Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research

Yanomami "Violence": Inclusive Fitness or Ethnographer's Representation? Author(s): Bruce Albert Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 30, No. 5 (Dec., 1989), pp. 637-640 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743574 Accessed: 21/06/2010 18:24
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ucpress. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

The University of Chicago Press and Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Current Anthropology.

http://www.jstor.org

Volume 3o, Number 5, December I989

stitute Archaeology, of of Hungarian Academy Sciences, Budapest,Hungary. UNESCO-FAO. I963. Bioclimatic map oftheMediterranean zone: Explanatory notes.AridZone Research 1I. . I969. Vegetation map oftheMediterranean zone: Explanatory notes.AridZone Research 30. D. I976. "Appendix: WEIDE, Regional setting geomorphic and history," Neolithic in Macedonia.Edited M. Gimbutas, by pp. of 4I8-4I. Los Angeles: University California Press.

637

wari. From Chagnon's report that, whileYanomami in becauseof fare recently has diminished mostregions contactwithmissionaries government and permanent it in of agents, is still actively engaged in the cluster (p. villages which has donefield in he research 986),one in that is getstheimpression the situation thisregion reality. representative a pristine pan-Yanomami of and is number This,however, notthecase. The Yanomami a terriabout22,500 (notI5,000), distributed throughout km2 in Venezuelaand toryof aproximately I92,000 Brazil (see OficinaCentral[I985:381 and Colchester Yanomami "Violence": in SetheYanomami population Venezuela, [i985:71 for cretaria-Geral [i988:I3] forthe Yanomamiof Brazil). InclusiveFitnessor divided intofour Theyare linguistically culturally and Ethnographer's Representation? subgroups: Yan6mami (Chagnon's "Yanomam6"), Yanomam, Sanima,and Ninam (MigliazzaI972). The in from as level ofmale mortality' warfare calculated BRUCE ALBERT to three five (and genealogies covering generations thereORSTOM- Universidadede Brasilia, Caixa Postal to and fore including mostly deaths prior intensive per07-112I, 70359 Brasilia, D.F.,Brazil.24 v 89 manent contact withwhites) varies among significantly for these subgroups: example,it is 40% amongthe Braziliananthropologists have recently arguedthat Shamatari table Yan6mami(after ChagnonI974:I60, Chagnon's (I988) work a inadvancing sociobiologically 4.I0) and I4% amongtheCatrimani Yanomam (Albert of spired theory Yanomami has "violence" beenwidely I985:99-I00 n. 9). It also varies different clusters among disseminated theBrazilian by pressto exacerbate preju- of villageswithinthe same subgroup: example, for diceagainst theseIndians thatit has given gov- among Yan6mami is 40% for Shamatari, and the it the the 24% to ernment of arguments justify dismemberment forthe Namoweiteri the (after ChagnonI974:i6o, table their lands(see Carneiro CunhaI989; see also Albert 4.IO), I2% for Haiyamo(Hamesi983:420), and ioda the andRamos, for detailed I989, Booth a account 24% for "central I989, and, the (LizotI972: 2i6 n.I). Yan6mami" oftheYanomami's situation Brazil, in Albert I989 a, b). Itthusappears in of that intensity warfare lower the was has said thathe reported mostpartsof Yanomamiterritory it was in the Chagnon (I989), in response, than scientific factsthathave simply been misused.I will Shamatari evenbefore area recent interethnic contact.4 in showthatthese"facts" questionable are either them- On the basis of his earlierwritings one could hyin selvesorin thecontext whichthey presented are and pothesize, of the present precisely opposite Chagnon's that theoretical the in framework which are they embed- argument, thecomparatively levelofwarfare that high dedis riddled withcultural preconceptions.2 is intensity registered amongthe Shamatari linkedto of in historical takesas indicators thelevelofviolence Chagnon in this changesthataffected population the Yanomami of society (pp.985, 986-89) thepercentage moredistant dynamic propast.Thus the particularly adult male mortality to violence(approximately due cess ofvillagefission theattendant frequency and high of of 30%), thepercentage malesestimated years age ofintervillage 25 hostilities observed the among Shamatari or olderwho "haveparticipated thekilling some- might in of in exwellhavetheir very origin the"population one" (44%), and the percentage adultsoveran esti- plosion"thatresulted of from of theirearlyacquisition mated40 yearsof age who have "lost a close genetic steeltoolsthrough indirect contact accessto unocand relative due to violence"(nearly 70%). He also tentativelyexplainsan apparent statistical correlation beof tween status "killer" the ("unokai") andhigher reproductive of success(p. 989,table2) in terms thegreater the of Yanomami comparative I data, 3. Given successof"unokais"in acquiring mates(p.989,table3) usehere nature theavailable maleinstead adult of malemortality At percentages.any either abduction through or their in by prestige arrang- rate,the general of childdeaths Yanomami in underreporting ingmarriage alliances(pp.989-go). makes latter much the not than higher the genealogies probably can comments be madeaboutthevalid- former. several First, the Peoas (I974:48) describes Shamatari the" 'Fiercer' of for ity of Chagnon'scriteria the assessment Yano- 4. Chagnon ple." For accountsof low warfare intensity most Yanomami in mami"violence": areasfrom fieldwork observations during '6os and '70s,see the
i. I am grateful Waud Kracke, to Alcida Ramos,Kenneth Taylor, [Uraricaa Ninam]l), Shapiro (I972:39, I70-7I, I73-74 [Catrimani EduardoViveirosde Castro,and Robin Wright theirhelpful and Parima Yanomam]l), Smole (I976:74, 233 n. IO5 [Parima for [Western Sanima]l),and Taylor comments earlier on versions thisreport. of Yan6mamil), Sponsel (I98:I102-3 criticisms Chagnon's of 2. Forother reification Yanomami of "vio- (I974:25 [Eastern Sanima]l); see also Peters (i980:276, table 2),

