SCALE EFFECTS ON THE FORMATION OF VORTICES AT INTAKE STRUCTURES

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

BY

FERHAT ARAL GRBZDAL

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

SEPTEMBER 2009

Approval of the thesis: SCALE EFFECTS ON THE FORMATION OF VORTICES AT INTAKE STRUCTURES

submitted by FERHAT ARAL GRBZDAL in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering Department, Middle East Technical University by,

Prof. Dr. Canan zgen Dean, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences Prof. Dr. Gney zcebe Head of Department, Civil Engineering Prof. Dr. Mustafa G Supervisor, Civil Engineering Dept., METU

Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Nevzat Yldrm Civil Engineering Dept., Gazi University Prof. Dr. Mustafa G Civil Engineering Dept., METU Assoc. Prof. Dr. smail Aydn Civil Engineering Dept., METU Assoc. Prof. Dr. M. Ali Kkpnar TAKK Dept., State Hydraulic Works Inst. Dr. Mete Kken Civil Engineering Dept., METU

Date:

10.09.2009

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work.

Ferhat Aral GRBZDAL

iii

ABSTRACT

SCALE EFFECTS ON THE FORMATION OF VORTICES AT INTAKE STRUCTURES

Grbzdal, Ferhat Aral M.Sc., Department of Civil Engineering Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mustafa G

September 2009, 50 pages

In the present study, possible scale effects on the formation of air-entraining vortices at horizontal intakes are studied experimentally. Basic dimensionless parameters that govern the onset of vortices at a horizontal intake in a model and a prototype are stated by dimensional analysis. Series of experiments are conducted on four intake pipes of different diameters located in a large reservoir. The relationship of critical submergence ratio with other dimensionless parameters is considered for a given Froude number and it is found out that the critical submergence ratio is affected by model length scale ratio and its natural result of side-wall clearance ratio and Reynolds number differences between model and prototypes. It is observed that, side-wall clearance ratio is not effective on the critical submergence ratio after it exceeds about 6. In addition to this, Reynolds number limit, beyond which viscous forces do not affect the vortex flow, is found out to be increasing with the increase in Froude number.

iv

An empirical relationship, which gives the critical submergence ratio as a function of Froude number, side-wall clearance ratio and Reynolds number is obtained by using data collected in the experiments. Keywords: Intake Structure, Air-Entraining Vortex, Critical Submergence, Model Scale Effects, Side-Wall Clearance.

SU ALMA YAPILARI NNDEK VORTEKSLERN OLUUMUNA LEK ETKLER

Grbzdal, Ferhat Aral Yksek Lisans, naat Mhendislii Blm Tez Yneticisi: Prof. Dr. Mustafa G

Eyll 2009, 50 sayfa Bu almada yatay azl su alma yaplarnda oluan hava girili vorteksler zerindeki olas model lei etkileri incelendi. Model ve prototiplerdeki yatay azl su alma yaplarnda oluan vortexin balangcn etkileyen boyutsuz temel parametreler boyut analizi ile ortaya konuldu. Byk bir rezervuara yerletirilmi drt farkl aptaki su alma az ile deneyler gerekletirildi. Model ve prototipler zerinde sabit Froude says altnda kritik batklk orannn dier boyutsuz parametrelerle ilikisi incelendiinde, kritik batklk orannn model bykl oran ve bunun doal bir neticesi olan yan duvar yaknlk oran ile Reynolds saysndaki farkllklardan etkilendii grld. Yan duvar yaknlnn yaklak 6 dan byk olduu durumda etkisiz olduu gzlendi. Buna ek olarak viskoz kuvvetlerin, vorteks akn etkilemedii Reyolds says limitinin artan Froude says ile ykseldii tespit edildi. Deneylerde elde edilen veriler sonucunda kritik batklk orann Froude says, yan duvar yaknl ve Reynolds saysnn bir fonksiyonu cinsinden ifade eden deneysel bir bant bulundu. Anahtar Kelimeler: Su Alma Yaps, Hava Girili Vorteks, Kritik Batklk, Model lei Etkileri, Yan Duvar Yaknl. vi

To my Granddady...

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.. Z. DEDICATION. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES. LIST OF FIGURES. LIST OF SYMBOLS ABBREVIATIONS.. CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Introductory Remarks on the Intake Vortex. 1.2. Scope of the Study. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW. 3. MODELLING OF AIR-ENTRAINING VORTICES 3.1. Introductory Remarks. 3.2. Dimensionless Parameters.. 3.2.1. Influence of Kolf Number 3.2.2. Influence of Weber Number. 3.2.3. Influence of Reynolds Number 3.2.4. Influence of Froude Number. 3.2.5. Influence of Model Length Scale 4. EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE 4.1. Experimental Equipment 4.2. Experimental Procedure. 4.3. Observations 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.1. Introduction. 5.2. The Relation between Dimensionless Parameters and Submergence Scale Ratio.. 5.2.1. The Relation between Sc / Di and b / Di 5.2.2. The Relation between Sc / Di and Re viii

iv vi vii viii x xi xii xiv

1 1 6 7 17 17 17 19 20 20 20 21 23 23 24 26 28 28 29 31 32

5.2.3. The Relation between (Sc / Di)r and Lr 5.2.4. The Relation between (Sc / Di)r and Rer 5.3. Verification of Results.. 5.4. Curve Fitting.. 6. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES... APPENDICES A. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.....................................................

34 36 38 40 42 44 46

ix

LIST OF TABLES

TABLES Table 5.1. Summary of Experimental Study..................................... Submergence Scale Ratio for 0,65 Fr 0,90.................... Table 5.2b. Relation between Dimensionless Parameters and Submergence Scale Ratio for 1,00 Fr 3,00.................... Table 5.3. Table A.1. Table A.2. Table A.3 . Table A.4 . Comparison between the present study and study of Gordon (1970).......................................................... Experimental Results of Pipe 1........................................ Experimental Results of Pipe 2........................................ Experimental Results of Pipe 3........................................ Experimental Results of Pipe 4........................................ 47 48 49 50 39 30 28 29 Table 5.2a. Relation between Dimensionless Parameters and

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES Figure 1.1. Figure 1.2. Figure 1.3. Figure 1.4. Figure 2.1. Figure 3.1. Figure 4.1. Figure 4.2. Figure 5.1. Figure 5.2a. Figure 5.2b. Figure 5.3a. Figure 5.3b. Figure 5.4a Figure 5.4b. Figure 5.5. Vorticity Sources (Durgin & Hecker, 1978)...................... Directional and Structural Classification of Vortices (Knauss, 1987) ........................................................... Relative Comparison of Eddy-Dimple-Vortex Tail.............. ARL Vortex Type Classification (Knauss, 1987)................. Critical Spherical Sink Surface Approach (Yldrm and Kocaba, 1995)......................................... Modelling Elements for Experimental Intake.................... Experimental Equipment............................................... Swirl Pattern During Experiments................................... Relation between b / Di and Sc / Di for 0,65 Fr 1,50...................................................... Relation between Re and Sc / Di for 0,65 Fr 0,90...................................................... Relation between Re and Sc / Di for 1,00 Fr 1,50...................................................... Relation between Lr and (Sc / Di)r for 0,65 Fr 0,90...................................................... Relation between Lr and (Sc / Di)r for 1,00 Fr 1,50...................................................... Relation between Rer and (Sc / Di)r for 0,65 Fr 0,90...................................................... Relation between Rer and (Sc / Di)r for 1,00 Fr 1,50...................................................... Data Fit Plot................................................................ 41 37 37 36 35 34 33 18 25 27 32 4 5 16 2 3

xi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

a B b b1 b2 c Cd Di Fr g H K Ko K1 k L Lr N N N* Qi R Re ReR r0 Sc U Vi

Intake gate height Headrace channel width Side-wall clearance Horizontal distance from the center of the intake to the right-side-wall of the reservoir Horizontal distance from the center of the intake to the left-side-wall of the reservoir Vertical distance of the intake to the bottom of the reservoir Discharge coefficient of the intake in a uniform canal flow Intake diameter Intake Froude number Gravity acceleration Vertical intake submergence Viscous correction factor Kolf number Viscosity and circulation correction factor Constant = 6 x 10
-5

Distance from the headrace entrance to intake center line

Model length scale ratio Ratio of intake Froude number to intake Reynolds number Circulation number Submergence circulation number Intake discharge Correlation coefficient Intake Reynolds number Radial Reynolds number Shadow radius of vortex at the bottom of canal Critical submergence at horizontal intakes Velocity of uniform canal flow at the upstream of intake Intake velocity xii

x y z We

Regression variable Regression variable Regression variable Intake Weber number Approach flow angle Circulation Viscosity Kinematic viscosity Density of the fluid Surface tension

xiii

ABBREVIATIONS

ABS ARL kW SI

Absolute Alden Research Laboratory Kilowatt International System of Units

xiv

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introductory Remarks on the Intake Vortex

Modern society is facing a serious challenge to meet increasing water demands for power generation, irrigation, domestic and industrial supply from seas, lakes, rivers or simply from reservoirs through intakes. Similar to many other civil engineering structures, design of intakes is an optimization process which has two dependency; minimizing cost together with maximizing the ease of operation or satisfying the design requirements. It is the susceptibility of the intakes to the formation of air-entraining vortices that determines the design criteria. The position of an intake should be so arranged that under the most critical scenario, that is to say operating when the reservoir is at dead or at minimum storage level, water level should be well above the intake so as no vortices occur. On the other hand, the intake must be located close to the water surface so as to reduce the cost of construction. Distance between the free surface and the intake is known as submergence. When this submergence drops to a critical level which is known as critical submergence, air-entraining vortex starts to occur at the free surface. For an effective intake, submergence should be large enough to prevent inducing airentraining vortices extending from the free surface down to the intake entrance, which could lead to serious problems such as increased head losses, disturbed flow pattern before the intake and hence reduced flow rate by air ingestion through the opening formed at the core region of the free surface vortex. Further, this air ingestion can cause mechanical damage like cavitation, vibrations, loss of pump and hydraulic turbine efficiency and operational difficulties by the suction of floating debris pulled down by free surface vortices.

