked Wet Soaked

Soaked Soaked

'Soaked' and 'OMC ' refer to standard 4 days soaki ng and the opti mum moi sture content determi ned i n accordance wi th C ML tests 1.9 and 1.11 at BS-Heavy compacti on effort.

Pavement rehabilitation The design moisture content for the purpose of pavement rehabilitation design is determined by estimation of likely future equilibrium moisture contents of the subgrade and within the existing pavement structure. The moisture contents presented in Table 2.2 shall be used where information about the moisture regime under the existing pavement is lacking or is deemed to be an unreliable indicator of future equilibrium moisture content.

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2.3 Pavement Temperature

2.3.0
The designer at project level shall obtain detailed data on the temperature conditions in the project area and observe this when selecting material types and design parameters for pavement layers. Temperature conditions can be expected to correlate closely with site altitude.

Comments:

General

Except for variation due to altitude, the Tanzanian climate is broadly uniform across the country. Temperature decreases with elevation by 0.60C per 100 metres. The influence of other local factors on temperature are almost insignificant.

2.3.1

Bituminous materials

Bituminous mixes The pavement temperature is taken into consideration in mix designs, having a significant effect on the performance of bituminous mixes with regards to: n n n n load distributing properties resistance to deformation resistance to fatigue cracking rate of ageing
/Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials/ and /Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings/ give requirements for design of all layers using bituminous material. The effect of temperature in bituminous layers can be critical in combination with severe road gradients and low traffic speed.

Surface treatments The performance of surface treatments depends largely on pavement temperature and is taken into account in the surfacing design. This applies to the short term performance related to bleeding and loss of aggregate, and also to the rate of binder ageing in the long term.

2.3.2

Non-bituminous materials

General The effect of temperature in non-bituminous layers is not specifically taken into account in the pavement design. Cemented layers The pavement temperature - and changes in temperature - affects the performance of all cemented materials by inducing thermal stresses in layers, with associated crack developments. Granular layers Within soils and granular layers, the movement of moisture caused by changes in temperature can indirectly affect the strength of the layers.

2.4 Unfavourable Subgrade Conditions

2.4.0
Unfavourable subgrade conditions are those that require special treatment to be rendered suitable as foundation for the pavement. This is not due to the properties of the subgrade soils, but rather the environment in which they perform. Unfavourable subgrade conditions shall also be given

General

For treatment of subgrade soils that, due to their properties, require special attention to become suitable as foundation for the pavement, refer to /Chapter 6 - Problem Soils/.

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Comments: Method for classification of the subgrade into S15, S7 or S3: /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.

attention when they occur below design depth as defined in /Chapter 5 Subgrade/. The objective of special treatment for unfavourable subgrade conditions is to bring the subgrade to sufficient stability and strength to meet the design classes S15, S7 or S3 for input into the pavement design procedure.

2.4.1

Unfavourable subgrade conditions include: n cavities made by burrowing animals, like termites or rodents, or any other flaws causing lack of support or non-uniform support and potential for uneven settlement n localised areas with high moisture content n subsurface wells n swamp areas

Identification

2.4.2

The methods for treatment of unfavourable subgrade conditions depend on site conditions and may include one or more of the following measures: Cavities n excavation and replacement with fill n special compaction techniques Localised areas with high moisture contents n n n n excavation and replacement with fill raising of the vertical alignment special drainage measures modification with lime or cement

Treatment

Subsurface wells n special drainage measures n use of filter layers n use of geotextile filter drains or other special materials or methods. n raising of the vertical alignment Areas with high water table or swamps n raising of the vertical alignment n use of geotextiles, geo-grids or other special materials or methods n special drainage measures

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2.5 Other Physical Features

2.5.1
The country has four main topographic types: n lowlands (mainly the coastal plain below 200 metres above sea level, with isolated hills up to 300 metres in height) n broad nearly flat areas of inland drainage, notably the Malagarasi swamp n plateau n highlands The highlands include the following mountain ranges of altitudes generally between 1500 m and 3000 m: n Northern Highlands - Usambara, Pare and the volcanic peaks stretching from Kilimanjaro (5895 m) westwards to the Serengeti plains n Central Highlands - stretching from Morogoro to the Iringa area n Southern Highlands - Tukuyu - Mbeya - Sumbawanga n Western Highlands - forming much of the western boundary of the country The plateau rises from the coastal plains to an altitude between 1000 m and 1500 m, adjoining the highlands listed above. Except for the mountainous and steep rolling terrain of the highlands, the terrain is generally flat to gently rolling in the plateau and lowland.