Colchester (i982:io5-6 [WesternSanima]l), Fredlund(i982:37 [OcamoYan6mamil), Migliazza, quotedin Chagnon (I966:I93, I95

lence," see Davis (I976), Sponsel (I983, I985), Ramos (I987), and Lizot (I989).

for warfare theMucajal Ninam betweenI958 and I980.

in whosedatashowii% male(andI4% adultmale)mortality

638 1 CURRENT

ANTHROPOLOGY

see amongtheYanomami, Colchester (I982:chap.2;i984) andAlbert(I985:chap.I; i988). of to 6. According the Yanomam,a man in the condition unokai on must observea complexset of ritualrestrictions his movehimself to and behavior, diet (unokaimu)in order protect ments, intrufrom riskofpremature the agingcausedbythesupernatural the sion ofhis victim'sbloodintohis body.In thisrespect condias tion of unokai is symbolically constructed a masculineinverThe sion of menstruation. unokaimuritualprocessis, moreover, of flesh thekilledenemy. of as conceived a digestion thedecaying is This "exocannibalism" closelyrelatedto the "endocannibal" bone of ritual,in which the powdered symbolism the funerary For or ashes of affines consumed(effectively symbolically). a are see fullanalysisofYanomamritualsymbolism, Albert (i985).

(see degree emic/etic in of vacated by otherpopulations of confusion his record "killers." cupied territories thathe did not consider I966:I67).5 In spiteof his report Chagnon superof Chagnon'sfigure 30% is considerablynatural of Moreover, death(p. 987),it seemslikelythata portion groups themenwho stated indigenous for lowerthanthosereported other thattheyor others undergone had (see SponselI985:io): adult unokai couldhavedoneso on thebasisofsupernatural the within Amazonregion the (Ross rather in is malemortality warfare 59% for Achuara thanphysical killing. (plus ii% in the Waorani thattheYanomami studied he Chagnon (I989) argues I980:46) and about6i% for et Larrick al. I979:i67, due a by killing conflicts to contact[after distinguish"true"unokai produced physical eventhough ("unokai a yai") from "false" one caused by supera Yet table71). RossnotesthattheAchuara, in adultmale mortality warfare natural muchhigher I killing ("unokai a horemou").On theonehand, showing less have"a decidedly ostentatious never heardofthedistinction during 29 months my of thantheYanomami, for such format accomplishing ends"(p. 46). The Wao- fieldwork in amongtheYanomam Brazil.On theother to rani,fortheirpart,are reputed have an ethosthat hand, idea thattheYanomami-ormembers any the of as havingbeen described a comparable the emphasizespeacefulness, society-wouldconsider ritualconseless those a of killing realthan whereharmony rules"(CollinsI983, quotedby quencesofa supernatural "tribe of 20 valueddemonstrations physical is bewildering.Lizot, whofor years has Knauft I987:473). Culturally one J. or whospeakthesamelanguage as Yanomami (Yanomami"fierceness") gentleness livedamong aggressiveness with Chagnon'sinformants has worked must not be confused and on "peacefulness") intensively (Waorani not has reported onlythathe never rates of violentdeath,and the use of linguistics, recently corresponding to a as the either characterize society a wholeis boundto encountered "unokai a yai/unokaia horemou" disrather than anthropologicaltinction Yan6mami alsothat supposed foster preconceptions in but its formulaI987 and RichesI987). tion as presented Chagnonis not grammatically knowledge Knauft (see by of that 44% ofmen25 years ageorolder correct 2. In reporting communication, January I989).7 25, (personal in killing have participated the killingof someone(pp. 985, Furthermore, in cases of actual warfare even of ritualcategory thereis no simpleequivalence our between notionof 989), Chagnontakesthe Yanomami conceptof "killer"or homicideand the Yanomamicategory of unokai to be equivalentto the Western a denotes stateofsymbolic unokai. Besidesthe factthatseveraldifferent warriors "killer."Unokai,however, infrom supernatural shootthe same victimsin combator collectively the kill that impurity is saidto result of of of enemies by (Chagnon I988:987), a number them corporation thekiller thebloodandflesh a slain isolated by also shootdying sometimes, was killedbyan arrow, whether enemy this evenalready deadvicenemy, or, of or their the ("real"or by anger against killer shamanism, sorcery, by thekilling his animal timsto manifest during "symbolic") some relative, affirm deaths to registered of alter (20 ofthe29 Yanomam ego politicaland to human attacks by ritualsolidarity withallies,or to confirm their were ritually myfieldwork attributed these means[see AlbertI985:7071).6 Chagnon's adultstatus. theYanomami, For who everyone has shot supernatural "killers"are basedon nativeretro- an arrow thevictim considered be in thecondito data on Yanomami into is accounts unokaicases. Giventhepolysemy tionofunokai. In thiscontext, of moreoften thannotit is spective of degree virtually to ofthesymbolic category unokai,thevariable out impossble single whodidtheactualkilland ofreliability hisinformants, thesize ofthedemo- ingin terms of to in embedded the comparable thenotion or Western basis forhis survey (380 men aged20 years graphic For after of reasons, concept homicide. all these of the said older[see p. 989, table 2]), one cannotrule out some anyYanomami raid, number warriors tobe in the stateof unokai (Yanomam unokarime thebe is alThisbethanthatofvictims. waysconsiderably greater of ingthecase, thepercentage men"whohaveparticiwhich may 5. The Karawatari Kohoroshitari clusters, and village on even calculated the patedin the killingof someone," through migrated with Shamatari, the havea common origin in at and before of Mavaca Siapadrainage them, theturn thecentury thebasisofclaimsto pastunokai conditions warfare, of (Chagnon I974:82-87). The previousoccupantsof this region, cannot be considered equivalentto a percentage indigenousgroupshostile to the Yanomami, homicides Arawak-speaking and thusbyno meansoffers reliable a comextinct Chagnon were then i966:29-32; Albert (see by I985:40of measure violence Yanomami in society.8 of and changes parative 4I, 54-55). Formoredetailson thehistory contact
7. Chagnon(I989) gives as an exampleof the "false" category, besidessupernatural prepubescent "killers,""men who deflower but neitheramong the Yanomam nor among the Yavirgins," n6mami(Lizot,personal communication, Aprili8, I989) does the of deflowering a girlcause a man to enterthestateofunokaiand the the undergo unokaimuritual.In fact, use ofthe unokaicateis in as others Albert gory metaphorical thiscontext, in several (see associatedwitha physical one. killingor witha supernatural 8. For a convergent analysisof Chagnon'smisuse of the unokai
category,see Lizot (I989:33).

I985:345-46 n. Ii, i2), while its ritual usage sensu strictoconsists not in a trope but in a belief (see Sperber I974:II4-I9), whether