Among the many vorticity sources in literature, Durgin & Hecker (1978) defined three fundamental types as shown in Figure1.1. Vortices are mainly triggered by: the eccentric orientation of the intake relative to a symmetric approach flow, the viscous induced velocity gradients with the flow boundary itself a vorticity source and the tendency of obstructions to form rotational wakes.

Figure 1.1. Vorticity Sources (Durgin & Hecker, 1978)

In the literature and practice, many intake arrangements can be seen. In order to present a clear classification, two distinctions may be proposed. The first one is a distinction related to intake direction. The second one is a structural distinction that considers whether an intake is located in the floor or on the walls of the basin or is projecting into the reservoir or the sump. Figure 1.2 illustrates this classification of intakes based on directional and structural distinctions. Classification of the intake vortices according to their strength can be done by using some visual techniques or by measuring some quantities directly or indirectly related to the strength of vortices. For the latter case, changes in intake discharge coefficient, the magnitude of inlet pipe flow swirl or the determination of air ingestion can be used. However even for an air core vortex, if small compared to the inlet, it may not produce effects that can be measured reliably and the other one is that, correlation between vortices and selected dependent parameter may be weak and variable with other parameters. The most obvious way of determining the type and hence the severity of a vortex is by visual observation. Before stating these vortex types, various words such as swirl, eddy, dimple and vortex tail should be defined. 2

Figure 1.2. Directional and Structural Classification of Vortices (Knauss, 1987)

Eddy, dimple and vortex tail are all used to describe the appearance of water surface and also to denote the degree of vortex air core development. A quantitative distinction has not been made between an eddy and dimple or a dimple and vortex tail. However, in a qualitative sense, the depression of an air cavity downward from the water surface is greater for a vortex tail than for a dimple, and the depression of a dimple is greater than an eddy as seen in the Figure 1.3. 3

The depression of an eddy or swirl is very slight and is observed only by reflection of light from the water surface, whereas, a dimple and a vortex tail are more readily seen due to obvious depression by naked eye.

Figure 1.3. Relative Comparison of Eddy-Dimple-Vortex Tail

A visual classification of vortices consists of following stages (See Figure 1.4):

1) A weakly developed vortex with no air core and only a small eddy on the water surface indicates presence of the vortex. 2) A coherent surface swirl turns into a small depression on the free surface. 3) Type 3 vortex is the one with a tail which is non-air-entraining, and air bubbles are not dragged from the tail. Dye placed in the vortex tail is carried downward into the intake forming a filament which reveals location of the vortex axis. 4) In type 4, vortex is so strong that it can ingest more buoyant particles such as floating trash but not air. 5) A partially developed air-entraining vortex does not have a continuous air core. The air core extends only part way down from the water surface and end with a vortex tail. Occasionally, small bubbles may be dragged from the vortex tail, travel down the longitudinal axis of the vortex, and enter the intake.

Figure 1.4. ARL Vortex Type Classification (Knauss, 1987) 5

6) A fully developed air-entraining vortex has a continuous air core extending from the water surface into the intake. Near the water surface the air core has a funnel shape and below the water surface a rope-like appereance. 1.2. Scope of the Study The scope of the study is to scrutinize possible scale effects on the formation of air-entraining vortices previous data. In the present work, a hydraulic model is constructed to study the onset of airentraining vortices (Type 6) at a horizontal intake. Chapter 2 deals with the literature review in which previous studies of several investigators interested in vortices will be summerized by noting their method for the determinance of possible scale effects, limits proposed beyond which no scale effects are present and formulas, if any, relating critical submergence to remaining independent variables. In Chapter 3, the basic non-dimensional parameters that govern the flow in air-entraining vortices at a horizontal intake are derived and relation between critical submergence ratio and other non-dimensional variables is stated. Chapter 4 is devoted to the description of experimental setup, observations during experiments and procedure for the data taking. Results of measurements in terms of set of curves, a practical formula for the critical submergence of intakes, and comparison of the present study with previous studies are all included in Chapter 5. Final comments and concluding remarks are given in Chapter 6. at horizontal intakes by conducting experiments and comparing experimental results with the general theory of vortex subject and

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Comprehensive analytical and numerical solutions to the vortex problem are now available and these apparently produce realistic descriptions of the vortex flow field despite of some simplifying assumptions. Applicational difficulty of these analytical models to the real cases other than their mathematical complexity stems mainly from the requirement of boundary conditions of the flow field need to be specified. An additional difficulty in applying these analytical models is that the effects of local asymmetrical geometric features on the flow cannot be analytically included. Therefore, due to the unique nature of every hydraulic project and complexity of vortex flow, physical model studies were mostly prefered by previous investigators dealed with vortices. Iversen (1953) studied the effects of sump boundaries on the pump efficiency and also on the critical submergence for vertically downward sump intake. According to the experiments undertaken, side-wall clearances in the range of Di / 4 to Di / 2 and bottom clearance of diameter. Anwar (1965,1967 and 1968) studied both experimentally and theoretically on a steady vortex with an air core forming at the entrance of an outlet pipe discharging from a cylindrical tank. It was concluded from these experiments that radial flow and thus the full development of a vortex can be prevented by roughening the floor and solid boundaries since radial flow at the boundary supplies the energy necessary to maintain an open vortex. In addition to this, intake performance can be improved by using a floating raft on the surface immediately above the intake and by baffle walls to dissipate the energy by providing excessive roughness. Anwar also reported that, performance of a pump depends very much on the side-wall and floor clearances. 7 Di / 2 do not affect normal pump performance together with critical submergence, where Di is the intake

Experiments were undertaken by Zielinski and Villemonte (1968) in the vortex tank with five different orifice diameters using oil and water. As a conclusion, physical effects of viscosity on vortex-orifice flow noted, as viscosity increases circulation decreases from inlet to outlet due to the increase in viscous shear. Consequently as circulation decreases, the dropdown decreases; as the dropdown decreases air core decreases, thereby increasing the area of the jet; as the area of the jet increases, the coefficient of discharge increases, thus in order to maintain a constant discharge, head decreases. The study also resulted in that when the Reynolds number, Re = ViDi / , is greater than 104, the effects of viscosity on the discharge coefficient can be neglected. Here Vi is the velocity at the intake and is the kinematic viscosity. As one of the mostly used design practice investigator Gordon (1970) stated that the factors affecting the vortex formation are: the geometry of the approach flow to the intake; the velocity at the intake; the size of the intake; and the critical submergence (Sc). Based on a study of 29 existing hydroelectric intakes, a relation between these terms was proposed as

Sc = 1.72Fr Di
for symmetrical flow conditions and,

[2.1]

Sc = 2.29Fr Di

[2.2]

for non-symmetrical flow conditions, where all variables are in SI unit system and Sc is measured from top of the intake. Reddy and Pickford (1972) considered the flow boundary within the intake region as the largest factor contributing to the vortex formation and being a free surface phenomenon Reynolds number can be eliminated from the field of the vortex formation. It was concluded that when vortex prevention devices are not used Sc / Di = Fr (otherwise Sc / Di = 1 + Fr) will give vortex-free operation either in hydroelectric practice or pump sump design. 8