Comments:

Topography

Topographical map: /Appendix A9.1/ Soil map: /Appendix A9.3/ Rainfall map: /Appendix A9.5/

2.5.2

Metamorphic granitic rocks of the early Archaean - more than 2000 million years old - occupy much of the central plateau of Tanzania, forming a large block surrounded by younger fold belts, also of Precambrian age. Sedimentary rocks of the Karoo age - 220 to 140 million years old - occur to the north-east of Lake Nyasa. Distinctive volcanic features of Neogene age are the recent volcanic centres in northern Tanzania and near Mbeya in the south. In the north, widespread volcanic activity that probably started 13 to 15 million years ago, stretches westwards from the Kilimanjaro peaks to Serengeti and into Kenya. Some volcanic centres in this area are moderately active today. Younger marine deposits, associated with reef formation, are seen along the coast line and are in places raised by local warping to form low hills of reef limestone, commonly called coral rock. Lake beds and Neogene deposits of limestone, sand, silts and clays that are formed in basins with restricted drainage, are widespread in the interior of the country.

Geology

Geological map: /Appendix A9.2/

2.5.3

The vegetation of Tanzania is characterised by large areas of woodland, bushland and thicket. However considerable stretches of savannah, grassland and cultivation are found in several locations and occupy large areas in the northern part of the country. Forests and swamps occur in comparatively small localised areas, and mangrove forests are found in the tide zone along the coast line.

Vegetation

Vegetation map: /Appendix A9.4/

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2.6 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

2.6.1
The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a project does not achieve its own goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience to non-beneficiaries or future generations.

Purpose of EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) discovers unintended consequences of a project. Those are impacts. Such impacts may affect: - cultural heritage - society - the local economy - natural resources, now or in the future Advice may be sought from National Environment Management Council (NEMC) on any aspect of EIA in Tanzania /Appendix A7/.

2.6.2

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is commissioned by the Ministry of Works. The conduct of EIA is a mandatory requirement in Tanzania, for new roads and road up-grading, as for other substantial developments. EIA is not required for regravelling and similar periodic maintenance. Environmental assessment is conducted in three stages: 1. scoping, parallel to feasibility study (reported as preliminary Environmental Impact Statement - EIS) 2. detailed EIA, conducted at the same time as preliminary design (reported as full EIS, for implementation mainly by detailed design) 3. continued EIA (by monitoring throughout the project)

Commissioning of EIA

2.6.3
Very rarely will an EIA conclude that a project should be halted.

Implementing EIA

Mitigation measures Usually the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) includes a set of mitigation measures to bring potentially adverse impacts within tolerable limits. This is done in three ways. n Vulnerable ecosystems or land uses may be by-passed by realignment of the road. n Recommendations may be made for conditions to be observed during construction and maintenance. n Compensation is the mitigation measure of the last resort, to be used when potentially adverse impacts cannot be avoided by either realignment or operational conditionalities. Implementing RAP Implementing a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) requires detailed records of persons and properties affected, negotiation of compensation in keeping with prevailing regulations, and satisfactory conclusion of the actual resettlement. The principle of fair compensation is that compulsory resettlement should leave the displaced persons and businesses no worse off, and preferably slightly better off, than they were previously.

Displacement of illegal structures within a road reserve does not normally require a RAP; but the Ministry of Works should be consulted on a case-to-case basis.

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References
2-1 2-2 AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia. BROOKS, A, F BROWN, T COLES AND C. EASTMAN et al. (1997). Guidelines for the environmental assessment of road traffic. Guidelines Notes n 1. Institute of Environmental Assessment, Lincoln (UK). CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION ASSOCIATION (1988). Laterite in road Pavements. Special Publication 47. CIRIA, London, UK. HATHOUT, A S (1983). Soil atlas of Tanzania., University of Dar es Salaam, Geography Department. LANTRAN, J M, J BAILLON AND J-M PAGS (1994). Road Maintenance and the Environment. Contracting out road maintenance activities: Volume 5. Guidance for taking care of environment when preparing and carrying out road maintenance activities. The World Bank, Economic Commission for Africa and the Sahelian Operations Review. Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Program. Road Maintenance Initiative. MINERAL RESOURCES DIVISION, TANZANIA. Summary of the geology of Tanzania. PENNY ANDERSON ASSOCIATES (1993). Roads and Nature Conservation. Guidance on impacts, mitigation and enhancement. English Nature, Peterborough, UK. SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide. Report CR-97/105, CSIR, South Africa, for SATCC. STEVENSON, S R (1994). Environmental impact assessment of transportation projects in Africa. Paper presented at the All-Africa Engineers Conference on the Role of the Engineer in Sustainable Development, 1994, Nairobi, Kenya. STEVENSON, S R (1997). Environmental considerations in respect of road transport in Tanzania. Tanzania Roads Association,. Proc. 1st Annual Roads Convention, Dar Es Salaam. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1988). A guide to road project appraisal. Overseas Road Note No. 5. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK. WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials of Southern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. WORLD BANK. Environment Department (1991). Environmental Assessment Sourcebook. Volume II, Sectoral Guidelines. World Bank Technical paper N 140. Washington DC, USA. WORLD BANK. Transport, Water & Urban Development Department (1994). Roads and the Environment: a Handbook. Washington DC, USA.

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