Volume 30, Number 5, December I989 of 3. The thirdindex-the percentage adultswho have "lost a close geneticrelativedue to violence"-is no less problematical.Chagnon himselfrecognizes(n. 35) that "taken by itselfthis measuremight'inflate'the amount of a society's violence: if all membersof a societywere related,then a few deaths would result in a statistic showing that a large fractionof people have lost close kin." Yet he relies on this percentageeven thoughhe points to a high degreeof relatednessat the village and the intervillagelevel (pp. 987-89; see also Chagnon The relationbetween the status of "killer" and reproductive success is, as Chagnon recognizesin the many on of caveats in his introduction propositions the topic groundsthanhis mea(pp. 989,990), based on no firmer that surementof Yanomami "violence." The argument success of the 44% ofthe male populathe reproductive tion aged 25 or older who are "unokais" ("killers") is increasedby theircapacityto abductwomen is not supLizot portedby any empiricalevidence.On the contrary, in that of a total of 350 marriages reports (I988:540-4I) a large village cluster that he surveyedin I975, 0.9% were by abduction of women fromallied villages and o.8% by captureof women fromenemyvillages.Nevertheless,Chagnon insists thatYanomami men go to war over women (p. 986). He further argues that the "unokais" achieve greater success because "theyseem to maritaland reproductive as be more attractive mates than non-unokais" in mar(p. riagealliance arrangements 989), but the onlyethnohe is graphicsupport offers the anecdotaland misleading association of unokai and "waiteri" ("fierce")as equivato lent qualities attributed males supposedto be a nowa dodihiwd ("valuable") (p. 99o).9 The meaning of "waiteri" (in factwaitheri)is more complexthan "fierce"or to it also, and principally, a set ofideal aggressive; refers qualities such as courage,daring,toughness,authoritaand tive speaking,initiative,generosity, humor(see AlLizot i989:32Bortoli I983:I7-I8; bert I985:97-98; 33). Unokai refers to a temporaryritual state and of waitheri denotes a configuration personal qualities; these concepts are thus not assimilated by the Yanomami. As should be clear fromthe above remarks on unokai, it is unnecessaryto be waitherito undergo thisritualcondition(see also Lizot I989:33), in the same way that it is not enough to have undergoneunokai to achieve the reputationof being waitheri. that"unokais" of The remainder Chagnon's argument success is based have greatermarital and reproductive only on the notion that "military achievements are valued and associated with high esteem, as they are in includingour own," and that"nonmanyothercultures, unokais mightbe willing to concede more reproductive opportunitiesto unokais in exchange for a life with advantages" fewermortal risks and fewerreproductive
(P. 990). I974:I33-4I; I975; I983 [I968]:I38-42).

639

Chagnon's characterization of Yanomami society, to ratherthan an analytical effort understandit in its preconceprevealsa projectionoftraditional own terms, tions of the Western constructionof Otherness. The Yanomami were firstdepicted in his writingsas "The Fierce People" within the frameworkof a theory of over women" in which selectivefemaleinfan"warfare ticide was purportedto play a determinantrole (see Chagnon I966, I968, I983 [I968], and, for discussion, No Sponsel i98I:322-26). Colchestern.d.: 4-7, 20-2I; quantitativeevidence was ever produced by Chagnon by of eitheron the proportion marriages abductionor on of (see Davis I976:IIthe proportion femaleinfanticide and the I2). Lizot's data disprove the firstargument, second was abandoned some time ago (see Chagnon, Flinn, and Melancon I979). Since his adoption of a sociobiological approach, Chagnon's theory of Yanothe through has mami warfare been mainlyreformulated argumentof maximizationof the "inclusive fitness"of "killers." As we have seen, however,seriousdoubtscan Thus, in Chagnon's about this argument. be entertained of representation Yanomami society,it is ethnographic as if violence and sexual competitionconstitutedprethemes persisting throughchanges of theoretical ferred evidence. clothingand in the face of contrary This being the case, Chagnon's model of Yanomami speaking,show scientific "violence" does not, properly coherence. On the other hand, it is easy to trace the choice of themes of violence and sexual competitionto ideological (sensu Dumont I977) premises of Euroit Americanculture,and ultimately is in this realmthat imthis model findsits coherence.The "fierce-people" and natural "possessive indiage of generalizedwarfare vidualism" (Macpherson I97I) may be traced directly European political philosophy,which to I7th-century somethingof an originmythforWesternsociety. The of representation the Yanomami built by ethnographic and throughChagnon appears, then, to be a symbolic keyed to genetics, of the Hobbesian transformation, pictureof the "state of nature":'0 chronic"killers" for individual (biological) benefits,Chagnon's Yanomami are said to be "our contemporaryancestors" (I983 [i9681:2I4) and their society comparable to macaque cinated by the discoveryof police and law and as urrequestingthemas a means to curbtheirchronic gently and put an end to the "constantfear"in which warfare here as a negain myth,the Yanomami are constructed to contributing the tiveimage oforderly society,thereby productionand validation of currentWesterncultural values. Our sociological present is advanced as the from double inversion:ofour own past a norm,resulting considered equivalent.In this and ofthe Other'spresent,

as now serves, Sahlins(I980:I73)

out, as has pointed

troops (I975:I08).