Dagget and Keulegan (1974) investigated the effects of viscosity and surface tension on the incipient condition for the vortex formation, the vortex shape, the vortex size and the efficiency of the outlet under vortex action. Experiments were conducted in two cylindrical testing tanks. Various combinations of vane angle settings and outlet diameters were used for waterglycerine and various grades of oil mixtures each having different surface tensions and kinematic viscosities in both tanks. A number of flow rates was used for each combination of liquid, vane angle and outlet diameters. By plotting coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number at costant values of circulation number, N = Di / Qi, it was determined that effect of viscosity becomes negligible for values of Re > 5 x 104, where Re = Qi / Di, = circulation and Qi = intake discharge. From the comparison of the flow conditions between different liquids used, it was concluded that surface tension does not affect the vortex flow significantly when radial Reynolds number, ReR > 3 x 103, where ReR = Qi / H and H = vertical intake submergence. The study resulted in a relation for critical depth ratio such that: (H / Di)c = 35 x 10-3 NRe ; Re < 5 x 104 (H / Di)c = 150N ; Re 5 x 104 where (H / Di)c, as the smallest of H / Di for which an air core does not form. Durgin and Hecker (1978) presented a general method to investigate potential scale effects on the free surface vortices such that estimation to prototype operating conditions can be made. Sources of vorticity together with indicators of vortex severity were mentioned and vortex type classification based on visual observation was made. In order to project the vortex severity of the model to the prototype, existance of exact geometric and Froude similitude was stated to be ensured and secondary effects of the Reynolds number must be taken into consideration. In the projection technique, based on the idea to get higher Reynolds numbers other than Froude similitude implies, models operating at different water temperatures to have different viscosities ,and for additional data points, flow rates both above and below those indicated by Froude scaling were used by writers. In the application of method, Froude number ratio versus Reynolds number produced, when increasing the model flow rate at a given water temperature was plotted and recording the vortex severity indicators (such as air ingestion, swirl and coefficient of discharge) at 9

a given operating point lines of constant vortex severity were produced. The prototype performance is predicted by noting the vortex severity indicated at the corresponding Reynolds number and properly scaled Froude number that is Frr = 1. Investigation conducted by Anwar et al. (1978) on the onset of air-entraining vortices at a horizontal intake showed that flow conditions in an air-entraining vortex is not affected by surface tension and the viscosity of the test fluid when radial Reynolds number and Weber number are larger than 3 x 104 and 104, respectively. It was shown that bellmouth entry do not improve critical submergence heads as compared with the simple pipe intake. In the case of an intake with and without bellmouth and mounted flush with side wall of the flume, it was noted that the boundary wall reduces circulation and thus the critical submergence to a point that the water surface almost reaches the intake lip before air-entraining vortices occure. Jain et al. (1978) carried out an investigation in two geometrically similar cylindrical tanks each installed with a vertical pipe intake centrally located in the tank bottom and radial flow was ensured by setting adjustable guide vanes in the radial direction. Experiments were performed by three different intake diameters and by using liquids such as water, water-Cepol solution and waterisoamyl alcohol solution to get different viscosities and surface tensions for each tank. The critical submergence was found to be practically independent of the viscosity as well as the surface tension within the range of experiments (2.5 x 103 Re = ViDi / 6.5 x 105; 1.2 x 102 We = Vi2Di / 3.4 x 104, where = density of the fluid and = surface tension). By plotting Sc / Di versus Fr for experimental data it was seen that data can be represented by

Sc = 0.47Fr 0.50 Di

[2.3]

As a second part of the previous study, Jain et al. (1978) presented a more detailed experimental study to establish the conditions of similarity for the onset of air-entraining vortices at vertical pipe intake. A very same 10

experimental set up and test liquids were used. Similar to the previous study, influence of surface tension on the critical submergence for vertically downward pipe intake was found to be negligible when Weber number, We = Vi2Di / 120. The following relation of critical submergence ratio with viscous, gravity and circulation effects was obtained by plotting Sc / Di versus Fr on a double log paper:

K1

Sc = Fr 0.50 Di

[2.4]

in which correction factor K1 = f(N, N) Here N = g1/2 Di

3/2

/ is a ratio of Froude number to Reynolds number and

used as a viscous parameter; N = Sc / Qi is a circulation parameter. After some manipulations, final relation was presented as:

Sc = 5.6N 0.42Fr 0.50 Di

[2.5]

in which correction factor K = f(N) and attains a value of unity for N 5 x 104. A significant conclusion of the experiments showed that the limit of Reynolds number at which viscous effects become negligble is dependent on the Froude number; the higher the Froude number, the greater is the limit of Reynolds number for freedom from viscous influences. Completing the study, Jain et al. propsed a method from which the prototype critical submergence can be readily determined. The method considers that for a geometrically similar model run at the same Froude number as that in the prototype, the only distortion introduced is due to the change in Reynolds number, the effect of which is taken care of by the viscous correction factor K. For such case model and prototype critical submergence has a relation as

KSc KSc = Di m Di p

[2.6]

11

 Sc Di p K m from which = Kp Sc Di m

[2.7]

Km and Kp being the viscous correction factors evaluated in the model and prototype respectively and they were evaluated graphically. Since prototype Reynolds number is usually so high as to be above the corresponding limit of zero influence (Kp = 1), equation 2.7 becomes

Sc for zero viscous influence Di =K Sc at any Reynolds number Di

[2.8]

Anwar and Amphlett (1980) conducted experiments with a vertically inverted pipe arrangement to measure variables such as intake height, side and back wall clearance and circulation intensity which were thought to be responsible for the formation of air-entraining vortices and results of this study was compared with the results of horizontal intake arrangement. Three different pipe diameters were tested with and without bellmouthed entry, and different guide vane settings were used to get various swirl intensities. It was shown that bellmouth entry did not improve critical submergence heads as compared with the simple pipe intake. By plotting circulation number, r0 / Qi, versus radial Reynolds number, ReR = Qi / H, it was observed that circulation number decreases rapidly when ReR increases from 1 to 3x104 and it is almost independent when ReR > 4 x 104, where r0 is the shadow radius of the vortex reflected at the bottom of the canal. Circulation number plotted against coefficient of discharge indicated a dependence on H / Di and Di whereas independence on b / Di, where b = side-wall clearance. These plots showed that a model for which the circulation number is almost independent on viscous effects can be designed and coefficient of discharge is now a function of Di and H. Moreover, the submergence height H / Di becomes independent of wall clearance b / Di > 8 for a high value of circulation and of b / Di > 4 for a nonswirl flow. 12

Padmanabhan and Hecker (1984) conducted experiments using one full-sized and two reduced-scale models of a pump sump to geometric scales of 1 : 2 and 1 : 4 to determine scale effects on free surface vortexing. It was found that there occurs no significant scale effects on modeling free surface vortexing in 1 : 2 and 1 : 4 models operated according to Froude similitude. This is due to the fact that, their comparisons between full-sized and reduced-scale models were based on vortex types indicated in ARL vortex classification chart (See Figure 1.4.) instead of on the critical submergence for air core vortices. In addition to this, it was stated that full-scale inlet losses were well predicted by the reduced-scale losses when model pipe Reynolds numbers, Re = ViDi / , are above 1 x 105. On the other hand, some scale effects were observed for Re < 1 x 105 since higher loss coefficients were indicated by the reduced-scale models. Odgaard (1986) considered a Rankine vortex model as the basis for an equation of critical submergence at intakes. By solving equations of motion in the vicinity of the vertical axis that is steady, axi-symmetric and laminar, the critical submergence was related as

H2 = 0.9

2 Vi VH i + 0.0043 g g

[2.9]

or, in terms of dimensionless parameters

H 2 1/ 2 H = 1.0Fr Re Di Di

5/2

We 1 + 0.00337Fr 2N2 * Re

[2.10]

in which N = circulation number = Di / Qi or in terms of submergence N* = H / Qi. From the relation of

NFr = ( 4 / ) gDi3 , equation 2.10 without a surface

tension term can be reduced to

H = 0.074 Di gDi3

Re

[2.11]

13

It was also noted that intake velocity, Vi, should be replaced by Vi + k where constant k = 6 x 10-5, in order to use presented formulations for turbulent flow conditions. Gulliver and Rindels (1987) presented an experimental investigation to predict the formation of weak, free surface vortices at vertical intakes with a headrace channel. In order to predetermine the flow approach angle to the headrace and to find the effect of it on the vortex formation, guide vanes were used. After the critical submergence at which persistent dye core vortices form was measured over a range of intake Froude numbers, the lineer regression yielded an equation as follows:

Sc 4 = 2.5 + Fr 2 / 3 + 40N* 3 Di 3

[2.12]

where N* = tan / [1 + (L / B)tan], L = distance from the headrace entrance to intake center line, B = headrace channel width and = approach flow angle. Hite and Mih (1994) worked theoretically to determine closed-form equations for axial, radial and tangential velocities as well as the water surface profile of vortices at hydraulic intakes. These equations were found to be agreed with experimental measurements and are applicable to vortex motion in general. Yldrm and Kocaba (1995) investigated, both analytically and experimentally, the critical submergence for vertically oriented intake in a horizontal rectangular open flume. Investigators tried to solve the vortex problem analytically with the potential flow solution for the combination of a point sink and a uniform canal flow. According to this approach, the critical submergence was considered to be equal to the radius of an imaginary spherical sink surface which is, at this stage, called as critical spherical sink surface. As it can be seen in Figure 2.1, this spherical sink surface was thought to have the same center and discharge with the intake entrance. By carrying out dimensional analysis together with the theoretical approach of Rankine half-body of revolution, final relation of critical submergence was obtained as

14

Sc Vi 1 = Cd Di 2 2 U

1/ 2

[2.13]

where Vi = average intake velocity, Cd = discharge coefficient and U = velocity of uniform canal flow. All parameters can be seen in Figure 2.1. This final relation was compared with experimental measurements and the agreement was reported to be good. A large-scale physical model study was undertaken by Jiming et al. (2000) for the determinance of the minimum submergence before double entrance pressure intakes. Based on the comparison made between single entrance and double entrance pressure intakes with the same model scales and under the same operating conditions, it was observed that besides having better flow patterns, double entrance pressure intakes also would not induce air-entraining vortex whereas air-entraining vortices were found before single entrance intakes. As a consequence of the experimental study, it was stated that double entrance intakes for large projects can be designed safely using suggested formula as

Sc = 2.39Fr 0.01 a
for symmetrical flow conditions and,

[2.14]

Sc = 3.17Fr 0.01 a
for non-symmetrical flow conditions, where a = intake gate height.

[2.15]

15

Figure 2.1. Critical Spherical Sink Surface Approach (Yldrm and Kocaba, 1995)

Yldrm et al. (2000) searched for the flow-boundary effects on critical submergence of intake pipe and hence a better prediction of critical submergence. Experiments were performed on a horizontal intake pipe sited in a dead-end canal flow. It was observed that as the distance between the intake pipe and the dead-end gets smaller than Sc, deviation between theoretical and experimental results increases. It was reported that potential flow solution still gives acceptable results when this distance is smaller than Sc, however it overpredicts by about 80% when the distance between the intake pipe and the dead-end becomes much smaller than Sc. Yldrm and Kocaba (2002) tried a critical spherical sink surface which has radius of Sc / 2 and obtained good agreement between theoretical and experimental results. Especially when the distance of the impervious dead-end wall to the intake center is smaller than or equal to the diameter of the intake. Results were obtained to be better comparing to a critical spherical sink surface which has radius of Sc.

16

CHAPTER 3

MODELLING OF AIR-ENTRAINING VORTICES

3.1. Introductory Remarks The formation of air-entraining vortices is the result of the complex interaction between the geometry of the intake medium and the approach channel, the flow velocity and the liquid properties such as surface tension and viscosity. The flow near an intake is quite complex and is hence not readily suitable to theoretical solution, except possibly in the case of idealised shape of the intake medium. Design of intakes to be free of objectionable air-entraining vortices is, therefore, based on physical-model studies. 3.2. Dimensionless Parameters Based on the dimensional analysis theory, all dimensionless parameters can be listed under the title of three major modelling elements. These are: Properties of the liquid: Density of the fluid (), viscosity of the fluid (), surface tension of the fluid (). Flow properties: Velocity at the intake pipe (Vi), circulation imposed to flow (), and gravitational acceleration (g). Geometric properties of the flow medium: Diameter of the intake pipe (Di), distance between the intake center and reservoir bottom (c), right-side-wall distance of the reservoir to the intake center (b1) and left-side-wall distance of the reservoir to the intake center (b2). Considering an intake of type shown in Figure 3.1, the critical submergence, Sc, (defined as one which is sufficient to prevent formation of air-entraining vortices) may be expressed by

Sc = f1 ( , , ,g,V, ,Di ,c,b1,b2 ) i

17

[3.1]

Sc

Figure 3.1. Modelling Elements for Experimental Intake

By carrying out dimensional analysis procedure, following relation is obtained between dimensionless variables.

b b c Sc = f2 1 , 2 , ,Re,Fr,We,K O Di Di Di Di
where

[3.2]

Re = Intake Reynolds number =

VDi i
18

Fr = Intake Froude number =

Vi gDi

W e = Intake Weber number =

K O = Intake Kolf number =

Vi2Di

VDi i

In the experimental setup, bottom of the intake was so arranged that bottom clearance, c, is always equal to Di / 2 and hence c / Di ratio becomes 0.5. Therefore c / Di ratio can be dropped from Equation 3.2. Moreover, intake pipe is placed mid-way between left and right side-walls so that b1 is equal to b2 and accordingly there remains only one dimensionless geometric parameter which is b / Di. After these modifications Equation 3.2 becomes

b Sc = f2 ,Re,Fr,We,K O Di Di

[3.3]

In a geometrically similar model, dimensionless geometric parameters would be the same in the model and prototype (However, in the present study, four different scaled intake pipes were used for the same reservoir assuming that the reservoir is sufficiently large). Equality of Sc / Di in the model and prototype, in general, require equality of Fr, Re, We and KO between model and prototype which would be imposible to achieve. The following discussion is, therefore, devoted to an analysis of the relative importance of these four parameters, which would enable the designer to decide upon the suitable modelling criteria for his study. Based on the study about these parameters in the literature, sequence of the influences of these parameters to be investigated will be from minor importance to major importance in order to simplfy the relation obtained in equation 3.2 each time if it is possible. 3.2.1. Influence of Kolf Number Circulation is dependent on the characteristics of the approach flow, the geometry of the intake chamber and the discharge. Since all geometric 19

parameters of the intake pipe, intake medium and approach flow channel are included in Equation 3.1 and no imposed circulation is applied, the parameter could be deleted from this equation. Therefore, effect of the dimensionless parameter of Kolf number can be neglected on the formation of air-entraining vortices. Then Equation 3.2 becomes

b Sc = f2 ,Re,Fr,We Di Di
3.2.2. Influence of Weber Number

[3.4]

Weber number is basically effective in shallow-dimple like vortices. As it was stated in the researches of Dagget& Keulegan (1974), Jain et al. (1978), Gulliver & Rindels (1987) and others, surface tension effect can be neglected in practice of air-entraining vortices. Therefore Equation 3.3 becomes

b Sc = f2 ,Re,Fr Di Di
3.2.3. Influence of Reynolds Number

[3.5]

In literature, almost all researchers considered the effect of viscosity on the formation of vortices and determined limits of Reynolds number ,beyond which viscous forces are negligible, according to their own experimental results. Due to this fact that, influence of Reynolds number for this study was taken into account. 3.2.4. Influence of Froude Number Practically all studies carried out till now, with exception of Yldrm & Kocaba (1995, 2000, 2002), have indicated Froude number to be one of the important parameters influencing the critical submergence. This is understandable because it is a free surface phenomenon and affected by gravity. It is therefore customary to base the model study of vortex formation on Froude number 20

similarity. Corrections to model results are made to account for the distortion likely to be introduced by the non-constancy of Reynolds numbers in the model and the prototype if any distortion is present to the this non-constancy. Therefore, final relation between dimensionless numbers was found to be as in Equation 3.5. 3.2.5. Influence of Model Length Scale Equation 3.5 gives the relationship between Sc / Di and other related independent dimensionless parameters involved in the formation of vortices at intake structures. This relationship is valid for a prototype intake structure and its hydraulic model having a certain length scale Lr. In order to have a complete similarity between the prototype and model structure, all of the corresponding dimensionless terms given in Equation 3.5 must be equal to each other. However, it is known that to satisfy this condition for the equality of both Reynolds and Froude numbers, is not practically possible. Therefore in the modelling of the intake structures, the equality of Froude numbers is demanded. Neglecting the Reynolds number and some other terms given in Equation 3.3 for mentioned reasons results in errors at certain percentages on the values of Sc / Di to be calculated for the prototype. This deviation between the calculated Sc / Di value for the prototype and the one corresponding to the model is due to the length scale used in the modelling. Since dimensional analysis and related model studies aim to predict prototype values of Sc / Di by performing experimental study and considering the possible length scale effects, Equation 3.5 can be expressed in the final form of:

b Sc = f ,Rer ,Frr D Di r i r

[3.6]

In model studies based on the equation given above Frr = 1, Rer 1, (Sc / Di)r 1 and due to the fact that the central distance of each pipe to side-wall boudaries is the same in the experimental setup (b / Di)r can be expressed as follows:

21

b b Di m (b)m (Di )p 1 = = = (b)p (Di )m Lr Di r b Di p

Substituting Equation 3.7 into Equation 3.6, one can get

[3.7]

Sc = f (Lr ,Rer ,Frr ) Di r

[3.8]