fasas Theyareevendescribed being

live (I988:990). they

made of As in thesorts inversions

in io. Thisimage Hobbesian doubly is, inspiration ofcourse, of for contradiction theviewof Hobbeshimself, whomthe with instituof prior a was,bydefinition, to anysocietal the 9. Lizot has neverencountered expression nowd dodihiwa "state nature" construction. tionanda mere theoretical have I. 8, communication, June i988), and neither (personal

640 1 CURRENT

ANTHROPOLOGY

WorkGroupfor Yanoama.Copenhagen: International IndigenousAffairs. S. H. I976. "The Yanomam6: DAVIS, Ethnographic imagesand in anthropological responsibilities," Thegeological imperative: in Anthropology development theAmazonBasin ofSouth and pp. America.Edited S. H. Davis andR. 0. Mathews, 7-23. by Resource Center. Cambridge: Anthropology L. I977. Homo aequalis: Geneseet epanouissement de DUMONT, l'ideologieeconomique.Paris:Gallimard. E. R. i982. Shiithari Yanomamo FREDLUND, incestuous marriage: of A study theuse ofstructural, criteria lineal,andbiological References Cited whenclassifying Ph.D. diss.,Pennsylvania StateUnimarriage. tempsdes cendres: Repr6senta- versity, ALBERT, B. i985. Tempsdu sang, Pa. University Park, tionde la maladie,systeme rituel espacepolitique et chezles R. B. I983. "The settlement of HAMES, pattern a Yanomamo popThese de DocYanomamidu sud-est (Amazonie br6silienne). in ulationbloc: A behavioral ecological interpretation,"AdapFrance. torat, Universit6 ParisX, Nanterre, de tiveresponses nativeAmazonians.Edited R. B. Hames of by . i988. La fum6e m6tal:Histoire repr6sentations et du pp. andW. T. Vickers, 393-427. New York:AcademicPress. du contact chez les Yanomami (Br6sil).L'Homme io6-Io7: B. M. I987. Reconsidering KNAUFT, violencein simplehumanso87-II9. cieties:HomicideamongtheGebusiandNew Guinea.CURRENT policy, geopolitics and . I989a. Indianlands,environmental ANTHROPOLOGY 28:457-82. case. ofAmazonian in development Brazil:The Yanomami LARRICK, J.,J.A. YOST, J.KAPLAN, G. KING, AND J.MAYHALL. Urihi8:3-36. I979. Patterns healthand diseaseamong of theWaorani Indians . I989b. "D6veloppement et amazonien 's6curit6 ofEastern Ecuador. MedicalAnthropologyI47-89. 3: Yanomamifaceau 'Projet Calha nationale':Les indiens du LIZOT, in J. I972. "L'ethnologie d6shonneur," Le livreblanc Norte,' " in Br6sil: Indiens et developpement en Amazonie. pp. de l'ethnocide Amerique. Edited R. Jaulin, 205-23. en by EditedbyB. Albert. EthniesI I-I2. In press. Paris:Fayard. IndiansandanALBERT, B., AND A. R. RAMOS. i989. Yanomami . I988. "Los Yan6mami"in Los aborigenes Venezuela, de thropological ethics. Science 244:632. vol. 3, Etnologia EditedbyJ.Lizot,pp.479contemporanea. B OO TH, W. I989. Warfare overYanomamo Indians. Science 583. Caracas:Fundaci6n Salle/MonteAvilaEditores. La a . I989. Sobrela guerra: Una respuesta N. Chagnon 243:II38-40. (Scide BORTOLI, j. I983. Yanomami:Politicacomomediaci6n las ence,I988). La Iglesia en Amazonas 44:23-34. relaciones sociales. La Iglesia en Amazonas I4-I5:I6-28. M A C P H E R S O N, C. B. I 97 I. La theorie politiquede linDA CUNHA, MARIA MANUELA. CARNEIRO i989. [Letter.]Andividualisme de possessif Hobbes a Locke.Paris:Gallimard. Newsletter thropology 30(I): 3. E. C. I972. Yanomama MIGLIAZZA, and grammar intelligibility. warfare: Social organization CHAGNON, N. A. I966. Yanomamo Ph.D. diss.,IndianaUniversity, Bloomington, Ind. and marriage alliances.Ph.D. diss.,University Michigan, of DE ESTADISTICA OFICINA E INFORMATICA. CENTRAL I985. AnnArbor, Mich. Censoindigenade Venezuela:Nomenclador communidades de in . I968. "Yanomamosocial organization warfare," and Caracas. y colectividades. War:The anthropology armedconflict aggression. Edited PETERS, j. F. I980. The shirishana theYanomami: demoand of of A M. and pp. byM. Fried, Harris, R. Murphy, Iog-59. New York: graphic study. Social Biology 27:272-85. NaturalHistory Press. A. R. I987. Reflecting theYanomami: on RAMOS, Ethnographic the New York:Holt,Rinehart . I974. Studying Ygnomamo. of imagesand thepursuit theexotic.Cultural Anthropology andWinston. 2:284-304. and Limitsto lo. I975. Genealogy, solidarity, relatedness: RICHES, D. I987. "Violence, humansocipeace,and warin 'early' in cal group size andpatterns fissioning an expanding of populaety:The case oftheEskimo,"in Thesociology warand of tion.Yearbook Physical Anthropology of Ig:95- IIO. and peace. EditedbyC. Creighton M. Shaw,pp. I7-36. Dobbs . I983 (i968). 3d edition. Ygnomam6: The fiercepeople. Sheridan House. Ferry: New York:Holt,Rinehart Winston. and and theproblem tribe: critique of A of ROSS, J. B. I980. "Ecology and in . i988. Lifehistories, bloodrevenge, warfare a tribal theHobbesian modelofpreindustrial in the warfare," Beyond population. Science 239:985-92. materialism. Edited myth a culture: of Essaysin cultural by 1 989. [Letter.] AnthropologyNewsletter 30(1I:24. E. B. Ross,pp. 33-60. New York:AcademicPress. N. A., M. V. FLINN, AND T. MELANCON. I979. "Sex- SAHLINS, M. I980. Critiquede la sociobiologie: CHAGNON, Aspectsanratiovariation in amongtheYanomamoIndians," Evolutionary Paris:Gallimard. thropologiques. An and humansocial behavior: anthropological perbiology DO CONSELHO DE SEGURAN9A NASECRETARIA-GERAL NorthScituate:Duxbury Press. C O L C H E S T E R, M. I 9 8.2.The economy, ecology, and ethnobiology oftheSanemaIndiansofsouthern Venezuela.Ph.D. diss.,Universityof Oxford,Oxford,England. spective. Edited by N. A. Chagnon and W. Irons,pp. 290-320.
CIONAL. i988. Calha Norte: A fronteiradofuturo (i986Brasilia. I99I). SHAPIRO, amongthe J. R. I972 Sex rolesand social structure