22

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE

4.1. Experimental Equipment An experimental reservoir was built to investigate scale effects on the formation of air-entraining vortices at horizontal intakes. The reservoir, shown in Figs. 4.1, is in 2.20 m length, 1.40 m width and 2.00 m depth and consisting of dead-volume section, active reservoir section and intake section. A diaphram slab was constructed so as to leave a 40 cm space from rear-wall of the reservoir and to create a dead-volume by dividing reservoir into two part in the horizontal plane. Flow was supplied from a large elevated-constant head tank to an inflow pipe ,in 80 cm diameter, which enters the reservoir below the bottom level of diaphram slab so that water fills dead-volume section first. This enables entrance of water being still, while space provided allows water to rise and fill the active reservoir calmly. Screens in two rows were attached over the diaphram slab and fastened to the reservoir side walls. These screens allows to dissipate the energy of water and move uniformly without any circulation to the intake. Dead-end was created by means of plexiglass panels attached to each other with screws and waterproofed with silicone paste. A small draining pipe was located at the face of dead-end to enhance water-level adjustment. Water levels were read from a milimetric paper sticked to dead-end face. For the ease of observations, part of dead-end, in 103,5 cm length and 63,5 cm width, was extended from the reservoir front plane. In order to provide space for the attachment of intake pipes square hole, at equal distance to the plexiglass side walls, was opened to the face of extended dead-end. Plexiglass intake pipes ,in 19,72 cm, 15,23 cm, 9,28 cm, and 6,12 cm diameters, were installed to the extended dead-end for each set of experiments in this order. A steel plate was placed in front of the intake pipe entrance to the same level with the bottom of intake pipe (i.e. c = Di / 2). Intake pipes were connected to a 7,5 kW centrifugal pump which conveys water to a steel pipe in 10,4 cm diameter. Water falls freely from steel pipe to an open channel which ends with 23

a weir. Discharged water from this weir and from outlet pipe during reservoir emptying process was conveyed by canals to the sump below laboratory and water in the sump is pumped to elevated water tank. 4.2. Experimental Procedure After installation of each intake pipe and levelling of steel plate accordingly, set-up becomes ready for each set of experiments. In each experiment, discharge and water surface elevation at which air-entraining vortex initiates, were measured. The data are given in Appendix-A. Before different set of experiments conducted at different times, first the water was pumped from a sump to an elevated tank in order to achieve a constant head. Then valve on the inflow pipe was opened and reservoir was filled to a level that is very much higher than the critical submergence. By starting the pump operation and adjusting the valve on the pumping line, predetermined discharge amount was obtained. At this stage since discharged water from the reservoir cannot be recirculated to the reservoir again, in order to achieve a constant reservoir water surface level, valves on the supply pipe and pumping line were opened or closed at certain amount while observing the water surface level (This proccess of obtaining constant water level took 30 minutes to 1,5 hours for different experiments). By the time, since adjustment is mainly done by valve on supply pipe, discharge of intake pipe is affected slightly. After constant water level was reached, observation of water surface for possible swirls, surface depressions and air-entraining vortices was started. Water level was decreased for a small amount carefully by opening the valve of small drain pipe. Valve was then closed and reservoir surface was observed. These steps were continued untill an air-entraining vortex was resulted in (This proccess of air-enraining vortex initiation took 30 minutes to 1 hour). At that point discharge and water surface level were measured. By changing the opening of valve at supply pipe, various values of discharge and hence Froude numbers were obtained and steps untill to get air-entraining vortex were repeated.

24

25 Figure 4.1. Experimental Equipment

There are two important notes related to experimental studies. First, ten minutes of observation time was selected throughout the experiments before further decreasing the water level. This means that after each reduction of water level by the use of drain pipe, water surface is observed for possible airentarining before further reduction of water level. Second, since, as already mentioned, discharged water cannot be recirculated, flow through supply pipe is increased after each reduction of reservoir water level since the decreasing submergence of the supply pipe causes an increase in discharge coefficient of it and hence the discharge of it. Although it seems that, each reduction of water level requires re-fixing the water surface at a constant level, after couple of fixing proccesses water level does not change during ten minutes of observation time. Moreover, further fixing attempts require much less time after first fixing of water level is completed. 4.3. Observations All the vortices that occured in the experiments were of an intermittent type, where the vortices formed and then dissipated. In many instances there was the same pattern of vortex development where a swirl existed near an intake pipe entrance and organized vortex action would develop in the swirl. Rotational velocity increased at the center of the swirl, a dimple formed, increased in size, formed a vortex tail, and then further increased in size, an air core vortex occured. Almost for all experimental data, swirl pattern shown in Figure 4.2 resulted in and could be observed by naked eye. This swirl pattern is an indication that the plexiglass side-walls of dead-end penetrated through reservoir are inherently sources of swirl generation. At high submergences, when compared to the critical submergence at that discharge, swirls on the water surface formed and disappeared instantly. When water surface was reduced, duration and intensity of these swirls increased. Continuing to decrease water surface level, swirls turned into small dimples. Further decrease in water level caused deeper dimples and if strong enough these dimples extended, increased in diameter and formed vortex tails. Very near to the critical submergence, air core vortices occured but air core was not continuous, only small bubbles entered to intake. 26

Finally, when the critical submergence was reached, continuous air core vortices formed together with air ingestion. After this point on, decreasing water levels caused stronger air-entraining vortices and hence increase in air ingestion amount.

Figure 4.2. Swirl Pattern During Experiments

27

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1. Introduction In this chapter the data collected in the present study are reported and comparison between four sets of experiments for different intake pipe diameters is made based on Froude number equality. According to this comparison, possible scale effects due to the Reynolds number and side-wall clearance parameter, b / Di, are interpreted. Moreover, results of this study are verified by using formulation proposed by Gordon (1970). Finally, curve fitting will be achieved by regression analysis. Table 5.1 is a summary of the experimental study examined in the present study. Detailed results of the experimental study are given in Appendix A. Table 5.1. Summary of Experimental Study

Intake Pipe 1

Range of Qi (lt/s) 21,62 ~ 38,85 14,37 ~ 34,68 4,12 ~ 19,63 1,43 ~ 9,19

Range of Fr 0,51 ~ 0,92 0,65 ~ 1,56 0,64 ~ 3,04 0,63 ~ 4,03

Range of Range of Re We 1,39E+05 1,35E+03 ~ ~ 2,50E+05 4,38E+03 1,20E+05 1,30E+03 ~ ~ 2,89E+05 7,57E+03 5,63E+04 4,72E+02 ~ ~ 2,68E+05 1,07E+04 2,96E+04 1,98E+02 ~ ~ 1,90E+05 8,19E+03

Di (cm)

b/Di

Number of observations 10

19,72

1,597

15,23

2,068

11

9,28

3,394

10

6,12

5,147

10

28

5.2. The Relation between Dimensionless Parameters and Submergence Scale Ratio The relation between dimensionless parameters and (Sc / Di)r is summarized in Table 5.2a and Table 5.2b. Table 5.2a. Relation between Dimensionless Parameters and Submergence Scale Ratio for 0,65 Fr 0,90

Fr

Pipe 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Di (cm) 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12

Sc/Di* 1,003 0,818 0,428 0,287 1,011 0,876 0,452 0,312 1,108 0,934 0,476 0,338 1,132 0,968 0,5 0,364 1,153 0,992 0,524 0,389 1,22 1,057 0,548 0,415

Re 1,776E+05 1,205E+05 5,732E+04 3,070E+04 1,912E+05 1,298E+05 6,173E+04 3,306E+04 2,049E+05 1,391E+05 6,614E+04 3,542E+04 2,186E+05 1,483E+05 7,055E+04 3,778E+04 2,322E+05 1,576E+05 7,496E+04 4,015E+04 2,459E+05 1,669E+05 7,937E+04 4,251E+04

b/Di 1,597 2,068 3,394 5,147 1,597 2,068 3,394 5,147 1,597 2,068 3,394 5,147 1,597 2,068 3,394 5,147 1,597 2,068 3,394 5,147 1,597 2,068 3,394 5,147

Lr** 1,000 0,772 0,471 0,310 1,000 0,772 0,471 0,310 1,000 0,772 0,471 0,310 1,000 0,772 0,471 0,310 1,000 0,772 0,471 0,310 1,000 0,772 0,471 0,310

(Sc/Di)r** 1,000 0,816 0,427 0,286 1,000 0,866 0,447 0,309 1,000 0,843 0,430 0,305 1,000 0,855 0,442 0,322 1,000 0,860 0,454 0,337 1,000 0,866 0,449 0,340

0,65

0,70

0,75

0,80

0,85

0,90

Scale Effect***(%) 0,00 18,44 57,33 71,39 0,00 13,35 55,29 69,14 0,00 15,70 57,04 69,49 0,00 14,49 55,83 67,84 0,00 13,96 54,55 66,26 0,00 13,36 55,08 65,98

* Sc / Di values were interpolated from the experimental results of each intake pipe for the corresponding Froude numbers. ** Lr = (Di)m / (Di)p and (Sc/Di)r = (Sc/Di)m / (Sc/Di)p *** Scale effect = 100 x (1,00 - (Sc/Di)r)

29

Table 5.2b. Relation between Dimensionless Parameters and Submergence Scale Ratio for 1,00 Fr 3,00

Fr 1,00

Pipe 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

Di (cm) 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12

Sc/Di* 1,147 0,597 0,466 1,221 0,696 0,518 1,282 0,795 0,573 1,351 0,922 0,637 1,413 1,054 0,701 1,521 1,154 0,765 1,312 0,907 1,469 1,173 1,586 1,443 1,736 1,613 1,963 1,707 2,103 1,913

Re 1,854E+05 8,819E+04 4,723E+04 2,040E+05 9,701E+04 5,195E+04 2,225E+05 1,058E+05 5,668E+04 2,410E+05 1,146E+05 6,140E+04 2,596E+05 1,235E+05 6,612E+04 2,781E+05 1,323E+05 7,085E+04 8,819E+04 4,723E+04 9,701E+04 5,195E+04 1,058E+05 5,668E+04 1,146E+05 6,140E+04 1,235E+05 6,612E+04 1,323E+05 7,085E+04

b/Di 2,068 3,394 5,147 2,068 3,394 5,147 2,068 3,394 5,147 2,068 3,394 5,147 2,068 3,394 5,147 2,068 3,394 5,147 3,394 5,147 3,394 5,147 3,394 5,147 3,394 5,147 3,394 5,147 3,394 5,147

Lr** 1,000 0,609 0,402 1,000 0,609 0,402 1,000 0,609 0,402 1,000 0,609 0,402 1,000 0,609 0,402 1,000 0,609 0,402 1,000 0,659 1,000 0,659 1,000 0,659 1,000 0,659 1,000 0,659 1,000 0,659

(Sc/Di)r** 1,000 0,520 0,406 1,000 0,570 0,424 1,000 0,620 0,447 1,000 0,682 0,472 1,000 0,746 0,496 1,000 0,759 0,503 1,000 0,691 1,000 0,799 1,000 0,910 1,000 0,929 1,000 0,870 1,000 0,910

1,10

1,20

1,30

1,40

1,50 1,75 2,00 2,25 2,50 2,75 3,00

Scale Effect***(%) 0,00 47,95 59,37 0,00 43,00 57,58 0,00 37,99 55,30 0,00 31,75 52,85 0,00 25,41 50,39 0,00 24,13 49,70 0,00 30,87 0,00 20,15 0,00 9,02 0,00 7,09 0,00 13,04 0,00 9,03

* Sc / Di values were interpolated from the experimental results of each intake pipe for the corresponding Froude numbers. ** Lr = (Di)m / (Di)p and (Sc/Di)r = (Sc/Di)m / (Sc/Di)p *** Scale effect = 100 x (1,00 - (Sc/Di)r)

30

Due to the experimental equipment limitations, the relationship between dimensionless parameters and submergence scale ratio including four intake pipes was achieved only within the range of 0,65 Fr < 0,92. Between ranges of 0,92 Fr < 1.56 and 1,56 Fr 3,04, this relationship is available for pipes 2-3-4 and 3-4, respectively. For each range, the largest intake diameter was assumed to be as a prototype and Lr and (Sc / Di)r were determined accordingly. 5.2.1. The Relation between Sc / Di and b / Di In literature, some researchers like Gordon (1970) eliminated the effect of b / Di on Sc / Di by working on prototypes whereas some like Anwar and Amphlett (1980) worked with different b / Di ratios and concluded that b / Di is not effective when b / Di > 4 for non-swirl flow. However, in the present study since b / Di values are not that large and differs in each pipe, there occurs a direct scale effect of this parameter on Sc / Di. The effect of b / Di on Sc / Di can be observed for constant Froude numbers and varying Reynolds numbers in Figure 5.1 for 0,65 Fr 1,50. For a given Froude number, Sc / Di values rapidly decrease as b / Di increases up to the value of b / Di 3,50, then the decreasing rate of Sc / Di with b / Di decreases for b / Di values greater than 3,50. From Figure 5.1 it may also be concluded that Sc / Di values approach to almost constant values for a given Froude number. In other words, it can be stated that as b / Di gets larger, Sc / Di becomes independent of b / Di and function of only Froude number and Reynolds number.

31

Fr=0,65 Fr=0,70 1,400 Fr=0,75 Fr=0,80 1,200 Fr=0,85 Fr=0,90 1,000 Fr=1,00 Fr=1,10 Fr=1,20 Fr=1,40 0,600 Fr=1,50

Sc /Di

0,800

Di=15,23cm

0,400 Di=9,28cm 0,200

0,000 0,00

1,00

2,00

3,00 b/Di

4,00

5,00

Di=6,12cm
6,00

Fr=1,30

Figure 5.1. Relation between b / Di and Sc / Di for 0,65 Fr 1,50

5.2.2. The Relation between Sc / Di and Re In literature, there are some Reynolds number limits beyond which it is reported that Reynolds number effects on Sc / Di can be neglected. It is hard to give such a limit for the present study. In Figure 5.2a one may say that there are inflection points on the curves of Sc / Di versus Re of about 1,60 x 105. Up to this value of Re, Sc / Di increases rapidly with increasing Re for the Froude number range between 0,65 and 0,90. The increasing rate of Sc / Di with increasing Re for Re > 1,60 x 105 decreases. From the general trend of these curves one may conclude that at Reynolds numbers much larger than 2,60 x 105, the variation of Sc / Di with Re gets smaller. In Figure 5.2b, which covers the data of experiments having Froude numbers greater than 1,00, the above mentioned inflection points can be seen only on the curves of Froude numbers of 1,30, 1,40 and 1,50. As the Froude number 32

Di=19,72cm

Di=15,23cm

1,600

increases, the Reynolds number at which these inflection points are observed, also increases. Even after these inflection points, the slopes of Sc / Di versus Re curves are much steeper than those of Fr < 1,00 given in Figure 5.2a. Therefore it is quite difficult to say something about the limit values of Reynolds numbers after which the effect of Re is negligable on the values of Sc / Di for experiments of Fr 1,00. Consequently, it can be concluded from Figure 5.2a and Figure 5.2b that, limit of Re beyond which viscous forces do not affect the vortex flow, increases with the increase in Froude number as stated in Jain et al. (1978).

1,400 Fr=0,65 Fr=0,70 Fr=0,75 Fr=0,80 Fr=0,85 Fr=0,90 Di=19,72cm

1,200

1,000

Sc /Di

0,800

0,600

0,400

Di=6,12cm

Di=9,28cm

0,200 1,000E+04

6,000E+04

1,100E+05 Re

1,600E+05

2,100E+05

2,600E+05

Figure 5.2a. Relation between Re and Sc / Di for 0,65 Fr 0,90

33

1,600 Fr=1,00 Fr=1,10 1,400 Fr=1,20 Fr=1,30 1,200 Fr=1,40 Fr=1,50 1,000 Di=9,28cm Di=15,23cm

Sc /Di
0,800 Di=6,12cm 0,600 0,400 0,200 1,000E+04

6,000E+04

1,100E+05

1,600E+05 Re

2,100E+05

2,600E+05

3,100E+05

Figure 5.2b. Relation between Re and Sc / Di for 1,00 Fr 1,50

5.2.3. The Relation between (Sc / Di)r and Lr For model length scale ratio equals to unity it means that there is a complete similarity between the model and the prototype. Since Lr = 1 is not satisfied for practical reasons, for a given Froude number there is direct scale effect of Reynolds number and b / Di on the values of Sc / Di due to deviation of Lr from unity. In order to see how this deviation can be represented by Lr only, the relationship between Lr and (Sc / Di)r is presented in Figures 5.3a and 5.3b. This relationship has been obtained based on Froude similitude since the Froude number is the main dimensionless parameter that affects the vortex flow. Figure 5.3a clearly shows that as Lr decreases (Sc / Di)r rapidly decreases for all of the Froude numbers tested. For a given Lr, (Sc / Di)r increases slightly with increasing Fr, for the tests having the Froude numbers up to 0,90. The model of Di = 6,12 cm (Lr=0,310) has (Sc / Di)r values varying between 0,286 and 0,340 which result in scale effects varying between 71,39 % and 65,98 %, 34

respectively. When Lr value gets larger, such as Lr = 0,772, the corresponding scale effects get much smaller; 18,44 % and 13,36 %. For tests of Fr 1,00 (Figure 5.3b), the effect of Fr on the variation of (Sc / Di)r for a given Lr is more significant than those tests descibed in Figure 5.3a. The model of minimum length scale, Lr = 0,402, has (Sc / Di)r values of 0,406 and 0,503 corresponding to the scale effects of 59,37 % and 49,70 %, respectively. From the above discussions it can be concluded that smaller the model length scale, much larger is the scale effect.

1,100 Fr=0,65 1,000 0,900 0,800 0,700 0,600 0,500 0,400 0,300 Di=6,12cm 0,200 0,200 0,300 0,400 0,500 0,600 Lr 0,700 0,800 0,900 1,000 1,100 Di=9,28cm Fr=0,70 Fr=0,75 Fr=0,80 Fr=0,85 Fr=0,90 Di=15,23cm Di=19,72cm (Prototype)

(Sc /Di)r

Figure 5.3a. Relation between Lr and (Sc / Di)r for 0,65 Fr 0,90

35

1,100 Fr=1,00 1,000 0,900 0,800 Fr=1,10 Fr=1,20 Fr=1,30 Fr=1,40 Fr=1,50 Di=15,23cm

(Sc / Di)r

0,700 0,600 0,500 0,400 Di=6,12cm 0,300 0,200 0,300

0,400

0,500

0,600

0,700 Lr

0,800

0,900

1,000

1,100

Figure 5.3b. Relation between Lr and (Sc / Di)r for 1,00 Fr 1,50

5.2.4. The Relation between (Sc / Di)r and Rer In order to see the effect of Rer on the variation of (Sc / Di)r, Figures 5.4a and 5.4b were plotted for the tests of Fr 0,90 and Fr 1,00. The general trends of the curves given in these figures are the same as those presented in Figures 5.3a and 5.3b. The strong dependence of (Sc / Di)r on Rer is clearly seen in these figures. It is obvious that for selected prototypes Frr = 1, Rer = 1 and (Sc / Di)r =1. As Rer decreases, which means that Lr is decreasing, (Sc / Di)r attains much smaller values resulting in very large scale effects.