of way, the representation culturalOthernessas natural savageryturns this savageryinto a fascinating"black mirror"supposed to reflectboth the originand the reverse of (our) society. This may be one reason forthe in widespreadand uncriticalinterest Chagnon'swork."

YanomamaIndiansofnorthern Brazil.Ph.D. diss.,Columbia New York, N.Y. University, . i984. Rethinking StoneAgeeconomics: Some speculaSMOLE, W. J. I976. The Yanoama Indians:A cultural geography. tionsconcerning pre-Columbian the HuYanoamaeconomy. Austin:University Texas Press. of man EcologyI2: 29I-3 I4. en D. I974. Le symbolisme general. Paris:Hermann. SPERBER, . n.d.The Yanoamaat war:Subsistence, and sovereignty, andthehunted theAmazon: in L. E. I98I. The hunter SPONSEL, social change in an Amazonian society. MS. An integrated and cultural to biological approach thebehavioral . Editor. of i985. Thehealthand survival theVenezuelan of Ph.D. diss.,Cornell ecology humanpredation. University, New York,N.Y. debate.ScienceDigest9i(2):9. I983. The Yanomami theYanomamaorus? MS. I985. Who'sfierce, I I. Muchcouldbe said also abouttheepistemological statusofthe TAYLOR, K. I. I974. Sanumafauna:Prohibitions and "modem evolutionary thatinspiresChagnon, but that thought" Caracas:Fundaci6n Salle de CienciasNatuLa classifications. would be beyondmy purposehere.For an interesting analysisof rales. the Spencerian of misappropriation Hobbesand Darwinpromoted TORT, P. I983. La pens6ehierarchique l'evolution: comLes et by sociobiology, see Tort (i983). Paris:Aubier. plexesdiscursifs.