36

1,100 Fr=0,65 1,000 0,900 0,800 0,700 0,600 0,500 0,400 0,300 0,200 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50 0,60 Rer 0,70 0,80 0,90 1,00 1,10 Di=9,28cm (Lr=0,471) Di=6,12cm (Lr=0,310) Fr=0,70 Fr=0,75 Fr=0,80 Fr=0,85 Fr=0,90 Di=15,23cm (Lr=0,772) Di=19,72cm (Lr=1Prototype)

(Sc /Di)r

Figure 5.4a. Relation between Rer and (Sc / Di)r for 0,65 Fr 0,90

1,100 Fr=1,00 1,000 0,900 0,800 Fr=1,10 Fr=1,20 Fr=1,30 Fr=1,40 Fr=1,50 Di=15,23cm (Lr=1Prototype)

(Sc / Di)r

0,700 0,600 0,500 0,400 0,300 0,200 0,10 Di=6,12cm (Lr=0,310)

Di=9,28cm (Lr=0,471)

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60 Rer

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

1,10

Figure 5.4b. Relation between Rer and (Sc / Di)r for 1,00 Fr 1,50

37

5.3. Verification of Results Experimental results have been tested with formulation (Equation 2.1) reported by Gordon (1970). One should note that formulation proposed by Gordon was generated based on prototype observations of hydropower intakes for 0,2 Fr 2. Due to this fact, the comparison of the present study with the mentioned one was performed up to Fr = 2 and the related parameters were given in table Table 5.3. Equation 2.1 implies that the critical submergence ratio Sc / Di is dependent only on Froude number. Operational conditions of prototypes lead to large enough Reynolds number and b / Di. Therefore it is an expected result that Sc / Di is dependent only on Froude number as the equation 3.5 indicates. Table 5.3 shows that in each group of the constant Froude numbers, the first pipe, which has the maximum intake diameter, considered as the prototype, yields the minimum scale effect. On the other hand, the other pipes result in much higher scale effect as the pipe diameter decreases. This situation implies that as the model length scale gets smaller, the effect of length scale on the value Sc / Di rapidly increases.

38

Table 5.3. Comparison between the present study and study of Gordon (1970)

Fr

Pipe 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 3 4

Di (cm) 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 19,72 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 15,23 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12 9,28 6,12

Sc/Di* 1,003 0,818 0,428 0,287 1,011 0,876 0,452 0,312 1,108 0,934 0,476 0,338 1,132 0,968 0,5 0,364 1,153 0,992 0,524 0,389 1,22 1,057 0,548 0,415 1,147 0,597 0,466 1,221 0,696 0,518 1,282 0,795 0,573 1,351 0,922 0,637 1,413 1,054 0,701 1,521 1,154 0,765 1,312 0,907 1,469 1,173

Vi (m/s) 0,904 0,795 0,620 0,504 0,974 0,856 0,668 0,542 1,043 0,917 0,716 0,581 1,113 0,978 0,763 0,620 1,182 1,039 0,811 0,659 1,252 1,100 0,859 0,697 1,222 0,954 0,775 1,345 1,050 0,852 1,467 1,145 0,930 1,589 1,240 1,007 1,711 1,336 1,085 1,833 1,431 1,162 1,670 1,356 1,908 1,550 39

Sc (m) 0,198 0,125 0,040 0,018 0,199 0,133 0,042 0,019 0,218 0,142 0,044 0,021 0,223 0,147 0,046 0,022 0,227 0,151 0,049 0,024 0,241 0,161 0,051 0,025 0,175 0,055 0,029 0,186 0,065 0,032 0,195 0,074 0,035 0,206 0,086 0,039 0,215 0,098 0,043 0,232 0,107 0,047 0,122 0,056 0,136 0,072

Sc/DiG** 1,120 1,120 1,120 1,120 1,206 1,206 1,206 1,206 1,292 1,292 1,292 1,292 1,378 1,378 1,378 1,378 1,464 1,464 1,464 1,464 1,550 1,550 1,550 1,550 1,723 1,723 1,723 1,895 1,895 1,895 2,067 2,067 2,067 2,239 2,239 2,239 2,412 2,412 2,412 2,584 2,584 2,584 3,015 3,015 3,445 3,445

Scale Effect***(%) 10,42 26,95 61,78 74,37 16,16 27,35 62,52 74,13 14,24 27,71 63,16 73,84 17,86 29,76 63,72 73,59 21,26 32,25 64,21 73,43 21,31 31,82 64,65 73,23 33,42 65,34 72,95 35,56 63,27 72,66 37,98 61,54 72,28 39,67 58,83 71,56 41,41 56,30 70,93 41,14 55,34 70,39 56,48 69,91 57,36 65,95

0,65

0,70

0,75

0,80

0,85

0,90

1,00

1,10

1,20

1,30

1,40

1,50 1,75 2,00

* Sc / Di values were interpolated from the experimental results of each intake pipe for the corresponding Froude numbers. ** Sc / DiG values were calculated based on equation 2.9. *** Scale effect = 100 x ABS(Sc/Di - Sc / DiG) / Sc / DiG Another outcome of Table 5.3 is that, Sc / Di values calculated in the present sudy are smaller than the predicted Sc / Di values based on formulation of Gordon. Side-wall proximity and smaller Reynolds numbers than the prototype conditions are the main reasons of this fact. 5.4. Curve Fitting In part 3.2.2, the relation of the critical submergence ratio, Sc / Di with dimensionless parameters was given in Equation 3.5. Analysis of the experimental results indicated that side-wall clearance b / Di and the Reynolds number affects the critical submergence ratio Sc / Di in the present study as stated in part 5.2.1 and 5.2.2, respectively. Therefore, in order to get a practical formula for the critical submergence of intakes with different scale ratios, regression analysis was performed with a computer program named DataFit (Oakdale Engineering, 2009). In order to apply regression analysis following equation is defined to the program.

b Sc = Fr x Re z Di Di

[5.1]

Based on regression analysis, regression variables x, y, and z are obtained as 0,865, -0,565 and 0,0424, respectively. The correlation coefficient, R2, of the analysis is found as 0,950 and the agreement of regression results with experimental data can be seen in Figure 5.5. Analyzed values of x, y and z are valid in the experimental limits of Fr, b / Di and Re parameters.

40

2,700

2,200

R = 0,9497

1,700

(Sc /Di)measured

41
0,700 1,200 (Sc /Di)calculated

1,200

0,700

0,200 0,200

1,700

2,200

2,700

Figure 5.5. Data Fit Plot

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

In the present study the effects of Froude number, side-wall clearance and Reynolds number on the formation of air-entraining vortices intakes are investigated by conducting experiments at horizontal comparing and

experimental results with the general theory of vortex subject and previous data. An empirical relationship for the critical submergence accounting the possible scale effects between model and prototype conditions is obtained. Also, experimental results are compared with the study of Gordon (1970). By this experimental study, the followings have been discerned: 1. For constant Froude numbers, effect of b / Di on Sc / Di decreases as b / Di increases although Re decreases with the increasing b / Di. Also it can be interpreted that Sc / Di becomes almost independent to b / Di for b / Di > 6. 2. Reynolds number limit, beyond which viscous forces do not affect the vortex flow, increases with the increase in Froude number as stated in Jain et al. (1978). 3. As the model length scale gets smaller, the effect of length scale on the value of (Sc / Di)r rapidly increases. For a given Lr, (Sc / Di)r increases slightly with increasing Fr for the tests having the Froude numbers up to 0,90. For tests of Fr 1,00, the effect of Fr on the variation of (Sc / Di)r for a given Lr is more significant than those tests of Fr 0,90. These deviaitons are due to Reynolds number differences between model and prototype conditions and also due to differences of side-wall clearences. 4. Based on regression analysis the dependence of Sc / Di to Froude

number, b / Di and Reynolds number is formulated as in equation 5.1

42

with R2 = 0,950. Equation 5.1 is valid for 0,51 Fr 4,03, 1,597 b / Di 5,147 and 2,96 x 104 Re 2,89 x 105.

43

REFERENCES

Anwar, H.O. (1965), Flow in a Free Vortex, Water Power 1965(4), 153-161. Anwar, H.O. (1967), Vortices at Low Head Intakes, Water Power 1967(11), 455-457. Anwar, H.O. (1968), Prevention of Vortices at Intakes, Water Power 1968(10), 393-401. Anwar, H.O., Weller, J.A. and Amphlett, M.B. (1978), Similarity of Free-Vortex at Horizontal Intake, J. Hydraulic Res. 1978(2), 95-105. Anwar, H.O. and Amphlett, M.B. (1980), Vortices at Vertically Inverted Intake, J. Hydraulic Res. 1980(2), 123-134. Daggett, L.L. and Keulegan, G.H. (1974), Similitude in Free-Surface Vortex Formations, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY11, 1565-1581. Durgin, W.W. and Hecker, G.E. (1978), The Modelling of Vortices at Intake Structures, Proc. IAHR-ASME-ASCE Joint Symposium on Design and Operation of Fluid Machinery, CSU Fort Collins, June 1978, Vols. I and III. Gordon, J.L. (1970), Vortices at Intakes, Water Power 1970(4), 137-138. Gulliver, J.S. and Rindels, A.J. (1987), Weak Vortices at Vertical Intakes, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY9, 1101-1116. Hite, J.E. and Mih, W.C. (1994), Velocity of Air-Core Hydraulic Intakes, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY3, 284-297. Vortices at

Iversen, H.W. (1953), Studies of Submergence Requirements of HighSpecific Speed Pumps, ASME, Vol. 75, 635-641. Jain, A.K., Kittur, G.R.R., and Ramachandra, J.G. (1978), Air Entrainment in Radial Flow Towards Intakes, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY9, 1323-1329.

44

Jain, A.K., Kittur, G.R.R., and Ramachandra, J.G. (1978), Vortex Formation at Vertical Pipe Intakes, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY10, 1429-1448. Jiming, M., Yuanbo, L. and Jitang, H. (2000), Minimum Submergence Before Double-Entrance Pressure Intakes, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY10, 14291448. Knauss, J. (1987), Swirling Flow Problems at Intakes, A.A Balkema, Rotterdam. Oakdale Engineering web site, http://www.oakdaleengr.com/download.htm, last accessed on 07.03.2009. Odgaard, A.J. (1986), Free-Surface Air Core Vortex, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY7, 610-620. Padmanabhan, M. and Hecker, G.E. (1984), Scale Effects in Pump Sump Models, J. Hydraulic Engng., ASCE, 110, HY11, 1540-1556. Reddy, Y.R. and Pickford, J.A. (1972), Vortices at Intakes in Conventional Sumps, Water Power 1972(3), 108-109. Yldrm, N. and Kocaba, F. (1995), Critical Submergence for Intakes in Open Channel Flow, J. Hydraulic Engng., ASCE, 121, HY12, 900-905. Yldrm, N., Kocaba, F. and Glcan, S.C. (2000), Flow-Boundary Effects on Critical Submergence of Intake Pipe, J. Hydraulic Engng., ASCE, 126, HY4, 288-297. Yldrm, N. and Kocaba, F. (2002), Prediction of Critical Submergence for an Intake Pipe, J. Hydraulic Res. 2002(4), 507-518. Zielinski, P.B. and Villemonte, J.R. (1968), Effect of Viscosity on VortexOrifice Flow, J. Hydraulic Div., ASCE, HY3, 745-751.

45

APPENDIX A

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

This appendix provides detailed data for the experimental results of each intake pipe used during experiments.

46

Table A.1. Experimental Results of Pipe 1

PIPE1

Di= c=Di/2 = = =

19,72 cm 9,86 cm 1,004E06 m /s 9,982E+02 kg/m 7,280E02 N/m

3 2

at20C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
'

Qi(l/s) 21,62 23,68 25,45 27,57 30,15 30,98 32,13 34,90 36,33 38,85

Sc (cm) 14,98 15,78 17,78 19,78 19,98 21,38 21,98 22,48 22,78 24,48

'

Sc (cm) 24,84 25,64 27,64 29,64 29,84 31,24 31,84 32,34 32,64 34,34

''

**

Sc'/Di 0,760 0,800 0,902 1,003 1,013 1,084 1,115 1,140 1,155 1,241

Sc''/Di 1,260 1,300 1,402 1,503 1,513 1,584 1,615 1,640 1,655 1,741

Vi(m/s) 0,708 0,775 0,833 0,903 0,987 1,014 1,052 1,143 1,190 1,272

Fr 0,509 0,558 0,599 0,649 0,710 0,729 0,756 0,822 0,855 0,915

Re 1,39E+05 1,52E+05 1,64E+05 1,77E+05 1,94E+05 1,99E+05 2,07E+05 2,24E+05 2,34E+05 2,50E+05

We 1,35E+03 1,63E+03 1,88E+03 2,20E+03 2,63E+03 2,78E+03 2,99E+03 3,53E+03 3,83E+03 4,37E+03

*Sc isfromsummitpointoftheintake '' **Sc isfromintakecenteroftheintake

47

Table A.2. Experimental Results of Pipe 2

PIPE2

Di= c=Di/2 = = =

15,23 cm 7,615 cm 1,004E06 m /s 9,982E+02 kg/m 7,280E02 N/m

3 2

at20C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
'

Qi(l/s) 14,37 17,15 18,78 20,13 21,70 24,08 25,77 27,83 30,67 32,80 34,68

Sc (cm) 12,37 14,57 14,97 16,17 17,17 18,47 18,97 20,17 21,22 22,47 24,67

'

Sc (cm) 19,985 22,185 22,585 23,785 24,785 26,085 26,585 27,785 28,835 30,085 32,285

''

**

Sc'/Di 0,812 0,957 0,983 1,062 1,127 1,213 1,246 1,324 1,393 1,475 1,620

Sc''/Di 1,312 1,457 1,483 1,562 1,627 1,713 1,746 1,824 1,893 1,975 2,120

Vi(m/s) 0,789 0,941 1,031 1,105 1,191 1,322 1,414 1,528 1,683 1,800 1,904

Fr 0,645 0,770 0,843 0,904 0,975 1,082 1,157 1,250 1,377 1,473 1,558

Re 1,20E+05 1,43E+05 1,56E+05 1,68E+05 1,81E+05 2,01E+05 2,15E+05 2,32E+05 2,55E+05 2,73E+05

We 1,30E+03 1,85E+03 2,22E+03 2,55E+03 2,96E+03 3,65E+03 4,18E+03 4,87E+03 5,92E+03 6,77E+03

2,89E+05 7,57E+03

*Sc isfromsummitpointoftheintake '' **Sc isfromintakecenteroftheintake

48

Table A.3. Experimental Results of Pipe 3

PIPE3

Di= c=Di/2 = = =

9,28 cm 4,64 cm 1,004E06 m /s 9,982E+02 kg/m 7,280E02 N/m

3 2

at20C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
'

Qi(l/s) 4,12 6,44 7,84 9,37 10,90 13,22 15,82 16,73 18,16 19,63

Sc (cm) 3,92 5,52 7,52 10,42 11,82 13,92 15,52 17,22 18,62 19,72

'

Sc (cm) 8,56 10,16 12,16 15,06 16,46 18,56 20,16 21,86 23,26 24,36

''

**

Sc'/Di 0,422 0,595 0,810 1,123 1,274 1,500 1,672 1,856 2,006 2,125

Sc''/Di 0,922 1,095 1,310 1,623 1,774 2,000 2,172 2,356 2,506 2,625

Vi(m/s) 0,609 0,952 1,159 1,385 1,612 1,955 2,339 2,473 2,685 2,902

Fr 0,638 0,998 1,215 1,452 1,689 2,049 2,451 2,592 2,814 3,042

Re 5,63E+04 8,80E+04 1,07E+05 1,28E+05 1,49E+05 1,81E+05 2,16E+05 2,29E+05 2,48E+05 2,68E+05

We 4,72E+02 1,15E+03 1,71E+03 2,44E+03 3,30E+03 4,86E+03 6,96E+03 7,78E+03 9,17E+03 1,07E+04

*Sc isfromsummitpointoftheintake '' **Sc isfromintakecenteroftheintake

49

Table A.4. Experimental Results of Pipe 4

PIPE4

Di= c=Di/2 = = =

6,12 cm 3,06 cm 1,004E06 m /s 9,982E+02 kg/m 7,280E02 N/m

3 2

at20C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
'

Qi(l/s) 1,43 2,66 3,42 4,27 4,80 5,61 6,30 7,00 8,00 9,19

Sc (cm) 1,68 3,38 4,68 5,98 8,18 9,78 10,48 12,08 12,68 13,88

'

Sc (cm) 4,74 6,44 7,74 9,04 11,24 12,84 13,54 15,14 15,74 16,94

''

**

Sc'/Di 0,275 0,552 0,765 0,977 1,337 1,598 1,712 1,974 2,072 2,268

Sc''/Di 0,775 1,052 1,265 1,477 1,837 2,098 2,212 2,474 2,572 2,768

Vi(m/s) 0,486 0,904 1,163 1,452 1,632 1,907 2,142 2,380 2,720 3,124

Fr 0,627 1,167 1,500 1,873 2,106 2,461 2,764 3,071 3,510 4,032

Re 2,96E+04 5,51E+04 7,09E+04 8,85E+04 9,95E+04 1,16E+05 1,31E+05 1,45E+05 1,66E+05 1,90E+05

We 1,98E+02 6,86E+02 1,13E+03 1,77E+03 2,23E+03 3,05E+03 3,85E+03 4,75E+03 6,21E+03 8,19E+03

*Sc isfromsummitpointoftheintake '' **Sc isfromintakecenteroftheintake

50